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THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 


22  50       5I 


WAGXER 


THE  BOOK  OF 
MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

The  History,  Technique,  and 

Appreciation  of  Music,  together  with 

Lives  of  the  Great  Composers 

for  music-lovers,  students 

AND   teachers 

By  ARTHUR  ELSON 

AUTHOR  OP 
**TBS  MCSICIAM'S  eUIOE,"  "MCSIO  CLUB  FKO0BAlf8."  XTO. 

Wiih  Illustrations 


BOSTON   AND   NEW  YORK 
HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 


COFYRIGMT,   I915,   BY  ARTHUR  ELSON 
ALL   RIGHTS  RESERVED 

Published  November  iqts 


SIXTH  IMPRESSION 


aaT 


o'^KSARA.  CALIFORNIA 


PREFACE 

Tms  book  has  been  planned  with  a  view  to  placing  before  the  gen- 
eral reader  the  main  facts  that  will  enable  him  to  appreciate  music 
intelligently.  One  often  hears  the  remark,  "  I  'm  fond  of  music,  but 
I  don't  understand  it."  The  present  work  has  been  written  with  the 
idea  of  enabling  the  non-musician  to  comprehend  the  real  meaning 
of  the  tonal  art,  and  to  familiarize  himself  with  the  value  of  the 
great  composers'  works,  the  use  of  the  instruments,  the  various  mu- 
sical forms,  and  a  number  of  subjects  of  similar  importance. 

At  the  same  time,  certain  other  technical  topics  have  been  in- 
cluded. While  these  have  been  presented  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  un- 
derstood by  the  non-musician,  they  have  been  given  with  sufficient 
thoroughness  to  make  the  work  useful  also  as  a  textbook.  It  is  there- 
fore fitted  to  the  needs  of  students  and  teachers,  as  well  as  amateurs. 
An  effort  has  been  made  to  condense  the  chief  points  of  a  general 
musical  education  into  a  single  volume.  While  this  book  should 
prove  of  interest  to  the  average  reader,  a  course  of  study  has  been 
added,  which  will  make  it  suitable  for  use  in  high  schools  or  colleges 
also,  or  in  any  institution  that  aims  to  give  a  course  in  the  under- 
standing of  music. 


CONTENTS 

Part  I. —  The  Evolution  of  Music 

I.  Primitive  and  Savage  Music 3 

II.  Greece  and  Rome 13 

III.  Early  Christian  Music 23 

IV.  The  Minstrel  Knights 81 

V.  The  Schools  op  Counterpoint 42 

VI.  The  Harmonic  Style 68 

Part  II.  —  The  Great  Composers 

VII.  Bach 69 

VIII.  Handel 77 

IX.  Gluck 85 

X.  Haydn 91 

XI.  Mozart 98 

XII.  Beethoven 108 

XIII.  Schubert 120 

XIV.  Weber  and  Romanticism 128 

XV.  Mendelssohn 135 

XVI.  Schumann 143 

XVII.  Chopin .'      .       .  161 

XVIII.  Italian  Opera 158 

XIX.  Cherubini  and  French  Opera 170 

XX.  Beruoz  and  Other  Frenchmen 179 

XXI.  Liszt  and  his  Circle 188 

XXII.  From  Glinka  to  Tschaikovsky 196 

XXIII.  Wagner  and  his  Reforms 207 

XXIV.  Brahms  and  the  Symphonists 221 

XXV.  Grieg  and  the  Northern  Countries 230 

XXVI.  Strauss  and  Recent  Germans 238 

XXVII.  Franck  and  Modern  France 251 


viii  CONTENTS 

XXVIII.  The  Russian  School 261 

XXIX.  Other  European  Nations     .       .       .        ^      .       .       .271 
XXX.  America 288 

Part  III. —  Musical  Form 

XXXI.  Melody  and  Appreciation 309 

XXXII.  Figures  and  Phrases 317 

XXXIII.  The  Song-Forms 324 

XXXIV.  The  Rondos 331 

XXXV.  The  Sonata-Allegro  Form 336 

XXXVI.  Other  Sonata  Movements 341 

XXXVII.  The  Orchestral  Forms 345 

XXXVIII.  Dances  and  Piano  Styles 351 

XXXIX.  The  Vocal  Forms 360 

XL.  The  Contrapuntal  Forms 366 

Part  IV.  —  The  Instruments 

XLI.  The  Piano  and  its  Predecessors 377  '^ 

XLII.  The  Organ 384 

XLIII.  The  Voice 391 

XLIV.  The  Violin 398 

XLV.  Other  Bowed  Instruments 405 

XLVI.  Plucked-String  Instruments 413 

XL VII.  Flute  and  Piccolo 420 

XLVIII.  Oboe  and  English  Horn 427 

XLIX.  The  Bassoons 433 

L.  The  Clarinets 438 

LI.  Horns,  Trumpets,  and  Cornets 444 

LII.  Trombones  and  Tubas 450 

LIII.  Instruments  of  Percussion 456 

Part  V.  —  Special  Topics 

LIV.  Some  Famous  Pianists 465 

LV.  Some  Famous  Singers 474 

LVI.  Violinists  and  Violin  Music 483 


CONTENTS  ix 

LVII.  Orchestoation •       •       •       .  491 

LVIII.  Conducting 496 

LIX.  Acoustics 503 

LX.  How  TO  Read  Music .      515 

Appendix 

A.  Important  Musical  Terms         541 

B.  A  Course  op  Study,  with  References         ...      551 

Index 579 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

Wagner Frontispiece 

Example  of  Old  Notation  from  an  Old  Manuscript  in  the  Posses- 
sion OF  the  Author 26 

Medlgval  Notation 29 

Canon,  from  an  Ancient  Manuscript  in  the  British  Museum         .    42 
"Sumer  is  icumen  in,"  dating  about  1215 

Di  Lasso 54 

Falestrina 64 

Bach 74 

HANioSi 74 

Gluck 86 

Haydn 86 

The  Mozart  Family 86 

By  permission  of  The  Print-Collector's  Quarterly 

Beethoven 108 

Weber 122 

Schubert 122 

Mendelssohn 122 

Schumann 144 

Chopin 152 

Verdi 168 

Cherubini 168 

Liszt 186 

Beruoz 186 

Rubinstein 200 

tschaikovsky 200 

Wagner  caricatured  as  attacking  the  Human  Ear  ,       .       .       .210 

Bruckner 226 

Brahms 226 

Grieg 238 

Strauss      ....  238 

Rimsky-Korsakov 252 


xii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Dvorak 252 

Franck  252 

Paderewski 280 

Paine;  Converse;  Macdowelx,;  Hadley;  Chadwick;  Foote;  Parker      290 

Group  of  Stringed  Instruments 406 

1.  Mandolin;  2.  Lute;  3.  Viola  d'Amore;  4.  Violin;  5.  Banjo;  6.  Viola; 
7.  Violoncello;   8.  Guitar;   9.  Harp;    10.  Contrabass 

Group  op  Wood- Wind  Instruments 428 

1.  Bassoon;  2.  Oboe;  3.  Bass  Clarinet;  4.  Basset  Horn;  5.  Clarinet; 
6.  Old  Flute;  7.  Saxophone;  8.  English  Horn;  9.  Boehm  Flute 

Group  of  Brass  Instruments 444 

1.  Valve  Trombone;  2.  Slide  Trombone;  3.  Trumpet;  4.  Serpent; 
5.  Horn;  6.  Bass  Tuba;  7.  Comet;  8.  Ophicleide 

Group  op  Percussion  Instruments 456 

1.  Snare  Drum;  2.  Triangle;  3.  Chinese  Gong;  4.  Glockenspiel;  5.  Cas- 
tanets; 6.  Xylophone;  7.  Kettledrums;  8.  Bass  Drum;  9.  Cymbals; 
10.  Celesta 

Adelina  Patti 478 

Faganini 486 


THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

PART  I 
THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MUSIC 


THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL 
KNOWLEDGE 

I 

PRIMITIVE  AND  SAVAGE  MUSIC 

FfiTis  defines  music  as  the  art  of  moving  the  emotions  by  com- 
binations of  sound.  This  statement  would  give  to  the  tonal  art  a 
very  early  origin,  and  would  even  allow  it  a  pre-human  existence  in 
the  songs  of  birds.  The  beginning  of  human  music  must  have  been 
vocal  in  character.  Herbert  Spencer  considers  song  as  a  form  of  ex- 
pression arising  from  the  reflex  action  of  the  vocal  organs  under 
stress  of  emotion,  just  as  a  cry  follows  pain.  This  would  reverse  the 
definition  of  Fetis,  and  make  music  a  result  of  emotion  rather  than 
a  cause. 

It  seems  probable  that  the  early  songs  developed  from  hunting- 
calls,  or  other  vocal  signals  employed  in  primitive  life.  As  soon  as 
such  calls  were  used  for  the  pleasure  expressed  or  imparted,  apart 
from  any  useful  purpose,  they  became  music  in  the  strict  sense  of 
the  term.  Melody  would  thus  arise  easily  from  the  amplification  of 
a  single  call  or  the  union  of  several.  Some  authorities  think  that 
song  was  first  an  accompaniment  to  the  muscular  expression  that 
led  to  dancing;  but  the  hunting-signals  probably  antedated  the 
rudimentary  tangos  of  the  primitive  races. 

The  origin  of  different  scales  may  be  traced  with  more  detail,  even 
if  some  of  it  is  legendary.  Our  own  scale  is  "founded  on  fact,"  for 
Pythagoras  brought  its  mathematical  relations  from  Egypt,  and 
made  them  the  basis  of  the  Greek  scales.  In  this  system  the  pitches 
of  the  notes  corresponded  to  definite  fractional  parts  of  a  stretched 
string.  The  Greek  system  became  the  basis  of  the  Ambrosian  and 
Gregorian  modes,  described  in  detail  in  a  later  chapter;  and  the 
same  pitches  were  employed  in  the  diatonic  mode  that  replaced 
these.  For  the  last  two  centuries  the  intervals,  by  common  con- 
sent, have  been  altered  slightly,  to  make  our  twelve  equal  semi- 
tones that  permit  of  modulation  from  one  key  to  any  other. 


4  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Not  all  people,  however,  use  our  scale.  In  Siam  and  some  neigh- 
boring countries  the  octave  is  divided  into  five,  six,  or  seven  equal 
parts  to  form  a  scale.  The  Hindus,  on  the  other  hand,  used  smaller 
scale-parts  than  ours,  having  third-  and  quarter-tones.  The  legends 
tell  us  that  when  the  god  Krishna  came  to  earth,  he  was  met  by  no 
less  than  sixteen  thousand  nymphs,  each  of  whom  sang  to  him  in  a 
mode  different  from  that  of  the  others.  If  they  all  sang  at  once,  the 
hearer  would  certainly  have  needed  more  than  human  patience; 
but  the  account  does  not  deal  with  that  point.  From  this  event  came 
the  numerous  modes,  or  Raagnis,  that  were  found  in  the  native 
Indian  music.  These  were  often  of  great  power;  and  some  were  held 
even  too  potent  for  mortal  use.  Thus  it  is  related  that  the  Emperor 
Akbar  commanded  the  famous  singer  Naik  Gobaul  to  sing  the  Mode 
of  Fire.  That  performer,  after  finding  all  refusal  vain,  started  his 
fatal  task,  but  took  the  precaution  of  plunging  up  to  his  neck  in  the 
waters  of  the  Djumna.  Before  his  song  was  over,  the  water  around 
him  began  to  boil.  Even  then  the  Emperor  would  not  let  him  stop; 
so  he  resumed  the  fiery  strain,  only  to  burst  into  flames  and  be 
consumed  as  he  finished  it.  The  story  seems  apocryphal,  though 
many  later  singers  have  been  known  to  be  persuaded  into  attempt- 
ing things  that  they  cannot  manage  safely. 

China  uses  the  so-called  pentatonic  scale,  consisting  of  intervals 
similar  to  those  of  the  black  keys  on  our  pianos.  That  this  scale  may 
give  pleasing  effects  is  shown  by  the  Scotch  folk-music,  in  which 
many  of  the  most  beautiful  songs,  such  as  "Auld  Lang  Syne"  or 
"  Bonnie  Doon, "  are  wholly  in  the  five-note  scale.  Turning  again  to 
legend,  we  find  that  the  Chinese  evidently  preferred  this  scale  to  our 
diatonic  mode.  Long  ago  the  sage  Ling-Lim,  in  search  of  knowledge, 
came  to  the  banks  of  the  sacred  river.  Here  he  found  the  immortal 
bird  of  China,  the  Foang-Hoang,  with  its  mate.  The  female  bird 
sang  the  notes  of  our  diatonic  scale,  while  the  male  bird  limited  his 
outpourings  to  the  pentatonic  scale.  At  that  time  everything  fem- 
inine was  held  of  little  account  in  China,  so  the  female's  notes  were 
rejected,  and  those  of  the  male  bird  chosen.  A  little  judicious  cut- 
ting among  the  bamboo  reeds  on  the  river-bank  enabled  Ling-Lun 
to  perpetuate  this  scale.  At  present  the  Chinese  often  sing  with  a 
piercing  intonation;  but  their  music  itself  is  not  at  all  unpleasing,  as 
the  song  in  praise  of  the  Mu-Li  flower  will  show. 


n  fi 

^ — m — • 


S    d 


TSIN-FA 


x^^nn 


Eb^^? 


W 


1. 


pip 


i. 


7^«= 

1 

-•— 

-^^ 

1 

— -  — 

1 

=^ 

ft 

-i 

-^ 

-<S' — 

1 

— * — 

— • — 

t- 

1 

— ^ — 

1 

r 

=^ 

^ 

— i 

H ' 

^J'     ^ 

1 

^ 

z±- 

1 

^ 

-ir-d- 

=ib^ 

-^  -^ 

i 


-n  J    p^ 


E 


e: 


^^f^EJE^^ 


■— «f ^ 


d    ^    d    d 


•JiS: 


-(=i^ 


:&3=S 


S 


S 


SF=F 


#      I         ^      *- 


=3 


tf — r 


♦■^^^ — 6^ 


^^^- 
9^*- 


y  r  >  y 


3 


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-(2- 


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:it 


^ 


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rii — »— •- 


-V i 1- 


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^i m- 


(  A  Chinese  song  praising  a  branch  of  Mu-Li  flowers  thrown  into  a  maiden's 

door. ) 


6  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL   KNOWLEDGE 

Among  ancient  instruments,  those  of  the  Chinese  are  best  de- 
scribed. Their  invention  is  ascribed  to  Kai-Tien-Chi,  the  ninth  em- 
peror of  the  spiritual  dynasty  mentioned  in  Chinese  mythology. 
They  are  classified  according  to  their  material,  and  form  the  fol- 
lowing eight  groups:  (1)  The  sound  of  skin;  (2)  the  sound  of  stone; 
(3)  that  of  metal;  (4)  of  baked  clay;  (5)  of  silk  strings;  (6)  of  wood; 
(7)  of  bamboo;  (8)  of  calabash. 

The  skin  of  animals,  suitably  tanned,  is  used  in  the  eight  varieties 
of  Chinese  drum.  Most  of  these  are  barrel-shaped,  but  two  of  the 
smaller  ones  are  more  flat,  and  often  partly  filled  with  rice-grains. 
Musical  stones,  to  the  number  of  sixteen,  form  what  is  known  as  the 
king,  the  stones  being  shaped  much  like  a  carpenter's  square  and 
hung  in  a  row.  These  are  very  valuable  when  perfect.  They  date 
from  early  times,  a  set  of  them  having  been  received  as  tribute  in  the 
year  2250  B.C.  The  sound  of  metal  is  heard  in  the  many  bells  and 
gongs,  which  are  highly  esteemed  in  China.  Baked  clay  forms  the 
material  of  the  hiuen,  a  whistle  with  from  five  to  seven  apertures. 
Silk  strings  are  employed  on  the  kin  and  the  che,  which  are  widely 
used.  The  former  has  seven  strings,  giving  only  the  five  tones  of  the 
pentatonic  scale.  The  latter  is  much  larger,  having  twenty-five 
strings.  These  strings  are  plucked  to  produce  the  tone,  which  is 
unusually  soft  and  agreeable.  Wooden  instruments  are  devoted 
altogether  to  noise.  The  chief  forms  are  a  hollow  box  struck  by  a 
hammer,  and  a  tiger-image  with  wooden  pegs  in  its  back,  the  pegs 
being  swept  at  a  stroke  in  much  the  same  fashion  that  a  small  boy 
will  use  in  running  a  stick  along  a  picket  fence.  Bamboo  forms  the 
siao  and  the  flutes.  The  former  is  a  set  of  sixteen  Pan-pipes.  The 
latter  have  only  three  finger-holes,  and  therefore  demand  much 
skill  in  playing.  Still  more  difficult  was  the  obsolete  form  with  the 
mouthpiece  in  the  centre,  three  holes  on  each  side,  and  the  ends 
stopped  up.  The  calabash,  or  gourd,  serves  as  the  air-chamber  of 
the  cheng,  which  has  gold-tipped  reeds  stuck  into  it  to  form  a 
primitive  organ.  In  recent  years  the  Chinese  have  adopted  foreign 
instruments  of  the  banjo  and  trumpet  type. 

Musical  instruments  were  probably  copied  from  natural  models. 
The  wind  whistling  in  a  hollow  reed  would  suggest  the  flute;  a 
branch  bumping  against  a  hollow  tree  may  well  have  led  to  drums; 
while  the  twanging  bowstring  develops  naturally  into  a  rudimentary 


PRIMITIVE   AND   SAVAGE   MUSIC  7 

harp.  In  Egyptian  mythology  the  invention  of  the  lyre,  ascribed  to 
Thoth  (the  Greek  Hermes),  took  place  when  that  god's  foot  came 
in  contact  with  the  tendons  of  a  dead  tortoise,  which  had  dried  and 
tightened  on  the  animal's  shell. 

According  to  the  evidence  of  prehistoric  relics,  the  most  ancient 
instrument  is  of  the  flute  type.  Thus,  a  primitive  flute,  rudely 
fashioned  from  the  bone  of  an  Irish  elk,  was  found  among  remains 
near  Desmond  Castle;  a  whistle  of  reindeer  bone  formed  one  of  the 
relics  found  among  troglodyte  remains  in  the  Dordogne  Valley;  a 
bone  pierced  with  several  holes  was  found  with  flint  implements  at 
Gourdan;  and  a  stag-horn  flute  was  discovered  near  Poitiers.  Flutes 
of  the  bronze  age,  discovered  in  Belgium  and  Schleswig,  were  more 
advanced;  while  the  early  Egyptian  flutes  were  well-developed  in- 
struments. 

The  conditions  existing  among  the  early  races  may  be  judged  from 
those  which  obtain  among  savages  of  more  recent  times.  The  Caribs 
of  Guiana,  for  instance,  employed  jaguar  bones  for  their  flutes;  and 
when  these  grew  scarce,  they  fell  back  upon  human  bones.  The 
Surinam  tribes  have  the  pleasing  custom  of  making  flutes  from  the 
bones  of  slain  enemies.  In  a  country  as  distant  as  New  Zealand 
flutes  made  of  human  bone  were  also  used.  The  most  practicable 
material,  however,  was  a  hollow  reed.  The  Greeks  said  of  the  reed 
that  it  was  useful  in  subjugating  nations  by  furnishing  arrows,  in 
softening  men's  manners  by  the  charm  of  music,  and  in  educating 
them  by  affording  the  means  for  tracing  letters.  Its  use  for  making 
flutes  has  been  widespread.  Thus  Humboldt  describes  the  skill  of 
the  American  Indians  in  making  and  tuning  their  flutes;  Schwein- 
furth  praises  the  African  Bongos  for  similar  ability;  and  Cook  does 
the  same  for  the  natives  of  Tahiti.  The  last-named  could  tune  a 
flute  by  surrounding  it  with  a  leaf,  in  the  form  of  a  scroll  which  could 
be  lengthened  or  shortened  at  will.  In  some  cases  double  flutes  were 
used,  consisting  of  two  tubes  branching  from  one  mouthpiece.  Still 
other  flutes  were  arranged  to  fit  the  nostrils,  and  played  by  blowing 
through  the  nose.  The  syrinx,  or  Pan-pipe,  was  usually  made  from 
a  set  of  reed  tubes,  though  an  old  Peruvian  instrument  shows  eight 
pipes  cut  from  a  piece  of  soft  stone.  As  a  rule,  the  savage  performer 
was  not  a  great  virtuoso.  Thus  the  Kaffirs  employed  flutes  chiefly 
to  call  cattle;  the  Caribs  used  the  instrument  as  a  signal  to  show 


8  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWXEDGE 

approach;  and  the  Iroquois  braves  reserved  it  for  love-calls.  The 
finger-holes  were  usually  few  in  number,  making  it  difficult  for  the 
performer  to  get  any  but  the  simplest  effects. 

Instruments  of  the  horn  and  trumpet  type  also  are  found  among 
primitive  peoples.  African  horns  have  been  made  of  ivory,  wood,  or 
even  large  seashells.  Just  as  Siegfried,  in  Wagner's  Nibelungen 
Trilogy,  has  his  own  horn  call,  so  many  African  chiefs  had  special 
horn  signals  of  their  own,  for  use  in  battle  or  to  indicate  approach. 
Sometimes  nearly  every  member  of  a  tribe  would  have  such  a  signal. 
The  Maoris  of  New  Zealand  had  wooden  war-trumpets  seven  feet 
long,  which  were  audible  for  several  miles.  The  Indians  on  the  upper 
Rio  Negro  had  something  between  a  trumpet  and  a  bassoon,  made 
in  eight  different  sizes  for  use  in  their  so-called  devils'  music.  On 
these  they  played  good  melodies,  with  full  accompaniment.  Women 
were  barred  from  this  ceremony  on  pain  of  death,  and  even  for- 
bidden to  look  at  the  instruments;  and  it  is  said  that  the  poison  used 
as  a  penalty  for  breaking  this  rule  was  given  by  fathers  to  their  own 
daughters,  and  by  husbands  to  their  own  wives. 

The  gong  is  very  popular  among  savages.  Gong-like  sounds  are 
obtained  in  Borneo  from  small  pieces  of  iron,  and  even  from  chains 
thrown  into  the  air.  Skilful  African  players  can  get  many  effects 
from  the  gong.  Its  chief  use,  however,  has  been  to  arouse  its  hearers 
to  warlike  frenzy,  —  a  condition  that  sometimes  results  from  gong 
music  in  more  civilized  nations.  Bells  were  adopted  by  the  East 
Indian  Pegus,  who  united  twenty  of  them  into  one  instrument, 
played  by  hammer-strokes.  The  Javanese  bells,  or  gammelong, 
sounded  like  a  string  orchestra  when  heard  from  a  distance  by  the 
Challenger  expedition. 

Primitive  drums  come  in  all  sizes,  from  the  skin-covered  bowls  of 
the  Hottentots  to  the  large  hollow  tree-trunks  of  the  Ashantis.  In 
Africa  the  drum  has  several  uses  beside  that  of  accompanying  music 
or  dancing.  It  is  employed  to  announce  the  arrival  or  departure  of  a 
stranger,  to  give  the  marching  time  for  native  carriers,  or  even  for  a 
code  of  signals.  The  D walla  tribes  have  such  signals,  which  they 
read  with  as  much  skill  as  a  telegraph  operator  will  use  in  receiving 
messages  on  his  sounder. 

The  marimba  is  a  set  of  fiat  sticks  on  gourds  of  different  sizes, 
the  sticks  being  struck  by  a  hammer.  Some  have  claimed  this  as  the 


PRIMTTIVE  AND  SAVAGE  MUSIC  9 

origin  of  the  piano,  but  it  would  be  far  more  correct  to  call  it  the  pre- 
cursor of  the  xylophone. 

Plucked-string  instruments  are  well  represented  by  the  guitar  of 
the  Ashantis,  known  as  the  lanku.  This  has  a  long  neck  joined  to  a 
hollow,  skin-covered  wooden  box.  It  has  eight  strings,  supported  in 
two  rows  by  a  bridge.  The  Africans  have  zithers  also,  with  strings  of 
bamboo  fibres  or  twisted  rattan  threads. 

Most  widespread  among  stringed  insti-uments  is  the  harp.  It  un- 
doubtedly developed  from  the  twang  of  the  bowstring,  although  the 
New  Zealanders  do  not  have  bows,  and  yet  do  possess  a  form  of  the 
lyre.  The  harp  of  the  Kaffirs  is  a  simple  bow,  on  which  the  string 
may  be  tightened  or  loosened  at  will  by  means  of  a  sliding  ring. 
For  resonance,  a  hollow  gourd  is  lashed  to  the  bow  near  one  end. 
Other  African  tribes  have  harps  varying  in  size,  and  with  the  strings 
ranging  in  number  from  seven  to  eighteen.  In  Guinea  the  natives 
make  an  aeolian  harp  from  the  leaf -stalk  of  the  seta  palm,  by  separat- 
ing its  parallel  fibres  and  putting  a  bridge  under  them.  Lutes  have 
been  found  on  the  lower  Congo,  with  strings  of  palm  fibres.  Da- 
homey has  a  primitive  mandolin,  while  New  Britain  and  the  York 
Islands  possess  a  rudimentary  banjo. 

The  use  of  friction  in  tone-production  seems  to  have  originated  in 
Africa.  The  negro  habit  of  rubbing  two  sticks  together  produces 
fearful  and  wonderful  results,  but  it  is  a  principle  easy  to  apply  to 
other  materials.  Thus  the  Damaras  stroked  their  bowstrings,  and 
produced  practically  a  violin  tone.  The  M'Balunda  negroes  evolved 
a  crude  violin  with  three  strings  of  plant  fibre.  The  Malays  have  a 
two-stringed  violin,  while  East  Java  offers  a  sort  of  flattened  violon- 
cello, with  horsehair  strings  on  a  frame  of  a  rare  variety  of  cocoa- 
nut.  The  Arabian  rebab,  often  considered  the  origin  of  our  violin, 
had  two  strings  which  were  plucked  at  first,  and  only  bowed  in  later 
times.  Other  Arabian  instruments  were  the  lute  (al  vd),  the  tabor 
(tambourine),  the  single-stringed  monochord,  the  kettledrum,  the 
zamar  (an  oboe),  the  nefyr  (trumpet),  several  flutes,  and  the  dulci- 
mer, with  its  hammer-struck  strings  tuned  in  sets  of  three.  The 
last-named  is  the  real  prototype  of  the  harpsichords  and  spinets  that 
led  to  the  modem  piano.  The  Arabian  music,  like  that  of  Moham- 
medans in  general,  has  a  seven-toned  scale,  derived  from  a  theoreti- 
cal system  of  seventeen  fractional  tones.   The  scale,  however,  is  not 


10  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

uniform,  its  intervals  differing  according  to  the  number  of  fractional 
parts  used  in  each  tone.  The  music  is  rhythmical  in  character  and 
striking  in  effect.  It  is  well  echoed  in  Felicien  David's  symphonic 
ode  "The  Desert,"  and  in  Saint-Saens'  song  "La  Brise." 

Babylonia  and  Assyria  possessed  harps,  dulcimers,  lyres,  lutes, 
pipes,  trumpets,  and  drums.  The  lyres  were  much  like  those  of 
Greece,  —  instruments  with  an  enlargement  or  resonance  chamber 
at  the  bottom,  nearly  vertical  sides,  and  cross-bar  at  the  top,  from 
which  the  vertical  strings  ran  down.  Some  of  the  Babylonian  in- 
struments mentioned  in  the  third  chapter  of  Daniel  have  Greek 
names.  A  dulcimer-like  affair,  with  strings  plucked  instead  of  struck, 
was  known  as  the  psaltery. 

Among  the  Hebrews,  music  was  cherished  by  the  prophets  as 
early  as  the  time  of  Samuel,  or  about  1000  B.C.^  In  the  second  temple, 
built  about  520  B.C.,  singing  with  instrumental  accompaniment  was 
customary,  and  the  psalms  were  collected  for  such  use.  This  early 
music  is  lost,  even  the  old  Hebrew  tunes  of  to-day,  such  as  "  Kol 
Nidrei,"  being  comparatively  modem.  The  Hebrew  instruments 
were  almost  wholly  borrowed  from  other  nations.  The  kinnor,  or 
harp,  was  probably  small  enough  to  be  a  lyre.  The  nebel  was  a 
psaltery,  sometimes  hung  on  the  player's  neck.  The  asor,  which 
David  mentioned  as  an  instrument  of  ten  strings,  was  a  lyre  played 
with  a  plectrum.  The  timbrel,  or  tabor,  or  taboret,  was  a  small 
hand-drum,  or  tambourine,  probably  made  in  different  sizes.  Cym- 
bals were  known,  and  trumpets  and  flutes;  while  probably  some  use 
was  made  of  the  Egyptian  sistrum,  as  well  as  guitars  and  pipes.  The 
organ  in  the  temple  was  probably  a  set  of  very  large  Pan-pipes. 
The  Talmud  asserts  that  when  this  organ  was  played,  the  people 
in  the  streets  of  Jerusalem  could  not  hear  one  another  talk.  But 
the  name  used,  magrepha,  meant  fire-shovel  also,  and  may  have  re- 
ferred to  the  large  shovel  that  was  thrown  down  after  the  sacrificial 
fires  were  built.  Some  authorities  even  hold  it  to  be  a  drum.  All  this 
shows  our  lack  of  knowledge  on  the  subject,  and  the  inaccuracy  of 
the  early  writers.  Another  striking  story  comes  from  Josephus,  who 
mentions  a  concert  of  two  hundred  thousand  singers,  forty  thousand 
sistra,  forty  thousand  harps,  and  two  hundred  thousand  trumpets. 

Ancient  Egypt,  that  land  of  much  forgotten  civilization,  had  a 
well-developed  system  of  music.   The  flutes  in  the  old  tombs,  as 


PRIMITIVE  AND   SAVAGE   MUSIC  11 

already  mentioned,  are  found  to  be  excellent  instruments.  There 
were  three  varieties  of  harp,  —  a  small,  bow-shaped  affair  to  be 
can-ied  on  the  shoulders,  a  larger,  bow-shaped  instrument  that  was 
held  upright,  and  the  more  massive,  loop-shaped  affair,  often  trian- 
gular in  form.  None  of  these,  however,  had  the  pillar  beyond  the 
strings  that  completes  the  triangle  in  modem  harps  and  keeps  the 
instrument  in  perfect  tune.  For  this  reason  the  Egyptian  harps 
could  not  have  stood  very  great  tension,  and  must  have  been  com- 
paratively low  in  tone.  The  strings  varied  in  number  from  three  to 
twenty  or  more.  The  Egyptian  lyres,  shaped  like  the  letter  U  with 
a  cross-bar  above,  had  five  or  more  strings.  The  lyres  were  usually 
set  upright  on  a  table  or  pedestal,  but  could  be  held  horizontally  in- 
stead. They  were  played  either  by  a  plectrum  or  by  the  fingers.  The 
later  lutes  were  provided  with  frets  along  the  neck,  in  quite  modem 
fashion.  There  were  oboes  with  straw  reeds  in  the  mouth-pieces,  and 
sometimes  double  tubes.  Trumpets  were  made  of  copper  or  bronze, 
and  used  chiefly  for  military  purposes.  The  syrinx  existed  in  various 
sizes.  Percussion  instalments  included  bone  or  ivory  clappers,  cym- 
bals, tambourines,  and  at  least  two  kinds  of  drum,  besides  the  sis- 
tmm.  The  last  was  a  set  of  metal  bars  hanging  loosely  in  a  frame, 
and  giving  a  jingle  when  shaken.  It  is  thought  that  this  instrument 
was  used  to  give  signals  for  workmen  to  pull  and  haul  together,  just 
as  one  of  a  group  of  sailors  tugging  at  a  rope  will  sing  a  "chantey" 
to  guide  the  men  in  pulling  together  rhythmically.  Apparently 
_Egypt  had  no  bells  or  gongs,  and  nothing  of  the  violin  or  dulcimer 
type. 

The  Egyptians  employed  music  as  a  social  diversion,  a  courtly 
luxury,  and  an  adjunct  of  religious  ceremonies.  It  was  imited  with 
poetry  and  dancing.  Professional  singers,  players,  and  dancers  re- 
ceived careful  training  at  large  institutions,  and  some  of  the  picture- 
relics  show  this  in  great  detail.  The  existing  instruments  indicate 
that  the  ancient  Egyptian  scale  was  probably  diatonic,  and  some  of 
the  pictures  suggest  the  use  of  harmony  in  instrumental  combina- 
tions. 

In  the  seventh  century  B.C.,  Egypt  was  opened  to  the  Greeks,  and 
this  international  intercourse  grew  vefyrapidly.  The  Greek  music 
is  derived  largely  from  the  Egyptian,  many  of  the  Greek  works  on 
music  having  been  written  in  Egypt.  This  being  so,  the  Egyptian 


12  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

music,  as  well  as  the  Greek,  becomes  the  source  from  which  our  own 
tonal  art  developed.  We  know  little  of  the  Egyptian  scale,  and 
nothing  of  the  notation;  but  apparently  it  could  not  have  been 
greatly  different  from  that  of  Greece,  which  has  been  described  in 
detail  by  many  writers.  The  so-called  Ptolemaic  scale  system  be- 
came a  later  model  for  Greece. 

Enough  has  been  set  down  here  to  show  that  music  is  by  no  means 
a  recent  development.  The  known  antiquity  of  the  Chinese  instru- 
ments (of  which,  in  passing,  we  may  note  that  the  Japanese  are 
mostly  copies)  is  so  great  that  it  makes  our  earliest  musical  classics 
blush  for  their  extreme  youth.  The  widespread  employment  of  com- 
paratively advanced  instruments  shows  us  that  music  might  well 
have  developed  into  a  great  art  elsewhere  than  in  Europe.  Music, 
after  all,  is  largely  a  matter  of  taste;  the  Chinese,  on  hearing  Euro- 
pean music  under  the  auspices  of  Father  Amiot,  said  that  it  was  no 
doubt  very  learned,  but  that  it  did  not  touch  the  heart  like  their  own 
music.  But  the  old  motto  offers  "to  each  his  own,"  and  for  Occi- 
dental nations  the  history  of  music,  except  for  the  earliest  Egyptian 
suggestions,  is  wholly  confined  to  Europe.  The  postscript  of  the  last 
century  shows  us  a  development  in  America  too;  but  that  has  been 
largely  a  reflection  of  European  standards  and  models. 


n  ^ 

GREECE   AND    ROME 

When  the  poet  Collins  called  upon  some  party  or  parties  un- 
known to  "revive  the  just  designs  of  Greece,"  at  the  expense  of 
"Cecilia's  mingled  world  of  soimd,"  it  is  doubtful  if  he  knew  just 
what  those  designs  were.  Certainly  it  was  disloyal  to  the  memory  of 
Purcell  and  the  great  Elizabethan  composers  who  had  gone  before 
him.  But  subsequent  discoveries  have  given  us  a  better  insight  into 
the  subject  of  ancient  Greek  music,  and  we  now  have  several  actual 
specimens  of  that  music  to  supplement  the  many  historical  trea- 
tises. 

In  Greece,  poetry  and  music  were  at  first  treated  as  one  art.  In 
the  Mythical  or  Heroic  Age,  the  wandering  minstrel  flourished.  He 
would  travel  about  from  place  to  place  reciting  his  epic  fragments 
or  shorter  poems  with  a  certain  style  of  chanting,  or  cantillation, 
for  each  kind  of  poetry.  The  music,  therefore,  was  not  definite,  the 
vocal  chanting  and  lyre  accompaniment  varying  on  repetition  even 
though  the  style  remained  constant.  The  poets  were  received  with 
sufficient  honor  in  their  peripatetic  vocation.  We  read  that 

"  Seven  cities  claimed  the  birth  of  Homer  dead, 
Through  which  the  living  Homer  begged  his  bread." 

But  this  was  written  some  twenty-seven  centuries  after  the  event; 
and  it  is  probable  that  geniuses  of  the  Homer  or  Hesiod  type  would 
not  often  go  hungry. 

Shorter  lyrics  began  to  appear  in  the  seventh  and  sixth  centuries 
B.C.  Ionic  iambics  and  elegiacs  were  composed  by  Archilochus  and 
TjTtaeus,  to  be  succeeded  by  the  lyrics  and  odes  of  Sappho,  Alcasus, 
and  Anacreon,  to  say  nothing  of  Pindar,  and  the  later  poetesses 
Myrtis  and  Corinna.  These  were  still  sung  with  improvisational 
accompaniment.  They  must  have  had  a  strong  effect,  for  Solon,  on 
hearing  a  work  of  Sappho,  expressed  the  hope  that  he  might  not  die 
before  he  had  learned  such  a  beautiful  song. 

Music  was  given  a  scientific  basis  by  Pythagoras.  Born  in  Samos 


14  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

in  the  year  582  B.C.,  he  travelled  extensively,  and  brought  back  from 
Egypt  the  knowledge  of  systematic  music.  He  gave  to  the  scale  the 
mathematical  proportions  explained  in  the  later  chapter  on  acous- 
tics, —  a  scale  which  was  employed  almost  intact  until  1700  A.D., 
and  then  changed  only  slightly  to  form  our  present  scale.  From  his 
work  and  that  of  his  successors  came  the  well-developed  system  of 
Greek  modes. 

The  basis  of  the  modes  was  the  tetrachord,  or  group  of  four  ad- 
jacent notes.  The  diatonic  tetrachord  consisted  of  intervals  repre- 
sented by  E,  D,  C,  and  B  in  our  notation.  The  chromatic  tetrachord 
had  the  intervals  of  E,  C-sharp,  C,  and  B;  while  the  enharmonic 
tetrachord  had  still  smaller  intervals  in  its  lower  part.  The  diatonic 
tetrachord  was  varied  by  the  use  of  C-sharp  instead  of  C,  and  D- 
sharp  also  instead  of  D.  The  original  tetrachord  was  called  Dorian, 
that  with  one  sharp  Phrygian,  and  that  with  two  sharps  Lydian. 
These  tetrachords  were  made  into  scales  by  the  addition  of  tetra- 
chords  below.  If  the  tetrachords  were  added  above,  the  scales 
became  Hjrpodorian,  Hypophrygian,  and  Hypolydian,  with  an  extra 
one,  the  Mixolydian,  to  complete  the  series.  Their  intervals,  when 
timed  on  the  octave  lyre,  were  as  follows:  — 

Dorian E  D  C  B  A  G  F  E 

Phrygian E  D  C^  B  A  G  F^  E 

Lydian E  D#  Off  B  A  G#  Fif  E 

Mixolydian E  D  C  B!»  A  G  F  E 

Hypodorian E  D  C  B  A  G  F#  E 

Hypophrygian E  D  C»  B  A  G#  F#  E 

Hypolydian E  TUf  C*  B  M  G#  F?f  E 

These,  it  will  be  seen,  correspond  in  size  of  intervals  with  white- 
key  scales  on  our  pianos  starting  on  each  degree  of  our  diatonic 
scale.  Thus  the  Dorian  has  E  to  E  intervals,  the  Phrygian  D  to  D 
intervals,  and  so  on.  The  Lydian  mode  corresponds  to  our  diatonic 
scales;  so  that  when  Collins  wrote,  ""Wrap  me  in  soft  Lydian  meas- 
ures," he  was  calling  for  nothing  new  to  modern  ears.  Each  mode  was 
supposed  to  have  its  own  special  qualities,  the  Dorian  being  decid- 
edly strong  and  martial.  The  "  Hymn  to  Calliope,"  one  of  the  few 
bits  of  old  Greek  music  still  extant,  is  Dorian  in  effect,  its  chief  note 
being  what  we  would  call  the  third  scale  degree.  The  impressive 
power  of  this  mode  may  be  seen  also  in  the  older  Scotch  setting  of 
"  Auld  Robin  Gray,"  which  begins  and  ends  on  the  third  scale  degree. 


HYMN   TO   CALLIOPE. 

Palimpsest  from  the  Library  of  Cardinal  St.  Angelo,  Rome  ;  harmonized  by 
Macfarren. 


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16  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

The  Greeks  combined  all  their  scales  into  one  large  two-octave 
affair,  composed  of  four  Dorian  tetrachords  with  the  necessary  al- 
terations. These  notes  were  named  from  the  strings  on  the  large 
two-octave  lyre.  The  names,  and  further  details,  may  be  found  in 
Waldo  Selden  Pratt's  excellent  book  "The  History  of  Music."  The 
music  was  notated  by  letters.  The  Greeks  used  few  letters,  but 
gave  them  new  meanings  when  written  sidewise  or  upside  down. 
The  Romans  did  not  understand  the  principle  of  the  octave;  and  in 
adopting  the  Greek  system  they  continued  the  letters  through  the 
alphabet,  and  even  added  other  characters. 

The  Greek  drama  made  use  of  music.  Its  declamation,  half  epic 
and  half  lyric,  resembled  in  some  degree  the  cantillation  of  the  early 
minstrels,  but  was  used  by  the  chorus  as  well  as  by  single  performers. 
Instruments  of  the  wood-wind  class  (flutes,  oboes,  clarinets,  etc.) 
were  gradually  introduced  also. 

Most  common  among  Grecian  instruments  was  the  lyre.  This 
had  a  resonance  box  (often  tortoise-shell),  a  U-shaped  frame,  and  a 
cross-bar,  with  from  four  to  eighteen  strings.  Larger  than  the  lyre 
was  the  kithara,  or  phorminx,  in  which  the  strings  were  carried 
partly  over  the  side  of  the  resonance  box  instead  of  being  attached 
to  the  top.  It  is  held  by  Greilsamer,  an  authority  on  the  violin, 
that  later  kitharas  with  enlarged  side-frames  behind  the  strings  may 
have  suggested  the  viols  that  led  to  the  modem  violin.  The  magadis 
was  an  Oriental  harp  of  varying  shape,  with  about  twenty  strings. 
From  this  came  the  term  "magadizing,"  which  meant  playing  in 
octaves  instead  of  unison.  Other  harps  were  known  under  the  names 
of  barbitos  and  trigon,  according  to  their  shape.  All  these  were 
played  with  the  plectrum  or  plucked  by  the  fingers. 

Among  the  wind  instruments,  the  most  popular  was  the  aulos,  or 
direct  flute  of  cane  or  bored  wood.  This  had  a  detachable  mouth- 
piece, and  from  two  to  eight  finger-holes.  There  were  double  flutes, 
in  which  two  tubes  extended  from  one  mouthpiece.  The  player 
often  wore  a  strap  around  his  cheeks,  enabling  him  to  get  greater 
power.  Sometimes  a  bellows  was  attached,  making  the  flute  a  bag- 
pipe. The  syrinx  was  a  set  of  tubes  bound  together,  and  played  by 
blowing  over  the  open  ends.  The  salpinx  was  a  natural  trumpet  of 
bronze,  somewhat  tapering  in  shape.  The  term  "flute"  probably 
included  also  instruments  of  the  clarinet  or  oboe  type,  with  single 


GREECE  AND  RO^IE  17 

or  double  bits  of  vibrating  reed  in  the  mouthpiece.  The  deeper 
flutes  were  probably  like  our  bassoon.  Thus  the  sombre  and  impres- 
sive character  of  the  "Nome  of  Kradias,"  a  death-march  played  on 
the  journey  to  an  execution,  must  have  drawn  much  of  its  effect 
from  some  tone-color  similar  to  that  of  the  bassoon. 

Among  the  wind  instruments  is  also  the  rather  mysterious  water- 
organ,  invented  by  Ktesibios  at  Alexandria  in  the  year  150  B.C.  In 
Roman  times  this  consisted  of  two  or  three  sets  of  pipes  mounted  on 
a  wind-chest,  a  keyboard  of  valve  levers,  and  a  pair  of  partly  filled 
pumps  causing  air-pressure  by  hydraulic  means. 

Many  of  these  instruments  were  played  at  private  or  semi-public 
occasions;  but  they  became  a  prominent  feature  in  the  public  games. 
The  Olympic  Games,  occurring  once  every  four  years  at  Elis,  dated 
back  to  the  ninth  century  B.C.  At  these  games  there  was  often  a  con- 
test of  trumpeters,  which  became  a  regular  event  in  396  B.C.  Most 
famous  among  the  Greek  trumpeters  was  Herodorus  of  Megara,  who 
won  the  prize  ten  times  in  succession,  and  in  one  year  was  victorious 
in  all  foiir  of  the  great  festivals,  the  Olympic,  the  Pythian,  the 
Nemean,  and  the  Isthmian.  Many  anecdotes  are  told  of  this  mu- 
sician (?).  He  would  sleep  on  a  bearskin,  in  imitation  of  Hercules 
and  the  lion's  skin.  His  music  was  so  loud  that  at  times  some  of  his 
auditors  were  stunned  by  the  concussion.  He  could  play  upon  two 
trum.pets  at  the  same  time,  and  when  he  did  so  the  audience  had  to 
sit  farther  away  than  usual,  to  avoid  the  bad  effects  of  the  noise. 
Once  at  the  siege  of  Argos,  when  the  troops  were  giving  way,  he  be- 
gan to  sound  his  two  trumpets,  which  so  inspired  the  warriors  that 
they  returned  to  the  fight  and  won  the  victory.  The  trumpet  was 
used  for  military  signals  rather  than  for  really  musical  purposes.  It 
was  blown  on  the  march,  or  to  usher  in  a  proclamation,  or  even  to 
arouse  the  animals  in  horse-races. 

In  the  musical  contests  the  prize  seems  to  have  gone  to  loudness 
rather  than  to  what  we  should  call  expression.  Trumpeters  would 
often  injure  themselves  in  their  efforts,  and  sometimes  even  burst  a 
blood-vessel.  Harmonides,  wishing  to  astonish  his  auditors,  is  said 
to  have  killed  himself  thus  while  playing  the  flute. 

Flute  contests  took  place  in  the  Pythian  games,  held  in  honor  of 
Apollo's  victory  over  the  Python.  One  of  the  contestants  once  won 
the  prize  in  a  rather  singular  manner.  While  he  was  playing  on  a 


18  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

straight  flute  (held  directly  before  the  face,  like  a  trumpet),  he  found 
the  mouthpiece  suddenly  clogged.  Instantly  changing  the  position 
of  his  instrument,  he  continued  by  playing  it  as  a  side-flute,  in  the 
manner  of  our  present-day  performers.  His  presence  of  mind  was 
rewarded  by  the  victor's  crown. 

It  was  natural  that  music  should  play  a  large  part  in  any  festival 
dedicated  to  Apollo;  and  in  later  years  these  events  became  ambi- 
tious enough.  Thus  in  the  year  250  B.C.,  shortly  after  Athens  had 
won  a  temporary  freedom  from  Macedonia,  a  musical  festival  took 
place  that  would  have  delighted  the  hearts  of  Richard  Strauss  and 
other  modem  wholesalers.  The  work  performed  was  a  representation 
of  the  combat  between  Apollo  and  the  P3rthon,  in  five  movements. 
The  composer  is  unknown,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  music  took 
shape  gradually  vmder  many  hands;  but  the  details  of  the  scoring 
are  recorded  with  some  fulness. 

The  first  movement  represented  Apollo  coming  to  Pytho,  and 
joining  other  celestial  beings  in  their  pastimes.  This  included  a 
dance  of  the  Horse,  with  the  Graces  and  Muses  presiding.  The  move- 
ment opened  with  thirty  simikions,  or  hand-played  harps;  and  these 
may  have  given  some  harmony,  for  the  playing  of  chords  on  the  harp 
(instead  of  unison)  had  already  been  taught  by  Stratonicus.  Twelve 
of  the  harps  were  of  the  enlarged  form  known  as  epigoneion,  with 
forty  strings  instead  of  thirty-five.  After  a  time  ninety-five  wood- 
wind players  were  heard,  using  the  plagiaulos  (side  flute)  and  bom- 
hyx  (a  sort  of  clarinet).  This  was  all  in  the  iEolian  or  Phrygian  mode. 
At  the  dance  were  heard  the  krotala,  or  clappers,  commonly  used  to 
accompany  the  dances  of  Bacchantes  and  others. 

The  second  movement  portrayed  the  descent  of  Apollo  to  the 
fray.  It  was  in  the  Mixolydian  mode,  a  scale  that  even  in  our  music 
suggests  hesitation  and  suspense.  The  low  notes  of  twenty-seven 
deep  hombos  pipes,  somewhat  like  our  bass  clarinets,  gave  a  porten- 
tous and  funereal  effect  to  the  end  of  the  movement. 

The  third  movement  pictured  the  actual  combat,  in  the  martial 
Dorian  mode,  and  with  a  rapid  iambic  rhythm.  Forty-three  clari- 
nets were  struck  on  the  outside,  to  represent  the  sound  emitted 
by  the  monster  gnashing  his  teeth.  Fifty  players  on  the  syrinx  imi- 
tated the  IVthon's  groans.  A  hundred  lyre  players  handled  the  poly- 
phtkongos  and  barbitos,  large  instruments  with  comparatively  few 


GREECE  AND  ROME  19 

strings.  The  complete  forces  were  now  in  action,  and  numbered  over 
five  hundred,  including  the  loud  kumbaloi,  or  cymbals,  with  the 
smaller  varieties  known  as  lekidoi  and  oxubaphoi.  At  the  height  of 
the  tumult,  major  thirds  (considered  the  most  discordant  interval) 
rang  out  from  forty-five  trumpets. 

The  fourth  movement  showed  the  monster's  dying  struggles. 
Fifty-five  shrill  fifes  gave  a  portrayal  of  his  angry  hisses.  The  earlier 
strings,  with  the  forms  of  the  lyre  known  as  atropos,  phoinix,  and 
sambuca,  gave  striking  quarter-tone  accompaniments  to  represent 
the  Python's  last  gasps.  With  his  death,  a  solemn  spondaic  rhythm 
ended  the  movement. 

The  final  movement  was  an  ovation  to  Apollo,  in  the  Hypolydian 
mode. 

Such  a  festival  consisted  of  what  is  known  as  programme  music, 
which  tries  to  tell  a  story  or  portray  some  event  or  scene  that  necessi- 
tates explanation  on  the  programme.  In  contradistinction  is  the 
school  known  as  pure,  or  absolute,  music,  in  which  the  music  is  to  be 
enjoyed  for  its  beauty  without  the  aid  of  any  written  story  or  descrip- 
tion of  what  it  might  mean.  The  programme  school  was  well  de- 
veloped in  ancient  Greece,  and  has  even  given  us  a  modem  phrase. 
When  a  musician  attempted  to  give  on  his  Ij^e  a  picture  of  a  storm, 
the  wit  Dorian,  who  was  present,  remarked,  "  I  have  heard  a  better 
tempest  in  a  pot  of  boiling  water."  This  has  come  down  to  us,  in 
altered  form,  as  "A  tempest  in  a  teapot." 

The  Nemean  games,  celebrating  the  slaying  of  the  Nemean  lion  by 
Hercules,  contained  no  definite  musical  contest;  but  flute-playing 
was  allowed  for  the  purpose  of  stimulating  the  athletes,  and  prob- 
ably prizes  were  awarded  for  it. 

A  stone  discovered  at  Chios  bears  on  its  face  the  names  of  many 
musical  victors.  It  shows  that  prizes  were  awarded  for  reading 
music  at  sight,  for  rhapsodizing,  for  accompanying  with  a  small  harp 
played  by  hand,  and  for  accompanying  on  the  kithara  played  partly 
by  the  left  hand  and  partly  by  a  plectrum  held  in  the  right.  Many 
lesser  festivals,  such  as  the  Panathenaea,  had  their  musical  contests. 
Pericles  gave  much  encouragement  to  music,  and  erected  the  Odeon 
for  musical  events.  This  building  had  a  dome-shaped  roof,  which 
gave  it  excellent  acoustic  properties. 

The  power  of  music  among  the  ancient  Greeks  was  most  marked. 


20  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

We  read  of  Terpander  singing  away  the  Spartan  dissensions;  Tyr- 
tasus  arousing  that  same  people  to  martial  glory;  or  Solon  inspiring 
the  defeated  Athenians  to  retake  Salamis.  In  these  songs  the  words 
were  naturally  of  very  pointed  significance;  but  there  was  a  rever- 
ence for  the  compelling  power  of  music  that  does  not  exist  to-day. 
Even  though  our  music  may  be  far  more  involved  and  developed 
than  that  of  Greece,  modem  auditors  are  not  swayed  by  music  as 
were  the  Greeks  and  a  few  other  primitive  races.  Orpheus  and  the 
Sirens  could  have  been  evolved  only  among  a  people  strongly  in- 
fluenced by  the  tonal  art. 

That  music  was  cherished  in  many  ways  is  shown  by  the  example 
of  Polycrates,  who  kept  a  boy  choir  at  his  court  in  Samos  to  sing 
sweet  Lydian  melodies  during  his  meals.  But  the  most  pleasing 
picture  in  Greek  music  was  perhaps  the  spectacle  of  Sappho  at 
Mitylene,  training  her  school  of  fair  young  Grecians  in  the  mysteri- 
ous power  of  poetry,  song,  and  instrumental  music. 

Rome  adopted  Grecian  cultivation,  and  was  only  slightly  original 
in  music.  Trumpets  were  more  varied  in  form,  as  befitted  a  martial 
people.  The  hydraulic  organ  has  been  mentioned  already.  With  the 
Romans,  the  tibia,  or  flute  (often  with  reed  mouthpiece  like  a  clari- 
net), usurped  the  prominent  position  that  the  lyre  held  in  Greece. 
The  tibia  was  used  in  all  religious  ceremonies  except  those  of 
Bacchus,  which  demanded  the  kithara;  so  Mendelssohn  showed  his- 
torical accuracy  in  using  flutes  prominently  for  the  chorus  "0  be 
gracious,  ye  Immortals,"  in  "St.  Paul."  Flute-players  were  used 
at  Roman  funerals,  and  in  such  ostentatious  numbers  that  a  sump- 
tuary law  was  passed  limiting  their  number  to  ten. 

The  flute-players  formed  a  guild,  or  union;  and  Valerius  Maximus 
gives  an  anecdote  showing  their  power.  When  the  musicians  were 
once  excluded  from  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  where  they  had  previously 
been  allowed  to  take  their  meals,  the  whole  guild  left  Rome  in  pro- 
test, and  went  to  the  neighboring  locality  of  Tibur.  Without  them 
it  was  almost  impossible  to  carry  on  many  of  the  religious  and  public 
ceremonies.  The  Senate  therefore  sent  messengers  to  ask  their  re- 
turn. When  the  strikers  remained  inflexible,  the  wily  messengers 
persuaded  the  people  of  Tibur  to  give  a  feast  in  honor  of  their  visi- 
tors; and  before  the  musicians  could  "sober  up"  from  the  effects 
of  this  feast,  they  were  bundled  into  chariots  and  brought  back  to 


GREECE  AND  ROME  21 

Rome.  They  received  all  their  former  privileges,  with  new  ones  in 
addition;  but  at  certain  public  performances  after  this  event  they 
always  masked  themselves,  to  show  their  shame  at  their  inglorious 
return. 

Rome  had  her  games,  but  at  these,  as  in  the  military  triumphs, 
the  musical  effects  were  striking  and  colossal  rather  than  artistic. 
The  music  of  private  establishments  was  probably  better  in  quality; 
and  Apuleius,  after  hearing  some  of  this,  gave  high  praise  to  the  com- 
bination of  flutes,  kitharas,  and  voices.  The  Roman  plays  were  ac- 
companied by  gently  flowing  flute  music,  which  was  pleasing  enough; 
but  in  later  times  this  too  grew  more  devoted  to  effects  of  display. 
In  the  later  days  of  the  Empire,  there  was  a  great  demand  for  Gadi- 
tanian  singers  or  dancers.  These  came  from  the  neighborhood  of 
the  modern  Cadiz,  which  still  supplies  tenor  vocalists.  Many  of  the 
theatrical  performers  were  slaves,  and  were  subjected  to  the  most 
stringent  rules  to  prevent  them  from  spoiling  their  voices  by  excesses. 

The  dance,  especially  in  pantomime  form,  reached  a  high  state  of 
perfection  in  ancient  Rome.  A  certain  dancer  was  once  told  by 
Demetrius  the  Cynic  that  his  art  was  merely  an  adjunct  to  music; 
whereupon  the  dancer  made  the  instruments  stop,  and  enacted  the 
subject  of  Mars  and  Venus  with  such  skill  that  Demetrius  was 
forced  to  withdraw  his  reproach.  On  another  occasion  a  prince  of 
Pontus  was  entertained  by  Nero.  The  prince  could  not  understand 
Latin,  and  did  not  enjoy  the  plays  given  for  him.  But  he  admired 
the  pantomimes  greatly.  When  Nero  wished  him  to  name  a  parting 
gift,  he  asked  for  the  dancer  who  had  appeared  in  these  spectacles, 
explaining  that  an  artist  so  gifted  in  physical  expression  would 
make  an  invaluable  interpreter. 

Nero  himself  cultivated  music  with  marked  assiduity,  even  prac- 
tising breathing  in  a  recumbent  position  with  weights  placed  upon 
him.  In  his  own  estimation  he  was  a  great  artist,  though  in  reality 
his  voice  was  rather  thin  and  husky.  He  used  to  contrive  to  have  his 
friends  ask  him  to  sing,  and  would  accept  princely  fees  for  his  ap- 
pearance. When  a  soothsayer  once  told  him  that  he  would  some- 
time find  himself  deserted  by  all  his  friends,  he  replied,  "An  artist 
can  earn  his  living  in  any  coimtry."  When  he  appeared  publicly,  his 
soldiers  prevented  the  audience  from  leaving;  though  some  jumped 
from  windows,  and  others  feigned  death  in  order  to  be  carried  out. 


22  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Inattention  was  severely  punished;  and  when  Vespasian  was  caught 
asleep  at  such  an  event,  his  friends  had  hard  work  to  save  his  life. 
Nero  once  made  a  tour  of  the  Grecian  games.  There  he  bribed 
better  artists  to  withdraw;  and  one  of  these,  proving  obdurate,  was 
forced  aside  and  killed  by  his  soldiers.  Naturally  under  such  condi- 
tions he  was  always  awarded  the  prize.  He  did  not  fiddle  while 
Rome  burned,  because  the  ancients  had  no  violins;  but  he  ascended  a 
tower,  and  was  moved  to  sing  "The  Destruction  of  Troy,"  accom- 
panying himself  on  the  lyre.  When  his  enemies  revolted,  he  con- 
sidered winning  back  their  allegiance  by  singing  pathetic  songs  to 
them.  When  Rome  rebelled,  he  tried  to  placate  it  by  offering  to  ap- 
pear in  many  musical  events  in  the  approaching  public  games;  but 
somehow  the  city  declined  his  offer.  When  he  fled,  he  was  much 
rankled  by  being  called  "that  pitiful  harper";  and  he  kept  asking 
his  few  comrades  if  anyone  could  play  better  than  he  could.  Before 
his  suicide,  he  exclaimed,  "What  an  artist  the  world  will  now  lose!" 
There  was  undoubtedly  some  beauty  in  the  Roman  music;  but 
on  the  whole,  this  feature  was  overshadowed  by  the  display  of  the 
games  and  triumphs.  When  Ambrose  arranged  the  church  modes, 
he  took  them  from  Grecian  rather  than  from  Roman  sources. 


m 

EARLY  CHRISTIAN  MUSIC 

While  Roman  music  went  on  its  way  from  simplicity  to  bombast 
and  then  to  decay,  a  new  force  arose  in  music  —  the  worship  of  the 
Christian  Church. 

In  the  earliest  days  of  the  Church,  the  music  was  of  a  simple  but 
effective  character.  Most  of  the  converts  were  of  the  humbler 
classes,  and  so  not  well  versed  in  the  intricacies  of  the  Greek  modes. 
The  music  they  adopted  for  their  chanting  and  singing  was  therefore 
simple  and  expressive  rather  than  involved.  It  is  probable  that  the 
hymns  which  echoed  in  the  days  of  services  in  the  catacombs  were 
not  greatly  different  in  style  from  those  in  our  modem  hymnals. 

According  to  a  report  of  the  Proconsul  Pliny,  made  for  the 
Emperor  Trajan,  the  singing  was  at  first  individual.  Pliny  wrote  of 
the  Christians,  "They  claim  that  their  only  fault  or  error  consists 
of  this,  —  they  convene  at  stated  days,  before  sunrise,  and  sing, 
each  in  turn,  a  song  to  Christ  as  to  a  God."  But  it  is  possible  that 
the  word  invicem,  or  "in  turn,"  referred  only  to  responsive  chanting 
of  the  Scriptures;  for  in  the  time  of  Origen,  in  the  second  century, 
the  whole  congregation  sang  together.  St.  John  Chrysostom  de- 
scribes this  practice  in  the  words:  "The  psalms  which  we  sing  unite 
all  the  voices  in  one,  and  the  canticles  arise  harmoniously  in  unison. 
Young  and  old,  rich  and  poor,  women,  men,  slaves,  and  citizens,  all 
of  us  have  formed  but  one  melody  together."  The  custom  of  allow- 
ing women  to  sing  with  men  in  the  psalms  lasted  until  the  Synod  of 
Antioch  abolished  it,  in  the  year  379.  At  least  one  woman  became 
publicly  identified  with  music  before  that;  for  a  noble  Roman  con- 
vert named  Cecilia,  afterwards  made  a  saint,  is  described  by  writers 
of  the  second  century,  when  she  lived,  as  having  "lifted  up  her  voice 
in  praise  of  the  Lord."  Some  accounts  state  that  she  became  a 
martyr  to  her  faith  under  the  Prefect  Almacus;  but  that  gentleman's 
name  is  not  to  be  found  in  any  historical  narrative. 

The  rise  of  choir-singing  came  about  somewhat  as  in  the  case  of 


£4  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

the  Puritans  in  Massachusetts.  Some  of  the  congregation  would 
naturally  sing  better  than  others,  and  the  experts  would  gradually 
gather  in  one  spot,  where  their  voices  would  lead  while  others  fol- 
lowed or  became  silent  altogether.  Paid  singers  existed  as  early  as 
the  second  century.  Gradually  they  came  to  disregard  the  simple 
and  expressive  style,  and  to  indulge  in  brilliancy  to  arouse  admira- 
tion. It  was  probably  to  remedy  this  state  of  affairs  that  Pope 
Sylvester  I  founded  a  singing-school  at  Rome  in  the  year  320.  At 
that  time,  too,  a  special  place  was  assigned  to  the  choir.  In  A.D.  481, 
the  Council  of  Laodicea  decreed  that  none  but  clerks  (called  canoni- 
cal singers)  should  be  allowed  to  sing  during  the  service.  At  this 
period  the  churches  were  ambitious  in  architecture,  and  the  arts 
of  painting  and  sculpture  combined  their  attractions  with  those  of 
music.  At  first  no  instruments  were  employed  in  the  service,  but 
gradually  the  organ  was  adopted,  and  by  the  year  450  it  was  com- 
monly used  in  Spain. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  Ambrose,  Bishop  of  Milan, 
tried  to  establish  music  on  a  definite  system.  He  adopted  from  his 
idea  of  the  Greek  modes  four  scales,  or  "tones."  These,  called 
"authentic,"  had  intervals  like  v/hite-key  scales  on  our  pianos 
beginning  with  the  notes  D,  E,  F,  and  G.  In  the  authentic  modes 
the  keynote  was  at  the  bottom,  and  the  dominant  (chief  note)  usu- 
ally a  fifth  above  it.  From  each  of  these  four  authentic  modes  Pope 
Gregory  the  Great  derived  a  plagal  (oblique)  mode,  having  the 
same  keynote,  but  with  the  scale  now  reaching  from  a  fourth  below 
the  keynote  to  a  fifth  above  it,  and  with  the  dominant  less  than  a 
fifth  above  the  keynote.  As  the  compass  of  the  average  voice  is  not 
much  over  an  octave,  the  interval  from  the  lowest  plagal  note  to  the 
highest  authentic  note  was  large  enough  to  satisfy  the  demands  of 
the  singers.  After  the  sixth  century,  four  more  modes  were  added, 
two  authentic  and  two  plagal,  on  the  intervals  of  white-key  scales 
beginning  with  C  and  with  A.  The  music  of  the  Catholic  service  has 
been  based  largely  on  these  modes  ever  since  that  time. 

Other  branches  of  the  Church  had  their  music.  The  Greek  Church 
used  much  ornamentation,  for  example,  and  sometimes  employed 
the  Byzantine  scale  (intervals  like  C,  D-flat,  E,  F,  G,  A-flat,  B, 
and  C) ;  the  Syrian  Church  had  its  own  hymns,  especially  those  by 
Ephraem  Syrus,  who  was  called  "The  Harp  of  the  Holy  Spirit"; 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  MUSIC  25 

while  the  Coptic  Church  adopted  melodies  that  were  intricate  and 
full  of  modulation.  But  the  Gregorian  was  the  only  system  that 
influenced  Europe.  It  was  tabulated  later  into  a  set  of  hexachords, 
or  six-note  groups,  with  a  semitone  in  the  middle  of  each.  The  scale 
was  diatonic  except  for  the  fact  that  some  of  these  hexachords  caused 
a  change  from  B  to  B-flat.  B-natural  was  called  durum,  or  hard,  and 
B-flat  molle,  or  soft  —  words  which  gave  rise  to  the  German  terms 
Dur  for  major  and  Moll  for  minor.  In  the  eighth  century  we  find 
Charlemagne  sending  emissaries  to  Rome  to  get  full  and  accurate 
details  on  the  methods  of  Gregorian  singing. 

The  music  at  this  time  was  sung  wholly  in  unison  or  octaves. 
Hucbald,  a  monk  of  St.  Amand  living  at  the  beginning  of  the  tenth 
century,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  systematize  part-singing. 
He  allowed  some  voices  to  sing  the  melody,  while  others  took  the 
same  melody  a  fifth  higher  or  a  fourth  lower.  This  procedure,  called 
"parallel"  motion,  would  seem  horribly  harsh  to  modem  ears. 
Probably  it  was  not  greatly  enjoyed  even  at  first;  for  in  the  next 
century  we  find  Guido  of  Arezzo  discarding  the  fifths,  and  modify- 
ing the  fourths  somewhat.  Guido,  who  died  about  1050,  was  a  noted 
singer  and  teacher.  He  had  a  famous  boy  choir,  which  sang,  among 
other  numbers,  a  hymn  to  St.  John  running  thus: 


•Utqueantlaxia     '^^^^^J:^^ 


Resonare  fibris       .{tC'(»'*T  ''  r-ki^ 

Miragestorum     S)M^^   HM,  CC^tTno^ 
Famuli  tuomm,     YOJ\t  ^^^ftf^Ki^H 
Solve  poUuti         fMiiCi/X^    M<M^^^ 
Labiireatum,      ^^^-^^Xt'tlb    X4-^Uc 
Sancte  Johannes."      yf>«,    .   ^  ^  aU-    , 

In  the  hymn  melody  it  happened  that  each  line  except  the  last  began 
a  degree  higher  than  the  preceding  line.  Guido  therefore  adopted 
the  syllables  at  the  beginning  of  the  first  six  lines  as  names  for  the 
notes  of  the  scale,  —  Ut,  Re,  Mi,  Fa,  Sol,  La.  These  names  have 
lasted  imtil  the  present,  with  Si  (or  Ti)  added  later,  and  Ut  replaced 
by  Do,  except  in  French  instrumental  music.  Thus  Guido  was  the 
inventor  of  what  is  called  solfeggio  (singing  by  note-names  instead 
of  words).  By  its  means  he  trained  his  choir  very  thoroughly;  and 
he  took  this  choir  with  him  when  called  to  Rome  in  1026  to  explain 
his  system  to  the  Pope. 
From  this  time  on,  for  more  than  four  centuries,  England  took  the 


26  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

lead  in  the  musical  advance.  The  length  of  this  period  may  be  appre- 
ciated when  we  consider  that  the  German  classics,  which  form  the 
most  important  part  of  modem  music,  were  all  created  during  the 
last  two  centuries.  The  Netherlands  were  supreme  in  the  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries,  and  Italy's  sway  lasted  only  into  the 
eighteenth,  even  then  overlapping  the  work  of  Bach  and  Handel. 

Guido  had  lessened  the  effect  of  constantly  recurring  fourths  in 
part-singing  by  allowing  two  voices  to  come  together,  when  near 
either  end  of  their  compass,  one  part  then  diverging  gradually  from 
the  other,  which  remained  stationary  until  the  interval  between  the 
two  had  reached  the  requisite  size.  Thus  was  introduced  what  is 
now  known  as  "oblique"  motion.  Between  the  date  of  his  death 
and  the  end  of  the  century,  England  had  developed  the  principle  of 
contrary  motion,  in  which  voices  or  parts  could  proceed  in  opposite 
directions,  and  had  also  made  it  allowable  for  voices  to  proceed  in 
the  same  direction  by  varying  intervals.  Thus  there  came  about  a 
sort  of  musical  declaration  of  independence,  asserting  that  all  voices 
in  part-music  were  to  be  considered  free  and  equal.  This  took  place 
before  the  year  1100,  and  is  made  clear  by  a  relic  known  as  the 
"Winchester  Troi)er,"  which  dates  from  that  year.  In  addition  to 
the  old  fourths  and  fifths,  thirds  and  sixths  were  now  used.  Hucbald 
had  given  his  system  the  name  of  organum,  while  the  newer  intervals 
were  known  under  the  title  of  fauxhourdon. 

In  the  mean  while,  musical  notation  grew  from  its  crude  begin- 
nings in  the  Dark  Ages  to  something  not  unlike  its  modem  form. 
Notation  has  been  a  most  conservative  affair.  Every  now  and  then 
some  one  proposes  a  wholly  new  system  of  writing  music;  and  most 
of  these  systems  would  be  an  improvement,  as  our  present  method 
is  rather  cumbersome.  But  the  innovations  do  not  gain  ground,  for 
the  present  system  has  the  inertia  of  many  centuries  behind  it. 

Before  the  tenth  century  no  one  had  any  idea  of  the  principle  of 
the  staff.  Music  was  at  first  learned  orally,  and  sung  to  words  in 
the  uncial  characters  that  preceded  the  black-letter.  Gradually  the 
monkish  teachers  and  pupils  began  to  invent  and  use  little  signs  to 
aid  their  memory.  The  chief  principle  of  these  signs  rested  in  the 
fact  that  a  horizontal  line  above  a  word  meant  stationary  pitch, 
a  rising  line  or  curve  meant  rising  pitch,  and  a  downward  line  falling 
pitch.  These  signs  were  supplemented  by  others  representing  trills, 


« 

C 


jtea 


' ■_ ^_ " 

dijepo l_'_^^v^ 


X 


vsmXt 


-jrJ  '^J^Ji^t^^-'^hmmTt'--^^* 


X 


Cw 


11. 


A- 


■>   =^ 


tttot©iU^ 


TT^trrrT^a 


T    JV*I 


uJjftum^mMiJ 


,ji 


tci  dtliiailtimariitnmviyeimria   e  O' 


-r 


.XUL^'l 


f; 


^. 


^JL-i_. 


T-^ 


PT 


-«X-I^ 


Ti*'^^ 


! 


c'auoti'  maUtmmic*5  mtis  mitcnctttjiu  dtgict'' 


•■•,  ^ 


:-^_^rvx^_^ 


cwein 


.T 


dc lUos   vmtctojine  its    donu  tie^^^e 

ttmiiitie  nib  fijluu  mt  tic'«Tiitfntit  uia  ladicamei 


*in;^ 


"\ 


•J  ♦ 


JV 


jM  frnnojj  .tnien.      [  'O'  ominr  dominus 


FROM  AN  OLD  .MANUSCRli'T  IX  THE  POSSESSION  OF  THE  AUTHOR 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  MUSIC  27 

turns,  and  the  various  component  parts  of  melody;  and  our  trill  and 
turn  signs,  among  other  bits  of  notation,  come  directly  from  such 
early  experiments.  These  primitive  marks  were  known  as  the 
"neumes,"  and  flourished  from  before  the  seventh  century  imtil 
well  beyond  the  tenth.  There  were  different  systems,  the  Byzantine 
neumes  being  unlike  those  used  in  western  Europe.  One  variety 
was  known  as  the  "fly- track"  notation  (pedes  muscarum),  because 
its  thickly  spread  signs  looked  like  the  marks  that  a  fly  would  make 
if  it  crawled  over  the  parchment  after  a  sojourn  in  the  ink-bottle. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  description  that  the  neumes  were 
not  an  exact  notation.  They  served  as  a  guide  to  the  memory;  they 
also  showed  if  the  voice  should  go  up  or  down;  but  they  did  not  state 
how  far  up  or  down  it  should  go.  Thus  a  specimen  of  neume  notation 
did  not  give  any  accurate  suggestion  to  the  person  seeing  it  for  the 
first  time.  Yet  modem  investigation  is  tireless,  and  men  of  the 
Riemann  type  have  shown  that  patient  research  enables  them  to 
solve  almost  all  the  signs  used  in  this  ancient  system  of  notation. 

Some  time  between  the  year  925  and  950,  an  unknown  musician 
became  dissatisfied  with  the  indefiniteness  of  the  neumes.  With 
some  red  ink,  or  pigment,  and  a  ruler,  he  made  musical  progress 
possible  by  drawing  a  single  line.  This  line  extended  through  the 
neumes  horizontally,  and  represented  the  pitch  of  the  F  below  mid- 
dle C.  Now  all  the  notes  above  F  could  be  represented  by  signs 
above  the  line,  and  lower  notes  by  signs  below  it.  The  principle 
worked  so  well  that  another  line  was  added  soon  after,  perhaps  by 
the  same  man.  The  second  line,  green  or  yellow  in  color,  represented 
the  C  above  the  F,  and  was  marked,  like  the  earlier  line,  with  its 
proper  letter.  This  F  and  C  are  still  with  us  to-day,  having  changed 
their  form  only  sHghtly  to  become  the  F  and  C  clefs  of  the  present, 
which  are  put  on  the  beginning  of  a  staff  to  show  the  position  of  the 
notes  F  or  C.  Two  other  lines  were  then  added,  making  a  four-lined 
staff. 

Other  attempts  at  staff-notation  had  been  made,  either  independ- 
ently or  as  a  result  of  the  lines  through  the  neumes.  The  chief  one 
was  perhaps  the  work  of  Hucbald,  who  died  in  932.  It  employed  the 
principle  of  a  staff  of  many  lines,  but  in  this  staff  only  the  spaces 
were  used.  These  spaces,  too,  did  not  contain  notes,  but  actual 
words,  each  syllable  being  written  in  the  space  showing  the  pitch 


S8  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

at  which  it  was  to  be  sung.  The  spaces  of  Hucbald's  staff  were 
marked  by  the  old  but  clumsy  method  of  using  four  Greek  letters, 
the  pitch  varying  when  they  were  placed  sidewise  or  upside  down. 
In  this  system  the  words  had  to  be  rewritten  in  their  proper  position 
for  each  added  part;  and  we  can  trace  Hucbald's  fourths  and  fifths 
by  following  the  lines  of  syllables  along  his  pages. 

The  first  use  of  the  four-lined  staff,  which  lasted  through  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,  has  been  ascribed  to  Guido,  though  probably  it  took  place 
before  his  day.  The  third  line  of  this  staff  represented  A,  and  was 
between  F  and  C,  while  the  fourth  line  was  either  above  or  below 
the  other  three,  specimens  of  old  missals  showing  both  cases,  and 
usually  having  the  F  and  C  marked  on  each  staff.  Thus  both  lines 
and  spaces  were  used;  and  the  gradual  adoption  of  a  fifth  line  gave 
us  the  staff  of  to-day.  For  the  non-musician,  it  may  be  stated  that 
while  the  F  and  the  later  G  are  marked  in  definite  places  on  our 
staff,  by  clefs  which  grew  from  the  old  forms  of  those  letters,  we  have 
also  a  relic  of  the  movable  letters  in  the  C  clef,  which  may  be  put  on 
almost  any  line  of  the  staff. 

At  first  the  lines,  and  even  the  staff,  were  used  with  the  neumes. 
But  gradually  the  latter  gave  way  to  notes,  and  we  find  Franco  of 
Cologne  giving  these  notes  a  definite  value  in  his  thirteenth-century 
treatise  on  measured  music.  The  early  plain-song  (Gregorian  chant- 
ing) showed  little  variety  of  rhythm.  But  gradually,,  as  music  was 
more  widely  used,  the  need  for  the  notation  of  rhythm  resulted,  and 
attempts  to  represent  it  were  made.  After  the  adoption  of  measured 
notes,  there  came  a  division  of  music  into  triple  or  double  rhythms. 
The  former,  being  typical  of  the  holy  Trinity,  was  called  "perfect 
rhythm,"  and  marked  by  a  circle.  The  latter,  being  only  two  thirds 
of  the  triple  rhythm,  was  marked  by  two  thirds  of  the  circle;  and 
this  broken  circle  has  been  mistakenly  transformed  into  the  letter  C, 
which  is  now  used  as  a  time-signature  for  four-quarter  rhythm.  It 
is  not  really  a  C,  and  therefore  cannot  be  the  initial  of  what  is  known 
as  "common  time."  There  was  a  further  division  of  each  beat  into 
triple  or  double  rhythm,  this  subdivision  being  called  the  "prola- 
tion."  The  major,  or  triple,  prolation  was  accepted  if  no  sign  was 
present,  while  the  minor,  or  duple,  prolation,  was  called  for  by  a  dot 
placed  in  the  middle  of  the  perfect  or  broken  circle.  Thus  the  circle 
practically  called  for  f  time;  the  broken  circle  forf;  the  circle  with 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  MUSIC 


29 


a  dot  in  it  meant  a  rhythm  corresponding  to  3/4  time  with  s^'x  eighth 
notes  in  a  measure;  while  the  broken  circle  with  the  dot  was  the  same 
as  our  4/4  time.  There  was  no  bar-line  then ;  it  did  not  come  into  use 
until  after  the  Middle  Ages,  and  no  one  knows  who  introduced  it. 
But  the  bar  was,  of  course,  needless  if  the  notes  were  fairly  equal  in 
value,  and  the  melodies  not  too  disjointed. 

The  notes  adopted  by  Franco,  and  also  by  the  English  musician 
named  Walter  Odington,  were  in  part  derived  from  the  neumes.  The 
latter  offered  the  virga  and  the  punctum,  which  were  now  changed 
into  the  longa  and  hrevis.  The  maxima  was  made  a  double  longa,  and 
the  semibrevis  half  the  hrevis.  The  minima,  semiminima,  fusa,  and 
semifusa  were  adopted  gradually  after  the  year  1300.  In  major  pro- 
lation  a  longa  was  equal  to  three  breves  instead  of  two. 


Brevis.  Semibrevis. 


Virga.  Punctum.  Maxima.  Longa. 


Minima. 


Semiminima. 


Fusa. 


Semifusa. 


F-cIef.  G-clef. 


T. 

Do- 

T. 

mini 

T. 

Sit 

oria 

in 

ula 

S. 

glo- 

Do- 

saec- 

T. 

mini 

T. 

Sit 

oria 

in 

ula 

S. 

glo- 

saec- 

Music  at  the  end  of  the  eleventh  and  beginning  of  the  twelfth 
century  was  in  a  rather  mixed  state.  Some  composers  kept  to  the 
strict  rules  of  the  organum  for  the  most  part;  while  others  began  to 
work  in  a  freer  style,  as  if  obeying  the  old  rule  of  Aristoxenus,  that 


80  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

"whatever  sounds  good,  is  good."  In  the  Ambrosian  Library  at 
Milan  there  is  an  old  treatise,  called  "Ad  Organum  faciendum," 
which  dates  from  about  the  year  1100.  This  contains  examples  of 
very  free  part-writing,  the  voices  at  times  making  bold  skips,  or 
crossing  each  other,  even  when  the  harmony  is  only  two-part. 

The  growth  of  the  principle  of  imitation  marked  a  great  step  for- 
ward toward  the  contrapimtal  forms.  The  charm  of  such  imitation 
gradually  led  to  canonic  writing,  in  which  the  parts  follow  one  an- 
other; and  that  was  almost  surely  the  first  form  of  artistic  composi- 
tion. An  early  suggestion  of  imitation  is  found  in  an  old  French 
manuscript,  the  work  being  probably  composed  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. It  consists  of  a  low  voice  singing  the  words,  apparently  an  old 
hymn,  "  Custodi  nos,"  while  the  two  upper  voices  that  are  set  against 
it  give  clear  imitation,  approaching  the  canonic  style.  As  will  be 
shown  in  a  later  section,  the  canon  consists  of  a  melody  used  as  its 
own  accompaniment  in  other  voices,  the  theme  entering  at  different 
times  in  each  voice.  The  simplest  examples  of  this  style  are  the 
familiar  part-songs  known  as  "rounds." 

In  the  thirteenth  century  certain  composers  began  to  appreciate 
what  we  call  "double  counterpoint,"  in  which  two  voices  change 
their  relative  positions  and  repeat  their  themes  in  a  new  relative 
location.  But  the  first  contrapuntal  form  to  develop  fully  was  the 
canon.  This  may  be  seen  from  the  old  English  rota,  or  round, 
"Sumer  is  icumen  in,"  which  is  described  in  a  later  chapter. 

Further  development  of  notation  caused  the  rounded  6  (at  first 
meaning  our  B-flat)  to  be  used  as  a  sign  for  any  fiat.  The  Germans 
still  speak  of  our  B-flat  as  B ;  and  as  they  mistook  the  square  B  for 
an  H,  they  use  the  latter  letter  to  designate  our  B-natural.  The 
square  B  gave  rise  to  the  sign  for  any  natural.  The  sharp  was  at 
first  a  cross,  and  is  still  called  so  in  Germany.  Originally  it  merely 
neutralized  a  flat,  but  soon  it  assumed  its  present  significance.  The 
bar-line  was  introduced  early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  the 
grouping  of  notes  just  before  the  eighteenth. 


IV 

THE  MINSTREL  KNIGHTS 

The  Minnesingers  (love-poets)  of  Germany  are  said  to  have  begun 
their  career  under  Frederick  Barbarossa,  in  the  last  half  of  the 
twelfth  century.  But  the  first  of  their  number,  Henry  of  Veldig,  is 
the  author  of  a  poem  lamenting  the  decadence  of  the  Minnesinger's 
art;  so  we  are  forced  to  consider  its  real  origin  as  of  an  earlier  date. 

The  Minnesingers  were  minstrel  knights,  such  as  Wagner  pictured 
in  his  opera  "Tannhauser."  There  is  said  to  have  been  an  actual 
tournament  of  song  on  the  Wartburg,  as  in  Wagner's  opera;  and  the 
names  that  he  used  were  real.  The  Suabian  Court  was  the  centre  of 
the  Minnesinger's  art,  and  the  Suabian  language  was  used,  though 
the  minstrel  poets  came  from  all  parts  of  the  empire.  So  highly  was 
their  position  rated  that  nobles  and  princes  were  proud  to  be  known 
as  Minnesingers. 

As  may  be  judged  from  the  name,  many  of  the  poems  of  these 
knightly  minstrels  were  love-songs.  Some  of  them  were  ideal  in  their 
purity  of  sentiment,  while  others  were  less  lofty  in  style.  Examples 
of  the  former  class  are  found  in  the  works  of  Henry  of  Meissen,  con- 
sidered the  last  of  the  Minnesingers.  He  became  so  noted  for  his 
homage  to  the  nobler  qualities  of  womanhood  that  he  was  given  the 
name  of  "  Frauenlob,"  or  "Praise-of- Women";  and  when  his  funeral 
took  place,  numbers  of  high-bom  ladies  followed  to  his  open  grave, 
and  each  cast  a  flower  into  it  until  it  was  overflowing  with  blossoms. 

In  their  more  personal  love-songs,  the  Germans  did  not  usually 
go  to  the  same  lengths  as  the  more  ardent  Troubadours  of  France. 
Yet  there  must  have  been  some  degree  of  amorous  adventure,  and 
the  latter  is  reflected  in  the  so-called  Wachtlieder  (watch-songs).  In 
these  a  knight  may  plead  with  a  watchman  for  secret  admittance  to 
a  castle;  or  the  watchman  may  warn  the  knight  of  impending  danger 
or  discovery. 

Such  songs  were  all  set  to  music,  and  sung  by  the  knights,  who 
would  accompany  themselves  on  a  small  harp. 


32  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

The  school  of  epic  poetry,  correspondmg  with  that  of  the  Trou- 
vdres  in  France,  is  represented  by  such  works  as  the  "Nibelungen- 
Lied,"  or  the  "Parsifal"  of  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach. 

From  this  period  also  come  many  short  proverbs  and  epigrams. 
Among  these  were  couplets;  such  as 

"The  king  must  die, 
And  so  must  I." 

There  were  also  sage  bits  of  advice ;  such  as  "  Never  borrow  trouble," 
or  "  Don't  set  the  wolf  to  guard  the  sheep." 

The  art  of  the  Minnesingers  displayed  itself  also  in  fables  and 
brief  allegorical  stories.  There  were  many  historical  tales  too. 

A  short  bit  of  verse  is  quoted  here  (ascribed  to  Frederick  II)  to 
show  what  was  considered  of  excellence  at  the  time.  It  runs  thus:  — 

"I  like  a  cavalier  Frances, 

And  a  Catalonian  dame; 
The  courtesy  of  the  Genoese, 

And  Castilian  dignity; 
The  Provence  songs,  my  ears  to  please, 

And  the  dance  of  the  Trevisan; 
The  graceful  form  of  the  Arragonese, 

And  the  pearl  of  the  Julian; 
An  English  face  and  hands  to  see, 

And  a  page  of  Tuscany." 

The  freedom  of  thought  and  speech  permitted  by  the  House  of 
Suabiadid  much  to  encourage  poetry  and  music.  But  with  the  down- 
fall of  that  house,  in  the  year  1256,  the  Church  regained  power,  and 
the  current  of  free  thought  became  diverted  into  an  art  whose  chief 
aim  was  to  make  paraphrases  of  the  Scriptures,  in  bad  German  or 
worse  Latin. 

The  Meistersingers  (master-singers),  who  followed  the  Minne- 
singers, were  not  the  equal  of  their  predecessors  in  poetic  inspiration. 
Their  name  may  have  come  from  the  fact  that  a  Minnesinger  who 
was  not  of  noble  birth  was  called  a  Meister;  but  it  is  also  similar  to 
the  name  given  to  the  leaders  in  all  the  guilds.  The  Meistersingers 
flourished  in  the  great  and  growing  cities,  and  were  tradespeople 
rather  than  nobles.  Again  we  find  Wagner  giving  a  wonderfully 
faithful  picture  of  early  times  in  his  opera  (music-drama,  he  called 
it)  "Die  Meistersinger  von  Numberg."  Nuremberg  was  an  impor- 
tant centre  for  these  humble  but  earnest  poet-musicians,  and  was 


THE  MINSTREL  KNIGHTS  8S 

also  the  home  of  Hans  Sachs,  whose  excellent  plays  and  farces  repre- 
sent the  best  work  of  this  period.  The  characters  in  Wagner's 
libretto  (which  he  wrote  himself,  and  which  is  now  a  textbook  in 
German  schools)  were  real  in  their  day,  and  their  names  may  be 
found  in  the  old  records.  The  picture  of  petty  rules  is  also  entirely 
correct,  for  the  Meistersingers  classified  their  poetic  and  musical 
methods  in  a  very  strict  and  detailed  fashion.  This  adherence  to 
rules  interfered  seriously  with  free  inspiration,  for  in  their  trials  of 
skill  there  was  always  a  hidden  "marker"  (as  in  the  opera),  to  keep 
a  record  of  any  technical  mistakes.  So  far  as  we  know,  the  Meister- 
singer  movement  originated  soon  after  the  year  1300,  at  Mayence. 
It  flourished  until  1600,  after  which  it  became  unimportant.  The 
last  Meistersinger  society,  that  of  Ulm,  was  not  disbanded  until 
1839,  and  its  last  siirviving  member  lived  imtil  1876.  The  Meister- 
singer music  had  little  real  effect.  It  may  have  influenced  the  cho- 
rales of  the  Reformation,  but  these  were  far  stronger  in  character. 
Except  for  a  few  of  the  tunes,  or  "tones,"  which  Wagner  used  so 
wonderfully  in  his  opera,  it  is  wholly  out  of  date. 

The  Troubadours,  and  in  some  sense  the  Trouvdres  (both  words 
meaning  "finders"  or  "inventors"),  are  considered  to  have  devel- 
oped their  art  from  Moorish  models  as  foimd  in  Spain,  or  at  the 
Crusades,  or  in  various  other  ways.  Some  Celtic  and  ancient  Roman 
influences  may  have  played  their  part,  but  if  so  it  was  a  subordinate 
one.  The  styles  of  song,  the  instruments,  and  even  some  of  the 
names,  show  a  Moorish  origin. 

The  first  of  the  Troubadours  is  held  to  have  been  William  IX, 
Count  of  Poitou  and  Duke  of  Acquitaine.  He  had  some  influence  on 
England  as  well  as  on  France,  for  his  war-cry  of  "St.  George"  was 
adopted  by  England,  as  well  as  his  granddaughter  Eleanor  of 
Acquitaine,  who  married  Henry  II.  The  leopard  crest  of  the  early 
English  kings  was  another  legacy  from  William  of  Poitou.  This 
pioneer  died  in  1127. 

The  poetry  of  the  Troubadours  was  written  in  the  so-called 
"Langue  d'oc,"  in  which  the  word  "oc,"  meaning  "yes,"  distin- 
guished it  from  the  northern  French  "Langue  d'oil,"  and  the  Italian 
"  Lingua  di  si."  The  poems  were  of  various  forms,  though  in  general 
those  of  the  Provengal  Troubadours  were  short,  while  those  of  the 
northern  Trouveres  were  long  stories  similar  to  epics. 


84  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

The  Verse  was  a  short  form  of  free  style,  though  it  might  consist  of 
seven  couplets.  The  Chanson  also  was  free  in  style,  but  usually 
divided  into  stanzas.  The  Sonnet,  too,  was  free,  the  term  signifying 
lyric,  or  song,  without  any  of  the  later  division  into  rhymed  lines. 
The  Couplet,  or  Stanza,  was  a  general  class  of  verse,  signifying  love- 
songs  in  contrast  to  other  subjects.  The  Planh  was  a  dirge,  with  ten 
or  twelve  syllables  in  a  line;  usually  it  mourned  a  lost  friend  or  lover, 
though  sometimes  it  treated  of  more  public  calamities.  The  Tenson, 
or  Contention,  was  a  dialogue  in  verse,  in  which  the  two  parties 
alternated  their  stanzas,  using  the  same  rhymes  that  occurred  in  the 
first  one.  The  Tournament  consisted  of  stanzas  given  in  turn  by 
more  than  two  participants.  The  Sirvente,  or  Pasquinade,  free  in 
metre,  was  a  war-song,  or  else  an  outburst  of  satire  against  some 
enemy.  The  Sixtine  had  six  stanzas  of  six  lines  each,  with  no  rhymes 
in  the  first  one,  but  with  each  of  the  later  stanzas  using  the  end- 
words  of  the  lines  in  the  first,  but  in  different  order.  The  Discord 
was  a  free  poem  in  irregular  form,  often  using  several  languages 
in  succession.  The  Pastorelle,  or  pastoral  poem,  usually  with  short 
lines,  consisted  of  a  dialogue  between  the  Troubadour  and  a  shep- 
herdess or  shepherd;  it  often  began  with  a  description  of  the  scene, 
and  generally  displayed  a  charming  simplicity  of  style.  The  Sere- 
nade, from  sera,  or  evening,  was  an  evening  love-song,  while  the 
Aubade,  from  alha,  meaning  dawn,  was  a  morning  song  of  the  same 
character,  often  resembling  in  sentiment  Shakespeare's  "Hark, 
hark,  the  lark."  The  Ballad  was  a  somewhat  longer  form,  telling  a 
story;  and  many  of  the  Trouvere  epics  are  evidently  sets  of  ballads 
joined  together.  The  Novel  was  a  short  poem  in  free  style  recount- 
ing some  amorous  adventure.  The  Romance  was  the  name  given  to 
the  larger  epic  narratives  in  which  the  northern  French  poets  ex- 
celled ;  and  many  of  these  are  still  in  existence.  The  custom  of  adding 
an  envoi  at  the  close  of  a  poem  arose  from  the  fact  that  the  Trouba- 
dours did  not  always  sing  their  own  songs,  so  that  they  sometimes 
needed  an  envoi  to  show  their  retainers  and  minstrels  for  whom  the 
poem  was  intended,  or  even  how  it  should  be  sung. 

The  Troubadour  was  usually  of  noble  blood,  and  sometimes  even 
of  royal  station,  as  with  Richard  Cceur-de-Lion.  Only  a  very  few 
musicians  of  ordinary  birth  were  able  to  lift  themselves  from  the 
ranks  of  the  Jongleurs,  or  minstrels,  and  be  recognized  as  Trouba- 


THE  MINSTREL  KNIGHTS  85 


dours.  The  Troubadour  needed  resources  to  enable  him  to  entertam 
and  to  keep  a  sufficient  number  of  minstrels.  When  spring  came, 
after  a  winter  varied  by  martial  exercises  and  musical  composition, 
he  would  issue  forth  at  the  head  of  his  retainers,  perhaps  to  visit 
some  neighboring  castle.  There  he  would  be  entertained  sumptu- 
ously, while  his  followers  played  and  sang  his  new  songs.  Occasion- 
ally he  would  take  a  harp  from  one  of  them  and  give  a  rendering  of 
some  song  himself;  but  this  was  usually  in  a  small  gathering,  and  not 
often  in  a  crowded  hall. 

The  music  of  the  Troubadours  and  Trouveres  was  sufficiently 
refined  in  style,  and  at  the  same  time  popular  in  spirit.  Best  known 
now  as  a  composer  is  Adam  de  la  Hale,  called  the  Hunchback  of 
Arras,  who  lived  from  1240  to  1287.  He  produced,  among  other 
musical  plays,  the  "  Jeu  de  Robin  et  Marion,"  which  is  nothing  less 
than  an  early  comic  opera.  Robin  is  a  boastful  shepherd  suitor  who 
tells  the  shepherdess  Marion  he  is  afraid  of  nothing;  but  when  a 
nobleman  comes  to  pay  her  unwelcome  attentions,  Robin  turns  out 
to  be  a  coward,  and  is  received  back  only  on  sufferance.  The  music 
to  this  little  farce  is  pleasingly  fluent  in  style.  But  most  of  the  poet- 
composers  were  content  to  produce  the  words  and  music  of  single 
songs. 

As  the  Troubadours  always  chose  a  lady  as  the  object  of  their 
devotions,  their  poetry  was  often  more  personal  than  that  of  their 
German  brethren ;  and  as  the  lady  was  often  a  married  woman,  there 
was  much  more  chance  for  jealousy  and  tragedy. 

Thus  William  Cabestaing,  brought  up  in  the  castle  of  Roussillon, 
on  receiving  encoiu^gement  from  Margherita,  the  wife  of  its  lord, 
began  to  pay  poetic  and  other  attentions  to  her.  When  some  of  their 
secret  meetings  aroused  the  suspicion  of  the  castle's  lord.  Baron 
Raymond,  he  taxed  Cabestaing  with  being  in  love.  The  latter's 
poems  proved  this,  but  Cabestaing  pretended  that  it  was  Lady 
Agnes,  sister  of  Margherita,  who  had  given  him  her  love.  As  Agnes 
was  keen  enough  to  see  the  truth,  she  calmed  Raymond's  suspicions 
for  a  time  by  pretending  that  Cabestaing's  statement  was  correct. 
But  the  real  lovers  grew  more  imprudent  in  their  actions,  until 
finally  Margherita  was  rash  enough  to  have  her  idol  write  a  poem 
asserting  his  love  for  her  alone.  The  baron's  suspicions,  of  certain 
gossip  being  thus  confirmed,  he  led  Cabestaing  outside  the  castle 


36  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

and  stabbed  him  to  death.  Tearing  the  heart  out  of  the  body,  he 
took  it  to  the  castle  cook,  ordering  him  to  prepare  it  and  serve  it  to 
Margherita.  The  cook  did  so,  thinking  the  heart  was  that  of  a  deer; 
and  the  lady  ate  it  with  the  same  idea,  and  praised  its  delicious  flavor. 
Raymond  then  explained  to  her  what  her  meal  had  been,  and  showed 
her  the  head  of  the  man  whose  heart  she  had  just  eaten.  She  fainted 
away;  but  on  recovering,  she  said,  "Yes,  barbarian,  I  have  found 
that  meat  so  delicate  and  beautiful  that,  for  fear  I  may  ever  lose  the 
taste  of  it,  I  will  eat  no  more  as  long  as  I  live."  Raymond  drew  his 
sword  and  rushed  at  her  in  anger;  whereupon  she  fled,  and  jumped 
to  death  from  the  castle  walls  rather  than  let  herself  be  killed  by  him. 

But  not  all  ladies  were  so  imprudent.  Thus  Marie  de  Ventadour, 
noted  for  her  wisdom  and  good  character  as  well  as  her  beauty,  once 
found  herself  the  tai'get  of  too  pronounced  attention  from  the  adven- 
turous Gaucelm  Faidit,  who  was  staying  at  her  castle.  As  she  feared 
his  evil  and  sarcastic  tongue,  she  resorted  to  stratagem  to  get  rid  of 
him.  She  took  coimsel  with  a  friend,  Madame  de  Malamort,  who 
agreed  to  act  as  directed.  Then  she  refused  Gaucelm's  attentions 
definitely.  He  departed  in  anger,  but  had  gone  only  a  little  way  when 
a  messenger  overtook  him  and  asked  whether  he  preferred  a  little 
bird  in  the  hand  or  a  crane  flying  high  in  the  air.  His  curiosity  was 
so  much  aroused  that  he  let  himself  be  led  back,  and  was  taken  to 
Madame  de  Malamort.  This  lady  explained  that  she  was  the  bird 
in  hand,  while  Marie,  who  would  not  respond  to  him,  was  the  unat- 
tainable crane  flying  high  in  air.  Gaucelm  then  agreed  to  transfer 
his  devotion,  and  was  asked  in  return  to  take  formal  leave  of  Marie's 
affections.  This  he  did  in  a  dignified  poem,  far  gentler  than  might 
otherwise  have  been  expected.  But  when  the  poem  was  made  known, 
he  found  that  Madame  de  Malamort  grew  suddenly  cold  to  his  devo- 
tion, and  withdrew  all  semblance  of  encouragement.  But  much  as 
he  was  chagrined,  it  was  too  late  for  him  to  indulge  in  any  sarcasm 
at  Marie's  expense.  Incidentally,  Faidit  was  well  known  as  a  poet, 
and  was  patronized  by  King  Richard  of  England,  for  whose  death 
he  wrote  a  most  touching  Planh,  or  dirge. 

But  true  love  sometimes  ran  smoothly.  Rambaud  de  Vaqueiras, 
who  was  brought  up  in  the  home  of  the  Marquis  of  Montferrat,  soon 
became  devoted  to  his  master's  sister  Beatrix  del  Carat.  She  was 
an  athletic  beauty;  and  once,  when  her  brother  accidentally  left  a 


THE  MINSTREL  KNIGHTS  37 

sword  in  her  room,  she  threw  off  her  dress,  donned  a  buckler,  and 
began  to  wield  the  weapon  with  much  delight.  She  thought  herself 
unobserved,  but  a  partly  open  door  had  enabled  Rambaud  to  see 
the  entire  performance.  Thereafter  he  celebrated  her  in  many  beau- 
tiful poems  as  "Le  bel  Cavalier."  When  unable  to  keep  his  love 
for  her  silent,  he  spoke  to  her  as  if  asking  for  advice.  "  Madame,"  he 
began,  "vouchsafe  to  give  me  your  opinion.  I  love  a  lady  of  superla- 
tive charms.  I  converse  with  her  continually  without  letting  her 
know  the  state  of  my  feelings.  Tell  me,  ought  I  to  die  of  love,  for 
fear  of  revealing  myself  to  her?"  Beatrix  then  answered,  "By  no 
means.  I  advise  you  to  declare  your  love,  and  to  request  the  lady 
to  retain  you  as  her  lover  and  her  troubadour.  If  she  is  wise,  she  will 
certainly  not  take  it  amiss,  but  will  think  herself  honored;  for,  be- 
lieve me,  you  are  so  lovable  and  noble  in  yourself  that  there  is  no 
lady  in  the  world  who  ought  not  freely  to  receive  you  as  her  knight." 
"Then,  madame,"  said  Rambaud,  "you  are  the  lady." 
"Then,  Rambaud,"  said  Beatrix,  "you  are  my  knight." 
Before  returning  to  the  musical  side  of  this  period,  it  may  be  par- 
donable to  add  that  the  devotion  of  the  Troubadours  often  took 
fantastic  forms.  Thus  Geoffrey  Rudel,  who  is  the  subject  of  one  of 
Browning's  poems,  did  actually  die  of  love.  Hearing  of  the  beauty 
and  virtues  of  the  Countess  of  Tripoli,  he  decided  to  devote  himself 
to  her,  although  he  had  never  seen  her.  He  wrote  poems  in  her 
praise,  and  questioned  returning  travellers  about  her.  After  a  long 
time  he  decided  to  embark  and  sail  to  her  home,  intending  to  throw 
himself  at  her  feet.  Whether  his  health  was  poor,  or  whether  the 
excitement  was  too  much  for  him,  it  is  a  fact  that  on  landing  he  fell 
down  as  if  near  death,  and  was  carried  to  a  neighboring  house. 
Meanwhile  his  companions  had  told  the  countess  of  his  devotion, 
and  brought  her  to  him.  He  was  actually  dying,  but  he  managed 
to  take  her  hand  and  say,  "  Most  illustrious  princess,  I  will  not  com- 
plain of  death.  I  have  seen  you,  and  thus  achieved  the  sole  object, 
the  sole  desire  of  my  life."  Then  he  expired  in  her  arms;  and  she 
afterwards  had  a  magnificent  tomb  prepared  for  him. 

Pierre  Vidal,  apparently  a  Don  Quixote  among  the  Troubadours, 
fell  in  love  with  a  girl  named  Louve  de  Penautier.  As  Louve  was  the 
feminine  for  wolf,  he  at  once  adopted  the  word  "Loup,"  or  he-wolf, 
as  his  name.   In  order  to  prove  his  earnestness  in  the  matter,  he 


S8  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

dressed  himself  in  a  wolf's  hide  and  had  his  friends  and  retainers 
bring  dogs  to  hunt  him.  The  himt  was  by  no  means  a  farce,  for  he 
kept  on  running  until  the  dogs  caught  him  and  fastened  then-  teeth 
in  him.  He  was  rescued  in  time,  and  no  doubt  cured  by  his  lady- 
love, to  whose  honor  he  probably  considered  his  wounds  a  great 
tribute. 

More  touching  is  the  story  of  William  de  la  Tour.  He  married  a 
girl  of  low  degree  because  of  her  charms,  and  loved  her  dearly.  After 
her  untimely  death,  he  gave  orders  that  her  tomb  should  be  so  built 
that  it  could  be  opened  at  will.  When  this  was  done,  he  would  open 
the  tomb  everj''  night  and  converse  with  her  body,  imagining  that  it 
was  alive.  Later  on  he  came  to  know  that  she  was  dead,  but  believed 
that  she  would  rise  again  if  he  said  prayers  enough,  which  he  gal- 
lantly undertook  to  do. 

The  so-called  "Courts  of  Love"  were  presided  over  by  ladies  of 
rank,  such  as  Queen  Eleanor,  or  the  Countess  of  Champagne.  These 
courts,  in  which  a  number  of  women  aided  in  discussion,  decided 
upon  questions  of  amorous  etiquette.  Thus  a  certain  knight  had 
loved  a  lady  from  girlhood;  and  during  her  younger  days  she  had 
extracted  the  promise  that  the  knight  should  kiss  her  every  time  he 
came  to  see  her.  When  grown  up  she  denied  him  the  privilege,  say- 
ing that  she  had  been  too  young  to  understand  what  the  promise 
would  involve.  He  then  brought  the  matter  before  a  court  of  love, 
which  decided  in  his  favor. 

Another  case,  tried  before  Queen  Eleanor,  had  to  do  with  a  lady 
who  accepted  a  knight's  gifts  but  rebuffed  his  attentions.  Eleanor 
gave  the  verdict  for  the  knight,  and  said  that  the  lady  should  have 
refused  his  gifts  or  given  him  back  something  of  equal  value. 

Of  much  interest  also  are  the  so-called  "  Essenhamens,"  or  poems 
on  manners  and  customs,  intended  for  training  in  etiquette.  One 
such  is  by  Amaneius  des  Escas.  It  begins  by  telling  how  a  lady  of 
position,  at  some  great  court,  sought  out  the  poet  for  advice.  He 
told  her  at  first  that  she  must  know  ten  times  as  much  as  he  did ;  but 
apparently  he  overcame  his  scruples,  for  he  laimched  into  a  long 
discourse  of  "What-to-dos"  and  "Don'ts."  He  treated  such  per- 
sonal subjects  as  washing,  care  of  teeth,  care  of  nails,  and  dressing, 
as  well  as  modest  personal  bearing  and  courtly  discourse.  Incident- 
ally, women's  accomplishments  were  then  held  to  be  cooking,  sewing, 


THE  MINSTREL  KNIGHTS  S9 

surgery,  and  chess,  the  first  two  helping  her  to  oversee  and  admin- 
ister a  household  of  retainers,  while  the  last  two  were  for  the  care 
and  amusement  of  noble  visitors.  A  German  etiquette  book  of  this 
time  asserts  that  when  a  man  enters  a  room,  the  women  should  rise, 
and  remain  standing  until  he  sits  down. 

With  a  description  of  the  Jongleurs  we  are  brought  back  from  a 
long  digression  to  the  subject  of  musical  progress.  While  the  Trou- 
badours confined  themselves  chiefly  to  composition,  the  Jongleurs 
became  proficient  on  all  the  instruments  of  their  time.  These  were 
fairly  numerous;  and  we  find  one  minstrel  claiming  (in  the  Bodleian 
manuscript),  "I  can  play  the  lute,  the  violin,  the  pipe,  the  bagpipe, 
the  S3rrinx,  the  harp,  the  gigue,  the  gittem,  the  symphony,  the  psal- 
tery, the  organistrum,  the  regals,  the  tabour,  and  the  rote."  Of 
these  the  gigue  was  a  small,  high-pitched  viol,  called  after  its  Ger- 
man name  "Geige";  the  gittern  was  a  guitar  stnmg  with  catgut; 
the  symphony  (Italian,  zumpogna)  was  a  form  of  bagpipe;  the  regals 
was  a  tiny  folding  organ,  the  tabor  a  tambourine,  and  the  rote  (old 
Celtic,  CTWth)  a  small  square  harp.  The  organistrum,  from  its  descrip- 
tions, seems  to  be  the  prototype  of  the  modem  hand-organ.  The 
player  turned  a  wheel,  and  could  depress  by  keys  any  of  the  strings 
on  the  instrument,  thus  making  them  sound  by  bringing  them 
against  the  revolving  wheel.  Certain  so-called  mechanical  violins 
use  the  same  idea  to-day.  Other  instruments  of  the  time  were  the 
flute,  trumpet,  flageolet,  sackbut  (trombone),  shalm  or  shawm 
(clarinet),  rebeck  (a  bowed  mandolin  derived  from  the  Arabian 
Rebab),  and  marine  trumpet  (having  merely  a  single  long  string, 
much  like  that  of  a  violoncello).  On  all  these,  the  Jongleurs  were 
possessed  of  much  skill. 

At  first  the  Jongleurs  were  the  paid  musical  retainers  of  the 
Troubadours.  Girard  Calanson,  for  example,  gave  to  his  Jongleurs 
the  following  instructions. :  "Learn  to  act  well,  to  speak  well,  and  to 
extemporise  rhymes  well.  Learn  to  invent  clever  and  amusing  games 
to  please  people.  Learn  to  play  on  the  tabour,  the  cymbals,  and  the 
bagpipe.  Learn  to  throw  and  catch  little  apples  on  the  point  of 
knives.  Learn  to  imitate  the  song  of  birds  with  your  voices,  to  pre- 
tend to  make  an  attack  on  a  castle  as  if  besieging  it,  to  jump  through 
four  hoops,  to  play  on  the  citall  and  mandore,  to  perform  on  the 
cloncorde  and  the  guitar,  for  they  are  delightful  to  all.    Learn  how 


40  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

to  string  the  viol  with  seventeen  chords,  to  sound  the  bells,  to  play 
the  harp,  and  to  compose  a  jig  that  shall  enliven  the  sound  of  the 
psaltery."  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  modem  juggler  is  the 
old  Jongleur  with  only  a  partial  change  of  occupation.  The  citall 
(citole)  was  a  box-like  form  of  the  psaltery,  and  the  mandore  a 
variety  of  guitar. 

The  Troubadours  were  practically  destroyed  in  the  war  of  the 
Albigenses  —  a  war  preceded  by  many  pasquinades,  that  exposed 
faults  both  in  the  pleasure-loving  adherents  of  the  new  creed  and  the 
absolution-peddling  authorities  at  Rome.  The  war  itself  was  a  con- 
stant trimnph  for  Rome,  under  the  leadership  of  Simon  de  Mont- 
fort;  and  many  of  the  captured  cities  witnessed  the  burning  of  their 
citizens  alive  by  hundreds.  Even  Pedro  of  Aragon  met  defeat  when 
he  came  to  aid  his  Provengal  friends. 

But  whatever  the  rights  and  wrongs  were,  the  killing-off  of  so 
many  Troubadours  was  a  serious  set-back  to  cultivation  in  its  allied 
forms  of  literature  and  music.  They  had  been  the  composers,  while 
their  performing  retainers  were  merely  the  publishers  of  their  com- 
positions, as  Petrarch  said.  The  art  of  the  Jongleurs,  when  no  longer 
backed  by  the  inspiration  of  their  masters,  soon  began  to  deteriorate. 
Their  status  and  their  entertainments  grew  to  be  such  that  they 
attracted  only  the  coarsest  audiences.  They  became  wandering 
minstrels,  earning  a  precarious  living  by  amusing  people  in  the 
market-places.  Yet  girls  and  women  sometimes  became  Jongleuses, 
as  the  term  was.  We  read  that  William  the  Conqueror  rewarded  his 
Jongleuse  Adeline  with  an  estate.  In  later  times  these  feminine  per- 
formers led  a  wandering  life,  and  were  known  as  "glee-maidens." 
But  at  first  they  held  honored  positions  and  showed  themselves 
gifted  enough.  For  example,  the  many  Romances  of  Marie  de 
France,  Jongleuse  of  William  Longsword  (son  of  Henry  III),  are 
now  held  to  have  rare  value,  and  kept  as  much-prized  treasures 
in  the  British  Museum.  They  include  versions  of  the  Arthurian 
legends,  as  well  as  others  of  prime  importance.  But  on  the  whole, 
the  Jongleurs,  male  and  female,  were  persons  of  no  respectable 
position. 

The  change  from  well-bom  poets  to  paid  entertainers  took  place 
in  Germany  also.  There  was  no  violent  war  in  that  country,  but  the 
alteration  came  just  as  surely  if  more  gradually.  There  were  evi- 


THE  MINSTREL  KNIGHTS  41 

dently  German  musicians  of  the  Jongleur  type  in  the  Suabian  times; 
for  there  exists  an  old  song,  which  runs,  — 

"King  Rudolph  is  a  worthy  king; 
All  praise  to  him  be  brought! 
He  likes  to  hear  the  minstrels  play  and  sing, 
But  after  that  he  gives  them  naught." 

Thus  in  Germany,  too,  the  nobler  composer  gave  way  to  the  paid 
musician;  and  for  many  years,  even  extending  down  to  the  nine- 
teenth century,  the  musician  was  regarded  and  treated  as  a  hired 
underling,  if  not  an  actual  outlaw. 


THE  SCHOOLS  OF  COUNTERPOINT 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  England  held  the  lead  in  music  for 
many  centuries.  The  famous  song  "Sumer  is  icumen  in,"  which 
sounds  remarkably  fresh  and  beautiful  even  to  modem  ears,  prob- 
ably dates  back  to  the  year  1215,  if  not  earlier.  This  was  a  "six 
men's  song,"  but  two  of  the  voices  sang  a  drone  bass.  The  other 
four,  however,  command  interest;  for  they  follow  in  one  another's 
footsteps  with  the  strict  canonic  imitation  that  is  found  in  the  songs 
known  as  "rounds." 

Soon  after  the  earliest  English  development  came  a  French  school. 
This  must  have  been  in  the  thirteenth  century,  for  by  1325  we  find 
Jean  de  Muris,  in  his  "Speculum  Musicae,"  lamenting  the  departure 
of  the  good  old  times,  and  regretting  that  the  composers  had  lost  the 
inspiration  shown  in  the  preceding  generation.  This  seems  to  be  a 
common  complaint;  and  it  has  a  familiar  ring  even  to-day. 

These  early  schools  were  in  part  an  outcome  of  the  chanson  — 
not  that  of  the  Troubadours,  but  the  people's  song,  that  was  popu- 
lar through  all  of  western  Europe.  Sometimes  these  part-songs  were 
in  the  strict  form  shown  by  "Sumer  is  icumen  in";  but  more  often 
they  were  fairly  free  in  their  part-writing.  While  the  Troubadour 
music,  when  not  in  unison,  has  its  melody  in  the  upper  part,  in 
accordance  with  modem  ideas,  there  grew  up  in  early  days  the  cus- 
tom, already  mentioned,  of  having  the  melody  held  by  the  tenor 
voice.  The  word  "tenor"  comes  from  the  Latin  tenere,  to  hold. 
The  chief  melody,  taken  by  the  tenor,  was  called  the  cantus  firmus 
(fixed  song),  or  often  simply  the  cantus.  A  second  part,  added  above 
this  melody  and  sung  with  it,  was  called  the  discant.  Other  parts 
were  added  above  or  below  these  two,  and  called  from  their  position 
either  bass  or  alto — words  that  meant " low "  or  "high."  The  term 
"treble,"  signifying  a  third  part,  was  sometimes  used  for  a  voice 
above  the  discant.  The  word  "soprano,"  meaning  "above,"  was 
introduced  later  on,  when  the  melody  was  given  to  the  upper  part. 


CANON,  from  an  ancient  MS.  in  the  Britlfli  Mufeam* 


f5 


-e-n- 


-e-0 


J225 


EE^JEgEgjr^zzI^^ 


-e- 


Siimcr        it    i cumen    in  ■ 


HZ^^rjI^ 


)--2^ 


Lhude      fing  Cue — cu 
O-n—i — =; — w    t    O   P-T— gi— --- 


m 


^?iF; 


Sum'er      is       i  • 


^= 


11 


Sing  cue— cu 


li^ 


m 


Sing  fcuc— — — c 

2S 


1^^^^ 


Sing  cue  —  ca 


Sing  cue— — — CB 


•■  '    ^     •-> »-    — --dand  fpringeth      the  wde     nu. 

*    5 ,     J     S S_ 


:§zgzt— oiz: 


lhude      £ng  cue  ca  groweth     fed  and    blcweth      med  and 


-Q- 


m 


333 


-e— - 


Sumer        is    i— —  cumcn       la 


lhude       ling  cue— cu 


l^^i 


©rpzirsr 


iHSgl 


e 


—5= 


Surrer         i»      »^ cumen 

■e-. Q..      -e-. 


ss^^ia^ 


S: 


fing  cue cu 


£?& 


l 


fing  cue CB 


^^S^li 


cuc- 


fing  cue— — —  cu 


fpringeth      the  wde        nu. 


zoEz 


i 


TUTU 


^=^ 


P~ 


JSZiZZ 


groweth      fed  and     bloweth     medand     fpringeth      the  wde         nu 


11 


i^ 


Lhudc       ling  cue cu 

s  J 

--OT-T—qZ 


Sing 


cuc- 
-QJ 


— cu 


^Sing    W*   cue 


gfowcth     fed  and      bloweth     med    and 
-©r  OS '^ 


m 


Sing 


^ 


m 


cue—— cu 


-Q— 


.Sing 


^ 


5-     5 


i?;^!^ 


y  « 


-^- 


vertctli,       murie         fiug  cue cu 


m^i 


-e- 


L-t: 


szz 


rs: 


Bulluc      ftertcth         bucke  >fcrteth 

I      8  8 


5      .5 g 


fing  cue— 


Awt         bleteth  after       Lomb      Ihouth       after  calve 


-e-- 


1 


3^ 


e^ 


Sing 
-©I 


cuc- 


-e? 


Sing 


-e- 


cnc- 
5 


1 


:^ 


Sing 


cuc-^- — cu 


Sisg  cue  — 


-^^^M 


cue cu  well  fings     the   cue cu 


ne  fwik 


inx: 


-e-r 


thu 


n 


^is=;^^=ps-p 


j^i 


cue —— cu 


e=P 


cue ^^cu  wel  fings 


:j5z: 


bucke        verteth  murie        fing  cue cu 

8 


'xO-  — — 


IZDI 


O       J    '~o— g 


s::-czzis 


cu 


EB^ 


I  —  b 


Bulluc         ilerteth       Bucke  verteth 


:nr 


— ©- 


mune 


cu. 
5 


e;^^ 


Sing            cue— — cu 
-©?  _Q»     -©f 


nu 


Sing 


-e-r- 


I.  cu 


Sing 


Sing 


o  r  I 


:s=prr 


-  J':  m. 


Sumer 


-.¥^^ 


33: 


fingj  ihu      ciiccu  DC  fwik  thu^  naver 


iffi: 


:5=zfrz:::i3r 


-e- 


©zl 


32=e:::®e: 


•cu        well  fings     the     cue — -cu 


lie        fwilc 


'SZ 


-©-T- 


^ 


fing  cue    ■     cq 
n  •  ■©*■ 


cu— — — — — cu 


T^' 


S 


-Gv- 


3^ 


:? 


* 


fing 


T-,.^ 


a>c  -     —  cu 


» 


I.  cue  -■■  ■        c 


Sing 


^fe^^Eil^^§ 


ig-pTTg 


25Z::: 


Lhude        fing  cue— — -cu 

-Q-:Lp^r'b-:  p: 


Groweth      fed    and       blowcth. 


ggE^Bf^i: 


Sutner 


3z: 


Lhnde        ling    cue   i  -cu 

e~^   I   ^    n  I-  e- 


wel  fiM»      the  cue—- —  cu 

-©7  .J2^  -©I 


oe  fwik 


riiiz-— 


n^— ver 

33zrr 


Sing  cuc-»— .-» — cu 


m 


£ing 


cue- 


— e-^- 


uu:- 


Sing  cue—— 

Bu  Siag  cue— 


THE  SCHOOLS  OF  COUNTERPOINT 


47 


t  ■  •  ■  -    oummcr  ii  a»C( 

I—  — —  ■    •{ *"     "  •  I^^8  Loud  fing  cucl 

=a— dljrg^d-  I    "  "  •  ^^i  Growcth  feed, 


The  following  ftemi  to  be 
the  true  import  of  the  words* 

Summer  is  a>commg  in^ 
cuckow. 


Lhud 

-e— n 


fine     cue- cu 

e— I 


m 


Sumer 


11 


-CU— meiK 


Cng 


-CO. 


i 


And  bloweth  mead. 

And  fpringeth  the  wood  neif* 

Ewe  bleateth  after  lamb ; 

Lowetb  after  calf,  cow  } 

Bullock  flerteth, 

Buck&  verteth. 

Merry  fin^  cuckow. 

Well  Cng'ft  thou  cudcoir, 

Norceafe  tbou  erer,  now*, 


m 


r©n 


za2 


-O-r 


I 


Sing  cue  — — c»u 


Paris  was  still  active  in  the  fourteenth  century;  and  the  part-song 
style  was  gradually  developed  by  Jehannot  Lescurel  and  Guillaume 
de  Machau,  as  well  as  by  Cesaris,  Tapissier,  Carmen,  and  Henricus 
de  Zeelandia  in  a  later  generation.  These  names  carry  little  import 
now;  but  such  composers,  probably  with  others  living  in  the  Nether- 
lands, brought  about  a  gradual  change  from  the  popular  style  to 
polyphony. 

The  term  "polyphony"  refers  to  music  written  definitely  in  vari- 
ous parts,  or  voices.  Homophony,  which  arose  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  denotes  a  melody  supported  by  chords  and  harmony. 
Counterpoint,  meaning  much  the  same  as  polyphony,  was  derived 
from  the  phrase  punctum  contra  punctum,  the  punctum  being  an  old 
note-name,  and  the  phrase  meaning  note  against  note.  The  contra- 
puntal forms  are  treated  in  a  later  chapter. 

The  strength  of  the  popular  influence  is  shown  by  the  common 
use  of  secular  melodies  for  the  cantus  in  various  parts  of  the  mass. 
These  melodies  were  used  by  the  composers  because  the  people 
knew  the  tunes,  and  the  work  could  be  more  readily  comprehended 
by  them,  or  more  easily  performed.  So  customary  did  this  become 
that  the  tenors  often  sang  the  words  of  the  original  song  instead  of 
the  mass.  We  should  be  decidedly  surprised  if  our  church  tenors 


48  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

should  troll  forth,  "We  won't  go  home  till  morning,"  with  the  rest 
of  the  choir  wreathing  sacred  words  around  that  tune;  but  custom 
sanctions  everything,  and  such  use  of  popular  melodies  lasted  for 
over  a  century  in  the  early  Netherland  days. 

Certain  songs  became  favorites  for  use  in  sacred  works.  Thus  it 
seemed  to  be  a  point  of  honor  for  each  composer  to  write  at  least  one 
mass  using  the  tune  called  "L'Homme  Arme";  while  "Se  la  face  ay 
pale"  was  not  far  behind  it  in  popularity.  Sometimes  old  plain-song 
(Gregorian)  tunes  were  used;  and  as  these  were  sacred  originally, 
they  seem  appropriate  enough.       > 

The  chief  forms  used  were  the  mass,  the  motet,  the  madrigal,  and 
the  canon,  to  which  Italy  added  the  frottola,  or  ballad.  The  mass  is 
described  in  the  chapter  on  vocal  forms.  The  motet  was  a  sacred 
part-song  of  contrapuntal  character,  the  name  being  derived  either 
from  mot,  referring  to  the  sacred  word,  or  from  motus,  meaning 
movement,  as  the  parts  all  moved  contrapuntally.  The  madrigal 
was  much  the  same  in  style,  usually  with  from  three  to  six  parts, 
and  always  unaccompanied;  but  very  often  the  melody  did  not  stay 
wholly  in  one  voice,  being  distributed  in  separate  phrases  among 
various  parts.  The  derivation  of  the  name  is  doubtful.  Some 
ascribe  it  to  madre,  referring  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  but  the  words  of 
the  madrigal  were  often  secular.  This  was  one  of  the  earliest  forms 
used  by  the  contrapimtal  composers,  though  sporadic  canons  of 
earlier  date  have  been  found.  The  canon,  as  already  implied,  is  a 
piece  in  which  the  same  melody  is  used  in  each  voice,  but  the 
voices  enter  in  succession,  so  that  the  melody  is  made  to  serve  as  its 
own  accompaniment.  Thus,  a  round  is  a  canon,  though  there  are 
many  canons  that  are  not  rounds.  Various  canons  are  illustrated  in 
the  section  on  musical  form,  in  this  work.  These  pieces  were  all 
sung  without  accompaniment  at  first,  though  the  organ  gradually 
came  into  use  with  the  mass.  Certain  of  the  early  canons  were 
known  as  "fugas"  (fugues),  but  they  were  not  real  examples  of  the 
later  fugue,  which  is  analyzed  in  connection  with  musical  form. 

The  Netherland  school  shows  as  its  first  great  exponent  William 
Dufay.  Like  many  of  the  early  composers,  he  began  as  a  choir-boy, 
and  grew  up  to  hold  important  church  positions.  He  wrote  poly- 
phonic songs  for  Italian  weddings,  and  studied  at  the  Papal  Chapel. 
Returning  to  church  work  in  Belgium,  he  became  known  and  hon- 


THE  SCHOOLS  OF  COUNTERPOINT  49 

ored  throughout  Europe.  His  existing  works  include  masses,  motets, 
and  chansons  —  crude  enough  by  our  standards,  but  containing  the 
germ  of  future  growth. 

Another  composer  of  this  period  was  Gilles  Binchois,  who  died  at 
Lille  in  1460.  The  writer  Tinctor  said  Binchois's  name  would 
"endure  forever,"  but  very  few  of  his  works  remain  in  existence. 
Still  others  of  this  period  were  Petrus  de  Domart,  Philippe  Caron, 
Vincent  Faugues,  Anthony  Busnois,  Eloy,  and  Van  Ghizeghem. 

The  real  leader,  however,  appeared  in  England,  in  the  person  of 
John  Dunstable.  Bom  at  Dunstable,  living  in  England,  and  djring 
at  London  in  1453,  he  is  quoted  by  the  French  poet  Martin  le  Franc 
as  the  model  upon  which  Dufay  and  Binchois  based  their  music. 
By  1440  he  was  known  as  far  away  as  the  Tyrol.  His  motets  and 
madrigals  are  now  to  be  found  in  many  Continental  libraries,  where 
works  of  historic  value  are  too  often  left  to  languish  in  hidden  manu- 
scripts. Many  writers  call  him  the  first  contrapuntist;  and  there  is 
no  doubt  that  he  led  the  way  for  the  school  that  arose  in  the  Nether- 
lands. As  England  and  North  France  were  politically  united,  it  is 
possible  that  Dunstable  borrowed  something  from  the  FVench  com- 
posers; but  the  freshness  of  his  style  bears  witness  to  his  own  genius, 
and  makes  it  seem  probable  that  English  music  had  develoi)ed 
steadily  from  the  days  of  "Sumer  is  icumen  in." 

The  next  development  in  the  Netherlands  came  in  the  shape  of 
increased  skill.  Under  the  lead  of  Jean  de  Okeghem  and  Jacob 
Obrecht  (or  Hobrecht)  it  became  customary  for  composers  to  use 
the  utmost  skill  in  writing  puzzle  canons.  The  so-called  "crab- 
canon"  consisted  of  a  melody  in  one  voice,  while  another  voice  sang 
the  same  melody  backwards  for  accompaniment.  Sometimes  one 
voice  would  sing  the  melody  from  the  beginning,  while  others  started 
in  the  middle  and  went  both  ways.  For  such  work,  the  melody  was 
sometimes  written  only  once,  and  a  few  words  put  with  it  to  show 
what  the  different  voices  should  do.  A  favorite  catch-phrase  was 
"out  of  light,  darkness,"  or  vice  versa,  referring  to  the  outlined  notes 
(introduced  by  Dufay)  as  light,  and  the  solidly-written  notes  as 
dark.  This  would  be  equivalent  to  our  directing  a  singer  to  use 
quarter-notes  instead  of  halves,  or  halves  instead  of  quarters.  There 
were  many  such  directing  phrases  used  which  are  now  wholly  obscure 
in  meaning. 


50  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

This  set  of  composers  covered  a  wide  range  of  territory.  Okeghem 
was  born  at  Antwerp,  and  became  active  in  Paris,  where  three  kings 
in  succession  were  glad  to  employ  his  services.  His  masses,  motets, 
and  chansons  show  great  skill  and  mastery  of  technique,  and  caused 
him  to  be  called  the  "  Prince  of  Music."  Obrecht  worked  in  Antwerp, 
as  did  also  Jacques  Barbireau,  Antonius  Wjnigaerde,  Jean  Regis, 
Philippon  de  Bourges,  and  others.  The  Netherlands  musicians  work- 
ing in  Italy  included  Guillaume  Guameri,  Gaspar  Weerbecke,  and 
Alexander  Agricola.  Germany  had  her  own  composers,  such  as 
Traugott  Eugenius  and  Heinrich  Finck;  while  Spain  produced 
Francisco  de  Penalosa. 

This  second  Netherlands  group  devoted  itself  too  much  to  the 
technical  side  of  music.  Yet  it  rendered  great  service  to  the  cause 
of  music  by  its  development  and  mastery  of  certain  technical  meth- 
ods. Its  music  was  not  what  we  should  call  pleasing.  The  attention 
paid  to  intricacies  often  caused  beauty  and  expressive  power  to  be 
lost  in  curious  feats  of  polyphony.  The  texts  were  frequently  treated 
with  little  respect;  single  words  were  sometimes  spun  out  till  they 
lost  their  sense,  and  little  attention  was  paid  to  making  the  music 
as  a  whole  suit  the  words.  But  some  of  the  works  of  this  time  are 
important  enough. 

Immediately  following  this  set  of  composers  is  another  group, 
that  carried  music  over  into  the  sixteenth  century.  The  new  leader 
was  Josquin  des  Pr^;  and  under  his  guidance  music  was  again  given 
real  expressive  beauty.  Yet  he  was  not  lacking  in  technique  or  con- 
trol of  resources,  for  we  find  Luther  saying  of  him,  "Josquin  rules 
the  notes,  while  others  are  ruled  by  them."  The  archaic  styles  of 
the  preceding  century  were  now  replaced  by  a  more  fluent  manner, 
much  better  able  to  express  emotion. 

Josquin  was  bom  about  1445,  in  Hainault,  and  died  in  1521.  He 
held  several  important  court  posts,  at  Florence  and  elsewhere,  and 
became  a  leader  in  the  Papal  Chapel.  The  year  1500  found  him  in 
Paris  as  a  choirmaster.  Very  many  of  his  works  are  still  in  existence, 
and  they  show  not  only  technical  skill,  but  real  tonal  beauty  and  a 
delicate  fitness  to  their  text.  Josquin  exercised  a  great  influence 
upon  his  successors. 

Others  of  this  period  were  Pierre  de  la  Rue,  of  Picardy,  whose 
manuscripts  were  treasured  highly;  Antoine  Brumel,  of  Flanders, 


THE  SCHOOLS  OF  COUNTERPOINT  51 

a  master  of  technique;  Loyset  Compere,  a  Flemish  composer  of 
romantic  gifts;  and  the  less  known  men  named  Jehan  Cousin, 
Guillaume  Crespel,  Jean  Prioris,  Jean  Verbonnet,  and  Noel  Baulduin. 

At  this  time  the  cause  of  music  received  great  aid  from  the  art 
of  printing.  Before  1500,  musical  manuscripts  were  usually  drafted 
and  illuminated  by  hand,  in  the  monasteries  or  other  centres  of  learn- 
ing. The  formation  of  the  first  book-printing  firm,  Gutenberg  and 
Faust,  took  place  in  1451.  In  1476,  Ulrich  Hahn  tried  to  print  music 
at  Rome,  and  five  years  later  Jorg  Resier,  of  Wiirzburg,  and  Ottavio 
Scotto,  of  Venice,  made  similar  efforts.  But  in  these  cases  only  the 
comparatively  simple  plain-song  was  attempted,  and  separate 
impressions  were  made  for  the  staff  and  the  notes.  Petrucci,  of 
Fossombrone,  working  at  Venice,  was  the  first  to  print  all  varieties 
of  music,  no  matter  how  intricate.  In  1498,  he  secured  a  monopoly 
of  the  music-printing  in  that  city,  and  from  1501  onward  he  pub- 
lished many  valuable  collections.  Oeglin  began  publishing  at  Augs- 
burg in  1507,  and  Scheffer  did  the  same  at  Mayence  before  1512. 
The  first  to  invent  a  one-impression  method  printing  both  staff 
and  notes  was  Pierre  Haultin,  in  1525,  whose  types  were  used  by 
Attaignant,  of  Paris,  in  1527.  Another  change  came  in  1530,  when 
Briard,  of  Avignon,  replaced  the  diamond-headed  notes  with  the 
rounded  forms  that  we  use  to-day.  Music-printing  by  types  soon 
became  an  important  industry.  At  present,  however,  its  use  is 
limited;  for  by  far  the  larger  part  of  our  music  is  printed  from  en- 
graved plates. 

The  presence  of  certain  Netherlands  masters  in  Italy  led  to  the 
formation  of  two  distinct  schools  there  —  that  of  Venice  and  that  of 
Rome.  The  prominence  of  Venice  was  due  to  Adrian  Willaert,  who 
was  chorus-master  at  St.  Mark's  until  after  1550.  Born  at  Bruges 
before  1490,  he  studied  with  Josquin,  to  such  effect  that  when  he 
went  to  Rome  he  heard  one  of  his  own  motets  sung  and  ascribed  to 
his  master.  He  showed  a  tendency  to  extend  still  further  the  style 
of  his  teacher,  while  keeping  up  all  the  skill  in  technique.  Thus, 
besides  masses,  motets,  and  madrigals  by  Willaert,  we  have  also 
some  freer  part-songs  and  instrumental  ricercari.  The  latter  term 
signifies  "research,"  and  was  used  to  designate  pieces  in  which  the 
composer  sought  to  show  his  mastery  over  intricacies. 
'   The  Venetian  school  included  many  famous  names.  Jachet  de 


52  THE   BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Buus  was  evidently  a  Netherlandian  visitor.  Another  Netherlander, 
Ciprian  de  Rore,  wrote  music  of  rich  charm,  and  began  to  use  chro- 
matic and  harmonic  effects  freely.  Gioseffo  Zarlino  is  now  best 
known  by  his  books.  Annibale  Padovano  represented  the  growing 
tendency  toward  organ  pieces  —  a  field  which  was  well  exploited  by 
Claudio  Merulo,  Andrea  Gabrieli,  and  Giovanni  Gabrieli.  There 
were  other  Venetian  masters,  and  not  a  few  in  neighboring  cities, 
a  famous  name  being  Animuccia.  Under  these,  music  began  to  take 
on  those  characteristics  that  made  the  Italian  composers  preeminent 
through  two  centuries. 

The  school  of  Venetian  contrapuntists  naturally  did  not  think  of 
harmony  as  a  branch  of  study.  All  through  the  contrapuntal  period, 
music  was  regarded  as  consisting  of  parts,  or  voices,  that  flowed  on 
together.  Under  Okeghem  these  voices  were  allowed  to  flow  in  the 
most  discordant  fashion  if  the  desired  form  demanded  it.  But  from 
Josquin  on,  we  find  a  constantly  increasing  attention  paid  to  the 
expressive  qualities  of  the  music.  Although  the  later  contrapuntal 
composers  still  considered  music  as  consisting  of  parts,  they  gradu- 
ally approached  a  melodic  style,  with  harmonies  not  radically  differ- 
ent from  our  own.  The  introduction  of  the  harmonic  idea  as  a  prin- 
ciple dates  from  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  Peri,  Caccini, 
and  others  used  it  in  the  earliest  operas.  But  it  would  not  have  taken 
such  a  firm  hold  as  it  did  if  the  times  had  not  been  ripe  for  it.  While 
the  masses,  motets,  madrigals,  and  canons  were  kept  as  part-music, 
the  ricercari  and  chansons  were  often  freely  harmonic  in  style.  With 
the  advent  of  opera,  the  contrapuntal  style  gradually  disappeared; 
and  chords  began  to  be  studied  for  their  formation,  independently 
of  their  occurrence  in  part-music.  This  gave  rise  to  the  saying  that 
"Of  old,  music  was  horizontal;  now  it  is  vertical."  The  old  idea  of 
interwoven  parts  certainly  gave  music  a  horizontal  aspect. 

In  Germany,  there  was  a  development  parallel  to  that  of  the 
Venetian  school,  exemplified  in  part  by  Heinrich  Isaac.  But  Saxony 
supplemented  the  Protestant  Reformation  by  developing  a  new 
school  of  music  in  the  Lutheran  chorales.  The  style  of  these  is  shown 
by  "Ein  feste  Burg,"  ascribed  to  Luther,  but  probably  written  by 
one  of  his  friends.  The  rugged  vitality  of  these  chorales  led  to  a  fur- 
ther expansion  of  German  music  long  after  the  Italian  contrapunt- 
ists had  passed  away.  Such  men  as  Dietrich,  Ammerbach,  Schroeter, 


THE  SCHOOLS  OF  COUNTERPOINT  53 

Rosth,  or  G^sius  are  not  often  treated  at  any  length  in  the  histories, 
while  Prsetorius  is  known  chiefly  by  his  writings.  But  among  the 
early  chorale  composers  are  Hans  Bach  and  his  son  Veit,  ancestors 
of  the  great  John  Sebastian  Bach,  who  was  to  unite  the  vigor  of  this 
school  with  the  most  amazing  contrapuntal  skill,  in  a  way  which 
places  his  works  among  the  very  best  that  we  have  to-day.  A  famous 
organ  composer  of  the  seventeenth  century  was  Samuel  Scheldt. 

France  numbered  among  her  early  composers  Jean  Mouton,  pupil 
of  Josquin  and  teacher  of  Willaert.  More  original  was  Clement 
Jannequin,  whose  many  chansons  illustrate  their  pictorial  titles, 
such  as  "La  Bataille,"  "L'Alouette,"  "Le  Caquet  des  Femmes," 
"La  Chasse  au  Cerf,"  or  "Les  Cris  de  Paris."  Claudio  Goudimel 
was  identified  in  some  degree  with  the  Huguenot  and  Calvinistic 
music.  The  Netherlands  continued  its  activity  with  such  men  as 
Waelrant  and  Sweelinck.  Spain,  under  the  tuition  of  the  Nether- 
lander Gombert,  had  a  school  of  composers  represented  by  Antonio 
de  Cabezon  (called  "the  Spanish  Bach")  and  Francisco  Guerrero; 
while  Portugal  offered  Damiao  de  Goes,  and  at  a  later  date  Duarte 
Lobo. 

The  English  music,  kept  alive  by  Robert  Fajnrfax  and  others,  cul- 
minated in  a  worthy  school  under  Elizabeth.  Christopher  Tye  and 
Thomas  Tallis  were  the  leaders,  with  Richard  Farrant,  William 
Byrd,  and  John  Bull  following  them.  The  secular  side  was  repre- 
sented by  Thomas  Morley,  Ford,  and  the  lutenist  John  Dowland. 
The  changing  conditions  of  music  at  the  time  are  well  shown  by  this 
school.  While  Tye  and  Tallis  favored  the  earlier  contrapuntal  forms, 
Morley  wrote  free  madrigals,  and  Dowland  produced  lute  music, 
as  well  as  "madrigals  and  a3n'es"  and  a  set  of  early  dances,  chiefly 
pavanes.  In  addition,  many  of  these  composers  wrote  for  the  vir- 
ginals, a  boxlike  predecessor  of  the  spinet  and  harpsichord.  The  old 
virginal  music,  collected  by  Fitzwilliam,  shows  a  most  remarkable 
trend  toward  the  broad  effects  of  modem  piano  music. 

The  music  of  Rome  was  given  a  strong  sacred  tendency  by  the 
Papal  Chapel  of  singers.  The  Roman  school  contained  such  names 
as  Giovanni  Nanino,  Felice  Anerio,  his  nephew  Giovanni,  the  Span- 
iard Vittoria,  and  the  madrigal  composer  Luca  Marenzio.  But  the 
chief  name  was  that  of  Giovanni  Pierluigi  da  Palestrina.  With  him 
is  often  mentioned  Orlando  di  Lasso,  of  the  Netherlands.  Each  of 


54  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

these  two  formed  a  culmination  of  his  school;  and  the  death  of  both 
in  the  same  year,  1594,  is  held  to  mark  the  close  of  the  contrapuntal 
epoch.  As  a  n^atter  of  fact,  motets  and  madrigals  were  composed 
freely  until  fifty  years  afterward;  but  opera  and  instrumental  music 
drew  public  attention  away  from  the  older  schools,  so  the  statement 
is  fair  enough. 

Orlando  di  Lasso  was  bom  at  Mons  in  1530  or  1532,  though  some 
give  the  date  as  1520.  The  old  Netherlandian  name  was  sometimes 
written  Lassus,  while  his  native  city  knew  him  as  Roland  Delattre. 
He  sang  in  a  church  choir  at  Mons  when  eight  years  old;  and  his 
voice  was  so  attractive  that  it  is  said  he  was  twice  kidnapped  for 
other  institutions.  It  is  sure  that  he  was  taken  to  Italy,  for  he  spent 
much  of  his  youth  there.  His  earliest  existing  work  is  a  set  of  madri- 
gals published  at  Venice  in  1552.  In  his  younger  years  he  seems  to 
have  devoted  himself  largely  to  secular  music;  but  by  1563  we  find 
him  publishing  a  sacred  collection,  and  continuing  in  that  field.  His 
secular  music  shows  the  most  freedom  and  ease  of  construction.  In 
this  he  avoided  the  so-called  "Flemish  tricks,"  or  devices  of  ingenu- 
ity, adopting  instead  a  style  of  simplicity  and  directness. 

In  1556  or  1557,  Di  Lasso  accepted  a  post  with  Duke  Albert  V  of 
Bavaria;  and  for  the  rest  of  his  life  he  made  Munich  his  permanent 
home.  But  he  travelled  considerably,  being  the  recipient  of  many 
honors  and  attentions  from  high  dignitaries,  including  the  French 
King  and  the  Pope.  In  Munich  he  still  produced  some  pieces  of  sec- 
ular, and  even  humorous,  character;  but  his  sacred  works  were  of 
greater  importance.  Most  prominent  among  them  was  a  set  of 
"Seven  Penitential  Psalms,"  which  are  still  to  be  found  in  the  Royal 
State  Library  at  Munich,  in  full  glory  of  morocco  and  silver,  with  il- 
luminated text.  This  set  contains  the  composer's  portrait,  and  was 
prepared  for  him  by  the  Duke's  order,  as  a  mark  of  respect.  These 
psalms  were  written  before  1565;  and  that  date  disproves  the  claim 
that  they  were  composed  to  soothe  the  remorse  of  Charles  IX  after 
the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew.  But  they  were  important  enough 
to  have  come  to  that  monarch's  attention.  The  historian  Ambros 
considered  that  these  psalms,  and  Palestrina's  "Mass  of  Pope 
Marcellus,"  were  the  two  most  important  musical  productions  of 
the  sixteenth  century. 

Di  Lasso  was  a  very  prolific  composer,  producing  about  two  thou- 


DI   LASSO 


PALESTRINA 


THE  SCHOOLS  OF  COUNTERPOINT  S5 

sand  works.  These  showed  great  versatility,  for  they  included  mad- 
rigals, love-songs,  humorous  songs,  and  even  drinking-songs,  as  well 
as  sacred  works  of  several  sorts.  A  statue  of  him,  in  Mons,  testifies 
to  his  fame.  After  his  burial  in  Munich  he  was  given  an  epitaph  con- 
sisting of  a  bright  pun  on  his  name:  — 

"  Hie  ille  est  Lassus,  lassum  qui  recreat  orbem." 

This  may  be  translated,  "Here  lies,  weary,  he  who  a  weary  world 
refreshed";  but  the  Latin  for  the  first  "weary"  coincides  with  the 
composer's  name. 

In  Italy,  the  sacred  standard  was  upheld  by  Palestrina.  Giovanni 
Pierluigi  da  Palestrina  received  his  last  name  from  the  village  where 
he  was  bom,  the  date  being  probably  1524.  He  came  to  Rome  in 
1540,  where  he  is  said  to  have  won  favor  by  his  voice.  After  return- 
ing to  his  native  town,  where  he  married  and  lived  as  organist,  he 
appeared  again  at  Rome  in  1551,  as  master  of  the  bojrs  in  the  Vatican 
Chapel.  At  this  time  he  became  known  as  a  composer  by  publishing 
a  set  of  four-  and  five-voiced  masses. 

These  were  very  welcome,  because  up  to  their  appearance  the 
Church  had  been  forced  to  depend  almost  wholly  upon  Flemish 
composers.  Pope  Julius  III  then  made  Palestrina  a  singer  in  the 
Papal  Choir  —  an  exceptional  honor,  since  its  members  were  sup- 
posed to  be  celibates.  Under  Paul  IV,  Palestrina  was  ruled  out;  but 
he  afterwards  received  the  post  of  musical  director  at  the  Lateran, 
which  enabled  him  to  live  and  to  support  his  family.  During  six 
years  at  the  Lateran,  Palestrina  wrote  some  four-voiced  lamenta- 
tions, a  notable  eight- voiced  "Crux  Fidelis,"  and  the  famous  "Im- 
properia,"  or  reproaches  of  Christ  to  his  enemies  —  the  composer's 
best  work,  according  to  Mendelssohn. 

In  1561,  Palestrina  became  director  at  the  church  of  Santa  Maria 
Maggiore.  While  there,  it  is  stated,  an  event  happened  that  made 
him  known  and  respected  by  all  Catholics.  Haberl,  his  best  bio- 
grapher, does  not  give  the  story;  but  Baini  does.  It  seems,  according 
to  Baini,  that  the  Coimcil  of  Trent,  disgusted  with  the  secular  songs 
and  words  woven  into  the  Flemish  masses,  thought  of  excluding 
music  from  the  service.  A  commission  of  cardinals  took  up  the  mat- 
ter with  some  of  the  papal  singers;  and  as  a  result  Palestrina  was 
commissioned  to  write  a  mass  that  should  show  whether  music  could 


/ 


56  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

be  made  dignified  enough  for  sacred  use.  Unwilling  to  trust  the  is- 
sue to  one  work,  Palestrina  wrote  three;  and  one  of  these,  the  "Mass 
of  Pope  Marcellus,"  was  so  beautiful  that  the  Council  at  once  decided 
in  favor  of  retaining  music.  This  story,  however,  is  doubted  by 
many. 

Palestrina  now  received  frequent  honors,  but  little  profit.  The 
papal  copyist  wrote  the  notes  of  the  successful  mass  in  a  larger  size 
than  usual;  Pope  Pius  IV  exclaimed  that  such  must  be  the  music  of 
the  angels;  while  Philip  II,  on  receiving  a  copy  of  these  masses  and 
finding  them  dedicated  to  him,  sent  in  return  nothing  but  his  thanks. 
Yet  Palestrina  was  not  without  friends  among  the  cardinals,  who 
may  have  helped  him  in  many  ways.  The  success  of  his  mass  won 
him  a  new  post  —  that  of  composer  to  the  Papal  Chapel.  He  had 
his  moments  of  popular  triumph,  too.  In  1575,  no  less  than  fifteen 
himdred  of  his  fellow  townsmen  entered  Rome  in  three  groups,  and 
sang  the  works  of  their  beloved  composer  while  he  himself  marched 
at  the  head  and  directed  the  proceedings. 

Palestrina  was  also  choir-leader  at  St.  Peter's,  and  teacher  in  the 
important  music  school  of  his  friend  Nanini.  He  continued  active 
until  shortly  before  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1594,  four  months 
before  that  of  Di  Lasso. 

Palestrina's  music  has  been  divided  into  three  periods.  In  the 
first,  he  led  the  voices  independently,  without  much  attention  to 
harmony.  In  the  second,  he  paid  more  attention  to  good  harmonic 
effects,  but  in  consequence  led  the  voices  awkwardly.  In  the  third 
period,  he  showed  excellence  in  both  details.  Naturally  his  later 
works  are  his  best;  but  the  "  Improperia,"  falling  in  the  second 
period,  shows  a  chorale-like  strength  that  is  very  impressive. 

Palestrina  brought  the  old  school  of  pure  counterpoint  to  its  cul- 
mination. He  discarded  chromatics,  and  kept  to  the  strict  Gregorian 
modes  as  a  tenet  of  religion.  He  took  care  also  to  make  his  music 
emphasize  the  words  properly.  His  compositions  may  be  less  popu- 
lar in  style  than  those  of  his  great  Flemish  contemporary,  but  they 
are  more  lofty  in  conception.  There  is  a  certain  lack  of  rhythm  in 
Palestrina's  works,  which  makes  them  sound  strange  to  modern 
ears;  but  the  devotee  of  Bach  will  soon  learn  to  appreciate  the 
simplicity  and  nobility  of  the  earlier  master.  Among  other  things, 
Palestrina  has  been  called  "the  Homer  of  music";  and  there  is  a 


THE  SCHOOLS  OF   COUNTERPOINT  57 

stateliness  of  style  in  his  works  which  makes  the  title  very  ap- 
propriate. 

The  year  1594  was  marked  also  by  the  composition  of  the  first 
Florentine  opera,  "Dafne."  The  new  work  was  definitely  in  the 
harmonic  style;  and  from  that  date  onward,  counterpoint  was  grad- 
ually replaced  by  a  simpler  and  more  dramatic  utterance. 


VI 

THE  HARMONIC  STYLE 

The  textbooks  usually  dwell  on  the  year  1600  as  the  date  of  the 
beginning  of  opera.  In  that  year  a  set  of  Florentine  musicians,  con- 
sisting of  Jacopo  Peri,  Giulio  Caccini,  and  others,  brought  out  Peri's 
"  Euridice,"  embodying  dramatic  principles  as  they  understood  them 
after  studying  the  old  Greek  drama.  Sometimes  Peri's  earlier  work, 
"Dafne,"  is  called  the  first  opera.  But  as  a  matter  of  fact,  Italy 
had  witnessed  what  was  practically  an  opera  over  a  century  earlier 
than  that  date,  and  had  seen  the  development  of  a  tentative  operatic 
school. 

Mediaeval  drama  consisted  of  mystery  plays,  miracle  plays,  and 
moralities.  The  mysteries  were  plays  representing  Biblical  stories. 
The  miracle  plays  treated  the  lives  of  the  saints,  and  may  be  said 
to  have  included  the  passion  play,  dealing  with  the  life  and  cruci- 
fixion of  Christ.  The  moralities  were  allegories  of  a  moral  or  religious 
sort,  such  as  the  play  of  "Everyman,"  recently  revived  by  an  Eng- 
lish company.  In  South  France  the  "F6te  de  I'Ane"  introduced  an 
element  of  comedy. 

Italy,  however,  developed  the  secular  drama,  which  flourished 
first  at  Mantua.  In  1472,  when  the  Cardinal  Francesco  Gonzaga 
returned  to  Mantua  from  Bologna,  we  find  the  former  place  witness- 
ing what  may  fairly  be  considered  the  first  opera  —  "La  Favola  di 
Orfeo,"  by  Angelo  Poliziani.  The  plot  begins  among  shepherds. 
When  Orpheus  enters,  he  is  told  of  Euridice's  death,  and  determines 
to  seek  her  among  the  shades,  as  in  the  mythical  story.  He  wins  her 
from  Pluto,  loses  her  by  looking  back  in  defiance  of  his  agreement, 
and  is  stopped  by  Tisiphone  from  trying  to  find  her  again.  His  rail- 
ings then  incense  the  maenads,  who  drive  him  off  the  stage  and  slay 
him.  This  is  set  to  music,  consisting  of  solos,  dialogues,  and  choruses 
which  suggest  the  frottola,  the  carnival  songs,  and  the  old  ballata,  or 
dance-song.  The  solo  parts  were  arranged  in  the  manner  developed 
by  the  lute-players,  who  would  sing  one  part  of  a  polyphonic  com- 


THE  HARMONIC  STYLE  09 

position  and  play  the  others  as  accompaniment.  In  this  manner 
melodic  music  was  made  to  take  its  place  in  the  contrapuntal  world 
as  early  as  the  fifteenth  century.  The  frottola,  as  already  indicated, 
was  a  popular  song,  set  in  polyphonic  style,  to  be  sure,  but  simple 
and  singable  in  effect,  like  the  earlier  English  "Sumer  is  icumen  in." 
It  was  not  meant  to  be  canonic,  or  otherwise  intricate.  Cerone  wrote, 
in  1613,  "He  who  puts  into  a,  frottola  fugues,  imitations,  etc.,  is  like 
one  who  sets  a  worthless  stone  in  gold.  A  frottola  thus  ennobled 
would  become  a  madrigal,  while  a  madrigal,  all  too  scantily  treated, 
would  sink  to  a.  frottola."  The  frottola  afterwards  developed  into  the 
still  less  involved  villanelle,  which  was  often  a  simple  pastoral  song. 

There  were  at  least  two  solo  instruments  in  Poliziano's  work.  One 
was  the  shepherd's  pipe,  and  the  other  the  lyre  of  Orpheus.  There 
was  also,  almost  surely,  a  general  accompaniment  given  by  several 
instruments.  While  works  for  instruments  alone  did  not  exist  in 
Italy  until  organ  pieces  were  composed  by  Merulo,  nearly  a  century 
later,  orchestral  accompaniment  to  voices  was  employed  constantly 
at  this  time.  Old  reliefs  and  illuminations  show  viols  of  various 
sizes,  harps,  lutes,  dulcimers,  flutes,  pipes,  oboes,  trombones,  and 
the  portable  folding  organ  known  as  the  regals.  It  is  probable  that 
the  early  orchestras  were  somewhat  haphazard,  consisting  of  those 
instruments  that  could  be  obtained  at  a  particular  court  or  city;  and 
they  were  small  in  size,  perhaps  having  less  than  a  dozen  players. 
In  Italy  the  chitarrone,  or  large  guitar,  was  much  used. 

With  the  coming  of  Willaert  to  Venice,  and  his  impressive  use  of 
double  choruses  for  the  two  organs  in  St.  Mark's,  the  madrigal  began 
to  flourish.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  Poliziano  showed  the  power  of 
solo  music  for  operatic  purposes,  the  lyric  drama  drew  away  from 
this,  and  adopted  the  madrigal  as  its  means  of  expression.  A  part  of 
the  cause  for  such  a  backward  step  may  be  found  in  the  lack  of 
artistic  taste  in  the  nobles,  who  began  to  care  more  and  more  for 
spectacular  rather  than  artistic  effects.  As  the  musical  plays  were 
written  for  festival  occasions  at  their  courts,  their  ideas  were  natu- 
rally respected.  This  tendency  can  be  traced  through  various  works. 
Bergonzo  Botto  (1488),  and  Nicolo  de  Corregio  Visconti  (1487), 
produced  plays  on  mythical  subjects  that  continued  the  lyric  style; 
but  in  the  next  century  the  madrigal  ruled  without  a  rival. 

In  1539,  at  the  marriage  of  Cosmo  I,  two  plays  were  given,  one 


60  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

containing  a  solo  madrigal,  but  both,  with  that  exception,  consisting 
of  music  sung  in  all  the  parts.  On  this  occasion  a  song  by  Aurora  was 
accompanied  by  gravicemhalo  (primitive  precursor  of  the  piano), 
organ,  flute,  harp,  and  a  large  viol;  while  the  Song  of  Night  was  set 
with  four  trombones  to  produce  a  grave  and  melancholy  effect. 

In  1554,  Beccari,  of  Ferrara,  brought  out "  II  Sagrificio,"  a  pastoral 
play,  which  had  for  one  character  a  high  priest  who  sang  to  his  lyre, 
but  did  not  in  other  ways  adopt  the  lyric  form.  The  choruses  in  this, 
as  in  Lollio's  "Aretusa"  (1571)  and  Argenti's  "Sfortunato,"  were 
treated  contrapuntally. 

Among  other  occasions,  the  marriage  of  Grand  Duke  Ferdinand 
at  Florence  in  1589  seems  of  interest,  because  the  members  of  the 
Florentine  coterie  above  mentioned  took  part  in  producing  musical 
intermezzi  given  between  the  acts  of  a  play.  The  first,  *'  The  Har- 
mony of  the  Spheres,"  was  by  Emilio  del  Cavaliere,  who  afterwards 
produced  the  first  oratorio.  Next,  by  Luca  Marenzio,  came  the  con- 
test between  the  Muses  and  the  Pierides,  the  singers  accompanied 
by  lutes  and  viols  while  the  judges  had  harps  and  lyres  in  addition 
for  support.  Next  came  a  picture  of  Apollo  slaying  the  Python,  — 
with  some  features  of  a  ballet-pantomime,  —  a  success  as  great  as 
the  others,  but  a  rather  tame  affair  when  compared  with  the  old 
Greek  tone-picture  of  the  same  event.  Another  of  these  playlets 
showed  Arion's  adventures,  and  included  a  solo  sung  by  him  with 
harp  accompaniment.  A  picture  of  heaven  and  hell  by  Caccini 
offered  some  strong  instrumental  effects.  Last  came  an  antiphonal 
bit  between  three  groups  of  Muses,  with  dances  interspersed. 

The  varied  character  of  these  short  works  shows  that  reform  was 
impending.  The  madrigal  plays  seemed  dominant,  but  had  the 
inherent  weakness  that  they  did  not  present  the  text  clearly.  In- 
genious attempts  were  made  to  remedy  this  trouble,  Striggio  writing 
excellent  operatic  comedies,  and  Orazio  Vecchi  even  having  the 
dialogue  spoken  while  singers  behind  the  scenes  kept  up  a  back- 
ground of  madrigals.  But  it  remained  for  the  Florentine  coterie  to 
establish  the  true  principle  of  opera  —  the  solo  style  of  singing,  with 
the  music  aimed  to  reflect  the  emotions  of  the  text,  instead  of  being 
merely  a  skilled  but  irrelevant  piece  of  contrapuntal  composition. 

The  reformers  found  a  little  trouble  awaiting  them  in  another 
shape.  Where  at  first  the  spirit  of  opera  was  sacrificed  to  the  com- 


THE  HARMONIC  STYLE  61 

poser's  ingenuity,  now  it  met  with  another  obstacle  in  the  shape  of 
the  singer's  desire  for  display.  The  early  works  of  the  Florentine 
group,  in  1600  and  later,  were  declamatory  in  style,  and  almost  like 
what  is  now  known  as  "melos,"  or  melodic  recitative.  The  instru- 
mental music  was  now  definitely  harmonic,  and  subordinate  to  the 
sense  of  the  words;  in  a  primitive  fashion,  to  be  sure,  but  with  as 
much  of  artistic  ideal  as  Gluck  and  Wagner  showed  in  later  times 
when  bringing  opera  back  to  its  true  mission.  Yet  even  in  the  first 
of  the  Florentine  works  now  extant  ("Euridice,"  produced  in  1600), 
the  singer  Vittoria  Archilei  is  said  to  have  enlivened  the  occasion  by 
introducing  "lunghi  giri  e  gruppi"  —  long  roulades  and  embellish- 
ments, such  as  Rossini  and  his  school  used  in  later  days,  which 
obscure  the  dramatic  effect  in  order  to  let  the  singer  display  her 
powers.  Thus  began  a  disagreement  that  has  not  been  settled,  even 
in  the  present.  Artistic  ideas  should  rule,  but  the  public  too  often 
demands  mere  vocal  display;  and  the  singers  know  it,  from  Patti 
and  Melba  down. 

Opera  soon  broadened  its  scope,  and  in  the  hands  of  Monteverde 
became  a  public  amusement.  In  1637,  a  public  opera-house  was 
built  in  Venice,  in  which  his  later  works  were  produced.  One  of  his 
earliest  operas  ("Orfeo,"  produced  at  Mantua  in  1608)  shows  an 
orchestra  far  beyond  that  of  his  predecessors.  It  consisted  of  two 
harpsichords,  two  bass  viols,  ten  tenor  viols,  one  double  harp,  two 
small  French  violins,  two  large  guitars,  two  wooden  organs,  three 
viole  da  gamba,  four  trombones,  one  regal,  two  cornetti  (wooden 
pipes),  one  treble  flute,  one  clarion,  and  three  trumpets  with  mutes. 
It  will  thus  be  seen  that  Monteverde  was  an  instrumental  pioneer  — 
the  Richard  Strauss  of  his  time.  Like  Strauss,  he  was  fond  of  experi- 
mentmg  with  new  orchestral  colors;  and  he  originated  the  viol  and 
violin  pizzicato,  or  plucking  of  the  string,  and  the  tremolo,  or  rapid 
repetition  of  a  tone.  Monteverde's  career,  with  that  of  his  successors 
Rossi,  Cesti,  and  Cavalli,  brought  opera  down  to  the  year  1675. 

Spectacular  effects  were  much  sought  after.  For  Cesti's  "  II  Pomo 
d'  Oro,"  given  at  Vienna  in  1666,  a  special  theatre,  with  room  for 
fifteen  hundred,  was  constructed  in  the  courtyard  of  the  castle. 
According  to  Pratt,^  "the  scenery  included  landscapes  and  a  harbor 
view,  the  open  sea  with  tritons,  the  nether  world,  and  the  Olympian 

*  The  History  of  Music, 


62  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

heaven,  each  with  its  respective  divinities;  and  the  number  of  char- 
acters was  bewildering.  In  the  prologue  appeared  the  personified 
divisions  of  the  Empire,  Spain,  Austria,  Hungary,  Bohemia,  Ger- 
many, Italy  —  even  America!  There  were  five  acts  and  sixty-seven 
scenes.  The  cost  of  production  was  said  to  be  100,000  thalers." 

Venice  remained  an  opera  centre  for  some  time,  the  names  of 
Ferrari,  Sartorio,  and  Legrenzi  being  only  a  few  of  its  many  celebri- 
ties. But  before  the  end  of  the  century,  the  sceptre  passed  to  Naples, 
owing  to  the  work  of  Alessandro  Scarlatti.  He  was  a  Sicilian,  having 
been  bom  at  Trapani  in  1659.  He  composed  an  immense  number  of 
sacred  works,  including  two  hundred  masses.  But  he  became  better 
known  by  his  operas,  which  numbered  over  a  hundred.  About  one 
third  of  these  are  still  in  existence.  His  orchestral  writing  was  excel- 
lent, and  his  themes  full  of  vigor  and  charm.  He  did  much  to  estab- 
lish the  da  capo  aria,  in  which  the  first  part  returns  to  close  the  piece. 
His  overtures,  consisting  of  a  slow  section  between  two  quick  ones, 
became  very  popular.  He  also  wrote  harpsichord  or  spinet  works 
that  are  still  performed  by  pianists. 

Oratorio  arose  from  St.  Philip  Neri's  practice  of  having  music 
given  in  the  oratory  of  his  church.  The  transition  from  other  sacred 
works  to  oratorio  was  probably  gradual.  In  1600  came  Cavaliere's 
"Rappresentazione  di  anima  e  di  corpo,"  which  is  considered  the 
first  oratorio,  though  it  may  have  been  one  of  a  set  of  similar  works. 
It  shows  the  influence  of  the  morality  plays.  It  has  about  ninety 
numbers,  including  recitatives,  solos,  choruses,  part-songs,  and  an 
instrumental  intermezzo.  The  accompaniment  is  for  gravicemhalo, 
large  lute,  double  lyre,  and  two  flutes,  with  a  violin  to  aid  the  soprano. 

Carissimi  did  away  with  the  old  procedure  of  having  oratorio 
given  in  costume.  He  replaced  the  sacred  opera  or  play  idea  by 
oratorio  as  we  know  it  in  its  concert  form.  He  also  adhered  strictly 
to  Biblical  subjects,  treating  others  in  what  were  practically  can- 
tatas. Nearly  all  the  Italian  composers  who  came  just  after  Caris- 
simi tried  their  hand  at  oratorio;  but  their  work  was  not  very  dis- 
tinctive. Most  prominent  among  them  were  Alessandro  Scarlatti 
and  Stradella,  but  even  their  oratorios  did  not  have  the  permanent 
value  that  Handel  was  soon  to  give  to  the  form. 

Stradella  may  be  cited  as  an  instance  of  the  way  in  which  false 
anecdotes  thrive  in  the  musical  world.  There  is  a  well-known  and 


THE  HARMONIC  STYLE  63 

expressive  song  that  has  been  known  as  "Stradella's  Prayer."  The 
story-tellers  asserted  that  Stradella  was  in  love  with  a  noble  Roman 
lady,  who  returned  his  love;  that  her  brother  was  incensed,  and  hired 
assassins  to  kill  the  aspiring  musician;  and  that  these  assassins, 
waiting  outside  Stradella's  church  to  murder  him,  were  so  moved 
when  he  sang  the  "Prayer"  that  instead  of  attacking  him  they 
warned  him  and  gave  him  money  to  get  away.  The  story  sounds 
a  little  excessive  as  it  stands;  but  research  has  shown  that  the 
"Prayer"  in  question  was  not  by  Stradella  at  all,  and  was  not  writ- 
ten until  after  his  death. 

In  PYance,  opera  developed  from  the  ballet.  In  1581,  Baltazarini's 
"Ballet  comique  de  la  reine"  attracted  much  notice.  Under  Henry 
IV,  about  eighty  ballets  were  given  at  the  court.  Cambert  started 
producing  operas  in  1659,  but  he  was  soon  overshadowed  by  Lully. 

Jean  Baptiste  Lully,  bom  at  Florence  in  1633,  was  taken  to  Paris 
by  the  Due  de  Guise.  At  first  a  kitchen  scullion,  Lully  rapidly  bet- 
tered his  position  by  his  violin-playing.  Entering  the  private  band 
of  Louis  XIV,  he  soon  became  its  leader,  and  made  it  very  efficient. 
From  1653  he  was  court  composer,  producing  many  successful  bal- 
lets. Nearly  twenty  years  later  he  began  the  series  of  about  fifteen 
operas  that  made  him  famous.  He  had  a  hand  in  developing  the 
French  overture  form,  which  consists  of  a  slow  movement  followed 
by  a  quick  one,  and  sometimes  ending  with  another  slow  section. 

In  Germany  the  so-called  Singspiel  was  of  rather  elastic  character. 
It  included  the  solos  and  part-songs  that  were  so  popular  with  the 
German  people,  along  with  a  certain  minimum  of  spoken  dialogue. 
Not  far  different  from  this  tjrpe  were  the  first  German  operas,  — 
Schiitz's  "Dafne,"  in  1627,  and  Staden's  "Seelewig,"  in  1644.  The 
real  advance  came  with  the  opening  of  the  Hamburg  Opera-House, 
in  1678.  Reinhard  Keiser  soon  became  the  leader  of  this  enterprise, 
writing  over  one  hundred  and  sixteen  operas.  Other  composers  of 
the  school  were  Kusser,  the  violinist  Strungk,  and  Johann  Theile. 
The  operas  tended  toward  display,  and  sometimes  became  very 
spectacular  through  intricate  stage  appliances. 

England  had  something  in  the  nature  of  opera  in  1656,  when  "The 
Siege  of  Rhodes"  was  composed  by  five  native  musicians.  But  the 
chief  English  form  of  that  time  was  the  masque.  This  was  taken 
from  Italian  models  in  the  sixteenth  century,  but  made  into  some- 


64  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

thing  more  original  by  the  great  Ehzabethan  poets.  The  masque 
was  practically  a  private  theatrical  representation,  in  which  mem- 
bers of  cultivated  society  enacted  some  mythological  or  fanciful  plot, 
with  poetic  words  interspersed  with  dancing,  singing,  and  even  inci- 
dental pieces.  The  actors  were  more  or  less  disguised,  as  the  name 
of  such  musical  plays  would  indicate.  Masques  were  forbidden  by 
the  Puritans,  but  revived  after  the  restoration  of  Charles  IL  Yet 
the  Commonwealth  could  not  have  been  violently  opposed  to  the 
form,  as  the  Puritan  poet  Milton  included  it  in  his  works. 

The  music  to  these  poetic  affairs  was  written  by  the  most  gifted 
composers  of  the  time.  Among  these  were  Campion,  Lanier,  Lawes, 
Banister,  and  Pelham  Humfrey;  but  greater  than  all  was  Henry 
Purcell.  Humfrey  had  investigated  Lully's  work  at  Paris,  and 
brought  back  ideas  about  opera.  Purcell  made  use  of  these,  and 
wrote  a  number  of  real  operas  in  addition  to  the  customary  masques. 
Purcell  is  reckoned  by  many  as  England's  greatest  composer. 
Doubtless  this  title  is  fair  enough,  though  Dunstable  was  more 
widely  known  in  his  day.  Purcell  was  one  of  the  short-lived  geniuses, 
for  he  died  at  the  age  of  thirty-seven,  in  1674.  It  is  said  that  his 
death  was  caused  in  part  by  his  being  locked  out  of  his  house  in  the 
cold  after  a  rather  riotous  night  with  boon  companions;  but  he  was 
probably  as  steady-going  as  was  expected  at  that  time.  His  masques 
and  operas  together  number  about  forty.  Of  the  latter,  "King 
Arthur,"  with  Dryden's  words,  is  considered  the  greatest.  These 
operas  are  not  now  given,  although  "The  Faery  Queen"  was 
recently  revived  in  London  as  a  curiosity. 

The  name  of  Purcell  brings  into  notice  also  the  development  of 
instrumental  music.  The  Italians  were  the  pioneers  in  this  field. 
All  through  the  seventeenth  century  there  was  a  constantly  increas- 
ing repertoire  of  such  music.  The  perfecting  of  the  violin  and  the 
development  of  the  harpsichord,  spinet,  and  clavichord  did  much 
to  bring  this  about.  The  widespread  adoption  of  the  harmonic  style 
was  a  second  important  factor.  The  growth  of  the  old  dances  was 
another  incentive  to  the  composers. 

The  English  virginal  school,  previously  mentioned,  seemed  not  to 
develop  into  anything  definite,  in  spite  of  the  strikingly  modem 
effects  of  some  of  its  music.  But  it  may  have  had  an  influence  on 
Purcell.  Whether  he  followed  this  or  his  cherished  Italian  models, 


THE  HARMONIC  STYLE  65 

it  is  certain  that  he  produced  instrumental  music  of  the  most  valu- 
able character.  His  sonatas  for  various  combinations  of  instruments 
are  not  often  heard  at  present,  but  they  are  none  the  less  wonder- 
fully attractive.  In  recent  years  Arnold  Dolmetsch  and  others  have 
given  concerts  of  old  music  on  the  old  instruments.  In  these  the  va- 
riety of  harpsichord  effects  (due  to  the  many  pedals)  combines  most 
excellently  with  the  quiet,  plaintive  sweetness  of  the  viols  and  early 
wood-wind  instruments.  Under  such  conditions  the  seventeenth- 
century  music  shows  a  combination  of  earnestness  and  grace,  and 
seems  to  have  a  "sweet  reasonableness"  that  is  of  the  utmost  charm. 
Many  of  the  early  instrumental  composers  are  deemed  hardly  worthy 
of  mention  except  in  the  largest  histories;  but  the  musical  antiquary 
knows  the  worth  of  their  productions.  In  listening  to  these  works  the 
student  does  not  have  to  learn  any  forgotten  or  obsolete  methods  of 
expression.  He  will  acknowledge,  too,  that  such  imforced  and  spon- 
taneous music  is  really  more  pleasing  to  the  auditor  than  many  of 
the  contemporary  experiments  in  abstruse  harmony. 

Germany  was  perhaps  a  little  backward  in  instrumental  develop- 
ment; but  it  had  some  masters,  especially  in  the  domain  of  the  organ. 
Froberger,  Kerll,  Muffat,  and  Pachelbel  are  good  examples,  the  last 
three  coming  near  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Froberger 
was  for  a  time  imperial  organist  and  clavecinist  at  Vienna.  On  a 
trip  to  England  he  was  wrecked  and  robbed,  and  had  a  hard  time 
persuading  any  one  of  his  identity.  Finally  he  managed  to  get  a 
chance  at  an  organ.  Here  he  was  overheard  by  a  lady  who  had 
studied  with  him  on  the  Continent;  and  she  recognized  him  by  the 
brilliance  of  his  performance.  Charles  II  then  took  him  into  favor. 
He  put  his  reminiscences  of  all  this  into  a  comical  little  tone-pic- 
ture of  a  Channel  trip,  even  introducing  suggestions  of  seasickness. 
His  works  consist  of  brilliant  toccatas,  capriccios,  and  secular  suites. 
Kerll  also  wrote  for  harpsichord  as  well  as  organ;  and  his  solid  style 
is  said  to  foreshadow  that  of  Bach. 

The  student  who  v/ishes  to  go  more  minutely  into  the  early  epochs 
will  find  many  other  composers  of  this  period  described  in  Pratt's 
"History";  while  the  "Oxford  History"  and  Ambros  are  the  great 
authorities  for  the  contrapuntal  masters.  After  1700  the  develop- 
ment of  music  came  through  individuals  rather  than  schools,  and 
the  story  of  music  becomes  largely  an  account  of  the  great  composers. 


PART  II 
THE   GREAT  COMPOSERS 


VII 

BACH 

Soon  after  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  at  least  as  early  as 
1550,  we  may  find  mention  of  a  Thuringian  family  of  musicians 
named  Bach.  Hans  Bach,  of  Wechmar,  the  first  prominent  musician 
in  a  long  line,  lived  in  the  sixteenth  century.  His  son  Veit  died  in 
1619.  Of  Veit's  two  sons,  Hans,  called  "The  Player,"  died  in  1626. 
Hans  had  three  sons,  of  whom  Christoph  was  the  second.  Chris- 
toph's  second  son,  Johann  Ambrosius,  who  lived  at  Eisenach,  had 
three  sons  in  his  turn;  and  the  youngest  of  these  was  the  great 
Johann  Sebastian  Bach.  There  were  many  other  Bachs,  the  descend- 
ants of  the  original  Hans  numbering  about  four  hundred  in  three 
centuries.  But  among  them  all,  Johann  Sebastian  stands  preeminent 
as  a  world-genius,  far  above  even  his  most  gifted  sons. 

Johann  (or  John)  Sebastian  Bach  was  born  at  Eisenach  in  1685. 
His  parents  died  soon  after  his  birth,  and  he  was  brought  up  by  his 
brother  Johann  Christoph,  an  organist  in  a  little  village  near  Weimar. 
The  youngster  soon  displayed  musical  ability.  The  elder  brother, 
somewhat  of  a  martinet,  forbade  his  protege's  using  certain  manu- 
scripts; whereupon  the  young  enthusiast  copied  them  secretly  by 
moonlight,  thereby  laying  at  least  a  partial  foundation  for  the  blind- 
ness with  which  he  was  afflicted  in  later  life.  A  choir  position  in 
Luneburg  enabled  him  to  have  access  to  a  large  musical  library.  His 
violin-playing  won  him  a  post  at  Weimar,  but  in  1704  he  began  his 
real  career  by  becoming  town  organist  at  Amstadt. 

In  earlier  years  he  had  heard  Reinken  play,  and  from  Amstadt  he 
went  to  Lubeck  to  listen  to  Buxtehude.  Bach  was  much  influenced 
by  them,  and  became  a  devotee  of  all  that  was  best  in  the  old  contra- 
puntal style.  This,  as  already  described,  is  a  system  of  writing  in 
parts  that  flow  along  side  by  side,  instead  of  using  a  melody  sup- 
ported by  chords.  Sometimes  these  parts  are  comparatively  free; 
in  certain  cases,  however  (described  in  the  section  on  musical  form), 
they  must  obey  very  strict  and  intricate  rules.  Bach  not  only  made 
his  music  conform  to  the  rules,  but  did  it  with  a  freedom  and  skill 


70  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

that  allowed  him  to  keep  his  music  astonishingly  fresh  and  interest- 
ing. The  organ  was  the  scene  of  many  an  improvisation  by  him,  in 
which  masterly  command  of  musical  structure  and  design  was  united 
with  remarkable  expressive  power.  It  is  said  that  he  could  improvise 
an  intricate  fugue  with  more  ease  than  many  lesser  composers  would 
show  in  extemporising  a  simple  fantasie. 

At  Miihlhausen,  Bach  met  and  married  his  cousin  Maria  Barbara. 
He  was  a  man  who  held  family  life  in  the  highest  reverence,  like 
some  noble  patriarch  of  old.  After  his  first  wife's  death  he  married 
the  singer  Anna  Wiilken.  He  had  twenty  children  in  all;  and  as  most 
of  them  were  trained  by  him,  we  may  be  sure  that  there  was  much 
concerted  music  in  the  Bach  household.  With  such  a  large  family, 
it  was  almost  inevitable  that  Bach  should  suffer  poverty.  He  often 
had  to  see  much  less  gifted  musicians  chosen  over  his  head  to  fill 
lucrative  posts;  but  he  bore  all  his  troubles  with  a  cheerful  optimism 
that  gave  way  to  anger  only  when  any  one  spoke  slightingly  of  music 
in  his  hearing. 

Bach's  next  position  was  that  of  court  organist  to  the  Duke  of 
Weimar.  In  that  place  he  developed  his  powers  by  still  further  prac- 
tice, and  the  study  of  more  music,  including  the  early  Italian  com- 
positions. He  became  known  as  a  teacher,  and  began  to  write  some 
of  the  fugues,  suites,  and  Lutheran  cantatas  that  have  made  his 
name  immortal. 

Under  the  Prince  of  Anhalt-Cothen  (from  1717  to  1723),  he  had 
no  good  organ  within  reach,  but  devoted  himself  to  other  instru- 
ments, including  the  clavichord  and  harpsichord.  Here  he  composed 
the  first  part  of  his  famous  "Well-Tempered  Clavichord,"  a  set  of 
wonderful  fugues.  These  introduced  the  system  of  twelve  equal 
semitones,  to  replace  the  so-called  "scale  of  nature,"  which  had  been 
used  up  to  1700.  Here,  too,  he  wrote  concertos  and  other  instru- 
mental music. 

Bach's  next  position  took  him  to  Leipsic,  as  organist  of  the 
Thomas  Church  and  musical  director  in  the  Thomas  School.  Here 
he  remained  until  his  death  in  1750.  His  Leipsic  years  brought  him 
honor  and  glory,  even  if  wealth  seemed  far  away.  He  composed, 
taught,  played,  and  lived  out  his  admirable  domestic  career  in  a  way 
that  must  have  won  him  some  happiness,  even  if  his  life  was  un- 
eventful for  the  most  part. 


BACH  71 

In  1747,  his  fame  induced  Frederick  the  Great  to  send  him  an 
invitation  to  come  to  Potsdam.  His  son  Carl  Philipp  Emanuel  Bach 
held  a  permanent  musical  post  at  Frederick's  court,  and  at  last  the 
old  man  consented  to  go.  When  he  arrived,  Frederick  sprang  up 
from  supper,  saying,  "Old  Bach  is  here,"  and  hastened  to  receive 
the  distinguished  visitor.  Bach  played  on  the  King's  new  pianos, 
but  said  that  he  preferred  the  clavichord,  and  held  the  piano  fitted 
only  for  light  rondos  or  variations.  Then  he  improvised  a  four- 
voiced  (four-part)  fugue  on  a  subject  given  by  the  King,  and  he 
afterwards  elaborated  it  into  a  six-voiced  work  for  his  "Art  of 
Fugue."  After  he  left,  Frederick  sent  him  a  sum  of  money;  but  it 
was  embezzled  before  it  reached  its  destination. 

This  trip  may  have  hastened  Bach's  last  illnesses.  His  eyes,  none 
too  strong,  were  overtasked  by  his  engraving  the  plates  for  the  "Art 
of  Fugue,"  which  poverty  forced  him  to  do  for  himself.  Operations 
were  succeeded  by  blindness;  and  a  sudden  return  of  sight  was  only 
a  prelude  to  the  fit  of  apoplexy  that  killed  him. 

The  number  of  Bach's  works  is  enormous.  The  large  recent  edi- 
tion by  the  Bach  Society  includes  over  fifty  sizable  volumes.  His 
commanding  genius  was  not  fully  realized  during  his  life,  and  for 
more  than  a  century  after  his  death  most  of  his  works  remained  in 
manuscript.  When  Mendelssohn  and  others  began  to  unearth  them, 
a  number  of  these  manuscripts  were  lost.  But  among  those  that 
remain  are  examples  of  many  forms,  from  the  short  choral  to  the 
great  orchestral  suite  or  the  large  vocal-orchestral  Passion. 

Among  the  organ  works  are  nearly  a  score  of  long  preludes  and 
fugues;  a  few  toccatas;  and  many  choral-preludes  and  fantasias. 

For  clavichord  alone,  and  now  suitable  for  the  piano,  are  the 
forty-eight  preludes  and  fugues  of  the  "  Well-Tempered  Clavichord." 
Each  of  its  two  volumes  has  one  prelude  and  fugue  in  each  one  of  the 
twenty-four  possible  keys,  twelve  major  and  twelve  minor.  The  old 
Greek  scale  of  Pythagoras,  the  "scale  of  nature,"  based  on  mathe- 
matical intervals,  did  not  have  twelve  equal  semitones,  but  included 
tones  of  two  different  sizes,  and  kept  the  flats  and  sharps  much 
nearer  to  their  notes  than  at  present.  In  the  old  system,  for  example, 
C-sharp  was  lower  than  D-flat.  This  scale  did  not  allow  much  modu- 
lation, so  it  was  altered  slightly  to  what  was  known  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  as  "mean  temperament."    But  by  1691,  Werck- 


72  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

meisterand  others  advocated  the  equal-semitone  system;  and  Bach's 
great  collection  of  fugues,  of  which  the  first  volume  was  completed 
in  1722,  gave  it  permanence.  Bach's  other  clavier  worl^  include 
twelve  suites,  many  inventions  and  smaller  works,  "The  Musical 
Offering"  (1747)  and  "The  Art  of  Fugue"  (1749),  while  he  wrote 
also  about  a  dozen  concertos  for  one  or  more  claviers  (keyboard 
instnunents)  with  orchestra. 

The  hearer  who  is  unfamiliar  with  music  will  usually  find  himself 
unenlightened  when  listening  to  his  first  Bach  fugue.  But  if  he  per- 
severes, and  learns  to  understand  the  beauties  of  the  contrapuntal 
style,  he  will  open  for  himself  a  vast  treasure-house  of  musical  enjoy- 
ment. The  Bach  fugues  are  farthest  away  from  the  student's  nat- 
ural bent,  and  more  unlike  popular  music,  than  any  other  works 
now  in  the  repertoire.  In  developing  a  taste  for  most  of  the  classics, 
the  student  learns  that  tinkling  tunes  are  not  a  necessity,  and  that 
the  general  pervading  tunefulness  of  a  classical  piece  may  be  treated 
in  better  ways,  and  with  far  more  variety,  than  a  hard-and-fast  tune 
in  conventional  sections  of  monotonously  equal  length.  But  the 
student  still  seeks  for  bits  of  melodious  work,  supported  by  chords, 
such  as  he  is  accustomed  to. 

In  the  fugue,  the  listener  must  take  a  still  more  radical  step.  He 
must  give  up  hunting  for  melody  supported  by  chords,  and  in  place 
of  that  he  must  imagine  a  musical  method  in  which  there  are  various 
parts  (called  "voices")  proceeding  together.  In  harmonic  WTiting, 
the  chords  support  the  melody  just  as  the  piers  of  a  bridge  uphold 
its  superstructure.  But  in  counterpoint,  the  different  parts  are  inter- 
woven to  form  a  whole,  more  in  the  way  that  strands  are  wound  to 
make  up  a  rope,  or  colored  threads  interwoven  to  form  a  delicate 
tapestry. 

The  chief  possibility  of  importance  in  counterpoint  is  that  of  imi- 
tation. A  phrase,  or  theme,  or  figure,  which  is  used  in  one  voice, 
may  be  repeated  in  another,  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  balance  and 
contrast  to  the  work  in  which  it  occurs.  By  repeating  the  motive 
judiciously,  the  composer  evolves  an  actual  musical  design.  To 
those  who  are  trained  to  appreciate  the  contrapuntal  works,  this 
sense  of  design,  or  perception  of  graceful  structure,  is  a  matter  of 
keen  delight.  The  fugue  is  the  most  intricate  of  all  the  contrapuntal 
designs.  In  it  the  whole  work  is  practically  developed  out  of  a  single 


BACH  73 

theme,  called  the  subject.  Such  a  subject  should  always  be  short 
and  striking,  so  that  the  hearer  may  grasp  it  at  once.  At  first  the 
subject  is  echoed  and  reechoed  by  the  different  voices,  in  well-bal- 
anced and  orderly  succession.  Then  follow  various  passages  built 
out  of  the  subject.  In  some  of  these  it  is  used  in  part  as  an  accom- 
paniment for  itself,  while  in  others  certain  figures  or  fragments 
taken  from  it  are  employed  to  build  up  apparently  new  effects. 

As  an  instance  of  the  way  in  which  Bach  could  rearrange  and 
develop  the  briefest  of  themes,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  fifth 
fugue  in  volume  II  of  the  "Clavichord"  set.  In  this  the  first  nine 
notes  form  the  subject.  The  figure  of  the  last  four  notes  in  the 
subject  is  used  to  build  up  episodes;  and  the  reader  may  amuse 
himself  by  taking  a  pencil  and  seeing  how  many  appearances  of 
this  figure  he  can  mark  or  pick  out  in  the  entire  fugue.  Further 
details  of  this  and  other  fugues  will  be  found  in  the  last  chapter 
on  musical  form. 

Bach's  chamber  works  include  concerts  pieces  for  various  com- 
binations of  solo  instruments.  He  wrote  also  sonatas  and  other  worlis 
for  violin,  flute,  or  viola  da  gamba  (large  'cello-like  viol),  with  clavier, 
as  well  as  similar  pieces  for  violin,  viola  pomposa  (large  viola),  or 
'cello  alone.  One  of  the  most  famous  violin  pieces  in  the  repertoire 
is  the  chaconne,  for  the  solo  instrument,  taken  from  one  of  the  Bach 
sonatas.  This  chaconne  has  become  a  sort  of  test  piece  for  great 
players. 

Bach's  orchestral  works  include  suites,  overtures,  and  various 
concertos.  Among  the  latter,  the  so-called  Brandenburg  concertos 
are  still  favorites  with  the  public.  These  and  the  suites  are  very 
strong  and  direct  in  their  effect,  and  clearly  melodious  in  spite  of 
their  somewhat  contrapuntal  structure.  The  D-major  suite  has  a 
wonderfully  fine  overture,  full  of  beautiful  harmonies;  a  broadly 
effective  air;  and  a  striking  gavotte.  The  gem  of  the  B-minor  suite, 
which  comes  next  in  popularity,  is  the  exquisite  "Badinerie,"  in 
which  a  solo  flute  is  made  to  carry  on  an  inimitably  delightful 
dialogue  with  the  orchestra.  But  it  is  hardly  fair  to  make  special 
citations,  for  Bach's  orchestral  works  are  almost  all  highly  interest- 
ing. They  do  not  aim  to  be  strongly  dramatic,  but  they  flow  along 
with  calm  dignity,  or  easy  grace,  or  compelling  enthusiasmi 

Bach  wrote  a  great  many  secular  cantatas,  serenades,  and  other 


74  THE   BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

vocal  works.  Among  the  former  are  two  humorous  ones  —  a  "Peas- 
ants' Cantata,"  showing  some  of  the  trials  of  country  life,  and  a 
"Coffee  Cantata,"  in  which  a  wiKul  girl  is  held  back  from  afternoon 
coffee-parties,  with  their  attendant  gossip,  only  by  the  promise  of 
having  a  husband  given  to  her. 

Among  the  vocal  works  are  many  motets,  cantatas,  etc.,  for  use 
in  the  Lutheran  service.  These  comprise  about  two  thirds  of  five 
complete  sets  of  works  for  the  entire  church  year. 

Bach  composed  also  five  large  masses,  a  number  of  smaller  ones, 
and  two  Magnificats.  More  important  than  these,  however,  are  the 
five  Passions  (of  which  two  are  lost  and  one  doubtful),  the  long  six- 
part  "Christmas  Oratorio,"  and  similar  works  for  Easter  and 
Ascension.  The  "St.  Matthew  Passion,"  the  most  famous  of  the 
sacred  works,  is  still  performed  with  some  frequency.  It  contains 
many  great  touches,  such  as  the  shouts  of  the  crowd  to  free  Barab- 
bas,  the  picture  of  the  trampling  footsteps  of  the  mob,  and  the  great 
final  chorus  of  sorrow.  Of  the  other  works,  the  "  Christmas  Oratorio  " 
is  best  known  by  its  pastorale,  which  figures  on  many  orchestral 
programmes  when  Christmas  is  approaching. 

In  spite  of  the  great  variety  of  forms  used  by  Bach,  there  are  cer- 
tain very  definite  qualities  common  to  all  his  music. 

First  of  all,  as  already  stated,  his  works  are  built  wholly  or  partly 
on  the  contrapuntal  system.  Even  in  his  most  clearly  melodious 
compositions,  such  as  the  orchestral  suites,  there  is  some  contra- 
puntal imitation;  and  there  is  almost  always  part-writing,  which 
constitutes  counterpoint  in  its  simplest  form. 

Bach  was  a  master  of  rhythm.  All  his  pieces  appeal  to  us  by  their 
clearness  of  accent  and  steadiness  of  flow.  This  is  one  of  the  points 
that  make  his  fugues  so  great,  for  their  straightforward  rhythm 
allows  the  various  parts  to  come  clearly  to  the  auditor's  ear.  There 
is  no  monotony  about  it,  no  lack  of  variety  in  rhythm;  but  the  style 
is  always  clean-cut,  and  never  confused. 

The  third  quality  to  be  noted  in  Bach's  music  is  the  beauty  and 
originality  of  his  harmonies.  They  do  not  glow  with  the  impression- 
ism of  the  modem  score-masters;  but  they,  too,  are  clear  and  clean- 
cut,  or  blended  into  one  another  with  the  most  exquisite  delicacy. 
Bach  did  not  try  to  "tear  passion  to  tatters,"  in  the  exaggerated 
fashion  of  certain  later  composers;  but  he  could  show  an  emotional 


BACH  75 

power  that  has  proved  to  be  deeply  effective,  even  if  somewhat 
repressed  and  quiet. 

Incidentally,  it  must  not  be  claimed  from  the  last  paragraph  that 
Bach  strove  for  the  harmonic  style.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  he  always 
held  to  counterpoint.  He  summed  up  and  perfected  the  style  of  his 
predecessors.  His  improvisations  grew  famous  because  of  their 
wonderful  contrapimtal  intricacy.  When  he  played  for  Reinken,  the 
latter,  then  an  old  man,  grew  devoutly  thankful  that  the  art  of  the 
past  was  thus  nobly  cherished,  in  defiance  of  conditions  which  were 
even  then  changing. 

Of  Bach's  sons,  the  eldest,  Wilhelm  Friedemann,  was  an  erratic 
but  highly  gifted  composer,  whose  orchestral  works  show  a  wild 
power  that  was  remarkable  for  a  time  so  long  before  Beethoven. 
Carl  Philipp  Emanuel  found  time,  when  not  composing  sonatas  or 
accompanying  the  flute  of  Frederick  the  Great,  to  write  a  notable 
work  on  "The  True  Art  of  Piano-Playing."  Johann  Christian  be- 
came famous  in  London,  wrote  symphonies,  and  helped  to  popularize 
the  early  pianos,  besides  composing  curious  little  tone-pictures,  such 
as  "  The  Battle  of  Rossbach."  Battle-pieces  have  been  popular  with 
the  composers,  and  in  this  one  we  see  the  usual  devices  —  marching 
of  troops,  trumpet  fanfares,  the  rattle  of  musketry,  deep  notes  giv- 
ing the  booming  of  cannon,  and  so  on.  In  this  piece  the  cries  of  the 
woimded  are  present,  being  misprinted  into  "Les  I'Amendations  des 
Blesses."  All  this  may  have  earned  money.  It  was  infinitely  below 
the  lofty  earnestness  of  his  father's  work;  but  after  the  father's 
death,  poverty  made  his  family  separate  in  their  search  for  suste- 
nance. Descendants  of  the  great  Bach  kept  the  line  in  existence 
until  1846,  when  the  family  became  extinct. 

Among  the  pioneers  in  the  sonata,  which  became  important  as  a 
form  underlying  many  modem  works,  Domenico  Scarlatti  was  one 
of  the  earliest.  The  sonata  form  is  described  in  a  chapter  of  its  own, 
in  the  musical-form  section.  Here  it  may  be  stated  that  one  of  the 
chief  ideas  of  the  form  in  classical  times  was  its  adaptability  for  good 
contrast  in  styles  of  themes.  The  sonatas  of  Scarlatti  are  little  more 
than  dance-fantasias,  and  they  were  frequently  written  in  one  move- 
ment, where  the  later  sonata  had  three  or  four.  Scarlatti's  piano 
work  is  mentioned  in  the  article  on  famous  pianists,  in  this  volume. 
He  composed  operas,  but  was  best  known  in  connection  with  the 


76  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

harpsichord.  It  was  he  who  wrote  the  so-called  "cat  fugue,"  using 
as  his  subject  the  notes  played  by  a  pet  cat  as  it  stalked  along  his 
keyboard.  But  he  is  best  known  for  his  harmonic  work,  his  primi- 
tive sonatas  helping  to  perpetuate  the  homophonic  style. 

Paradisi  and  Galuppi  were  two  Italians  who  produced  some- 
what more  ambitious  sonatas.  In  their  works  the  sonata  had  more 
than  one  movement.  The  chief  movement  had  two  contrasted 
themes,  then  a  so-called  development  that  began  with  the  chief 
theme,  and  a  recapitulation  beginning  with  the  second  theme.  But 
the  form  had  not  yet  become  wholly  definite  in  shape.  Another 
Italian  deserving  mention  is  Sammartini,  who  wrote  sonatas  and 
symphonies  that  foreshadowed  those  of  Haydn. 

Bach's  sonatas  showed  a  grasp  of  the  possibilities  of  thematic  con- 
trast. But  his  devotion  to  contrapuntal  expression  prevented  these 
works  from  becoming  models  for  the  harmonic  composers,  in  spite 
of  Bach's  greatness.  His  contemporary  Kuhnau  was  more  in  line 
with  the  subsequent  developments.  But  if  Bach's  sonatas  took  no 
part  in  the  evolution  of  the  form,  those  of  his  son  Carl  Philipp 
Emanuel  were  decidedly  more  productive  of  results.  It  was  the 
latter  composer  who  led  the  way  to  the  real  beginning  of  the  sonata; 
and  one  of  his  works,  coming  to  Haydn's  attention,  showed  the  later 
genius  the  possibilities  of  the  new  form. 

Bach  had  no  great  successor  in  the  field  of  actual  church-service 
music.  Karl  Heinrich  Graun  was  the  leader  of  a  German  group.  He 
is  known  by  his  oratorio,  "The  Death  of  Jesus,"  certain  numbers 
of  which  are  still  occasionally  heard  in  concert.  In  Italy  Padre  Mar- 
tini, Pergolesi,  and  Jommelli  deserve  mention  for  their  church  works; 
but  nearly  all  the  early  Italian  opera  composers  tried  their  hand  at 
sacred  music  also. 

In  the  clavier  field,  Francois  Couperin  and  Jean  Philippe  Rameau 
developed  an  attractive  French  school  of  harpsichord  (or  spinet) 
works.  Where  the  Italians  had  produced  sonatas  and  suites,  these 
two  and  their  followers  wrote  many  light  but  pleasing  tone-pictures. 


VIII 

HANDEL 

Georg  Friedrich  Handel  (whose  last  name  was  afterwards 
anglicized  to  Handel)  was  bom  at  Halle,  in  1685.  As  this  was  the 
year  of  Bach's  birth,  these  two  pioneers  have  sometimes  been  called 
the  "Siamese  Twins  of  Music."  But  the  resemblance  between  them 
is  not  close  enough  to  justify  the  title.  Both  were  composers,  and 
both  wrote  in  a  more  or  less  contrapuntal  style;  but  Handel  strove 
for  dramatic  effect,  and  emphasized  harmony.  Where  Bach  summed 
up  the  glories  of  the  past,  Handel  foreshadowed  those  of  the  future. 

During  childhood,  Handel  showed  an  early  devotion  to  music. 
Finding  himself  discouraged,  he  is  said  to  have  used  a  clavichord 
in  the  garret  of  his  house,  upon  which  he  could  practise  in  secret. 
When  seven  years  old,  he  asked  to  be  taken  with  his  father  on  a  visit 
which  the  latter  was  playing  to  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Weissenfels.  This 
the  father  refused  altogether.  But  when  the  carriage  had  gone  a 
little  way,  it  was  found  that  the  youngster  had  run  after  it,  and  was 
clinging  on  behind.  His  persistence  caused  him  to  be  taken  along, 
with  perhaps  decisive  results  upon  his  career;  for  the  Duke,  on  hear- 
ing him  play,  advised  his  father  earnestly  to  let  the  boy  devote  him- 
self to  the  music  that  he  loved  so  irresistibly.  Handel  was  therefore 
put  under  a  good  teacher,  by  name  Zachau;  and  four  years  later  he 
was  taken  to  Berlin  as  a  prodigy. 

After  a  university  course,  with  organist  work,  at  Halle,  Handel 
entered  upon  an  important  phase  of  his  career  by  becoming  a  violin- 
ist in  Reiser's  orchestra  at  the  Hamburg  Opera-House.  Here  he 
became  intimate  with  Mattheson. 

The  first  incident  in  this  friendship  was  a  trip  to  Liibeck.  The 
pair  went  thither  in  search  of  the  post  of  city  organist.  The  old 
Buxtehude,  who  had  held  the  post  for  many  years,  was  about  to 
retire;  but  he  had  made  it  a  condition  that  his  successor  should  marry 
his  daughter.  After  looking  over  the  situation  (and  the  lady  in  the 
case),  the  two  young  aspirants  withdrew  from  the  contest. 


78  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Handel  soon  became  known  as  a  composer,  starting  his  operatic 
career  in  1704,  with  "  Almira,"  and  producing  a  Passion  in  the  same 
year.  He  also  attained  a  higher  rank  in  the  orchestra;  for  when 
Keiser  was  once  unexpectedly  absent,  Handel  stepped  into  the 
vacant  place,  and  became  the  conductor.  This  position  he  held  with 
firm  control;  but  it  brought  him  into  another  episode  with  Mat- 
theson,  which  might  have  proved  fatal.  Handel  refused  to  let 
Mattheson  lead  parts  of  an  opera  which  the  latter  had  written;  and 
after  the  performance  the  composer  was  so  angered  that  he  boxed 
the  arbitrary  conductor's  ears.  The  two  drew  swords  at  once,  and 
began  a  duel.  Mattheson  broke  through  Handel's  guard,  but,  fortu- 
nately for  the  world,  his  weapon  snapped  against  a  large  button  on 
Handel's  coat. 

After  three  years  or  so  at  Hamburg,  Handel  betook  himself  to 
Italy.  There  he  had  the  keyboard  duel  with  Scarlatti  that  is  men- 
tioned in  the  chapter  on  famous  pianists,  in  this  book.  He  travelled 
about,  receiving  honors  in  Florence,  Venice,  Rome,  and  Naples. 
He  made  his  operas  conform  to  Italian  standards,  which  were  even 
then  becoming  conventional. 

On  returning  to  Germany,  Handel  accepted  a  post  with  the 
Elector  of  Hanover.  He  had  leave  to  travel,  and  went  to  London, 
where  his  "Rinaldo"  made  a  hit  in  1711.  He  liked  London  so  well 
that  on  a  second  visit  he  decided  to  stay,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  his 
leave  of  absence  had  expired.  It  was,  therefore,  a  decided  surprise 
to  him  when  his  former  electoral  master  was  called  to  London  to 
succeed  Queen  Anne  as  George  I  of  England.  Handel  kept  in  hiding 
for  a  time.  At  length  a  friend  gave  him  a  chance  of  reinstating  him- 
self in  favor,  and  he  summoned  his  musical  genius  to  his  aid.  The 
King  was  to  give  a  water-party  upon  the  Thames.  As  the  procession 
floated  along  the  river,  an  unknown  boat  drew  near  to  the  royal 
barge.  The  occupants  of  the  strange  boat  played  some  new  and 
very  beautiful  music.  This,  in  accordance  with  the  plan  formed, 
caught  the  King's  attention,  and  caused  him  to  investigate.  When 
he  found  that  this  attractive  surprise  was  the  work  of  his  old  ser- 
vant Handel,  he  at  once  asked  the  composer  aboard  the  royal  boat, 
and  pardoned  him.  The  composition,  known  as  the  "Water  Music," 
is  still  heard  occasionally  in  orchestral  concerts. 

Handel  then  received  royal  pensions.   For  some  years,  too,  he 


HANDEL  79 

was  in  the  pay  of  the  rich  Duke  of  Chandos,  under  whom  he  com- 
posed his  first  oratorio,  "Esther,"  in  1720. 

In  that  year  an  opera  company  was  formed,  with  Handel  and  the 
Italian  Bononcini  as  directors.  This  company  lasted  for  eight  years, 
but  in  all  except  the  first  of  these  there  was  bitter  strife  between  the 
two  directors.  Many  partisans  took  sides,  and  the  political  parties 
even  became  involved,  to  say  nothing  of  the  fierce  rivalry  among  the 
singers.  It  was  this  bickering  which  brought  the  sopranos  Cuzzoni 
and  Faustina  to  blows.  It  also  led  Dean  Swift  to  write  the  rhymes, — 

"Some  say,  compared  to  Bononcini, 
That  Mynheer  Handel 's  but  a  ninny; 
Others  aver,  that  he  to  Handel 
Is  scarcely  fit  to  hold  a  candle; 
Strange  all  this  difference  should  be 
'Twixt  Tweedledimi  and  Tweedledee." 

The  rivalry  continued  after  the  company  had  broken  up  in  riotous 
dispute;  for  Handel  considered  it  right  to  start  a  company  of  his 
own,  and  produce  his  own  operas,  which  immediately  caused  his 
opponents  to  start  another  company.  Bononcini  failed  to  please,  in 
spite  of  the  backing  of  the  Marlboroughs;  but  after  his  relapse  into 
obscurity,  Porpora,  Hasse,  and  others  were  called  to  replace  him. 
As  a  result,  both  companies  lost  money,  and  finally  failed. 

But  this  failure  proved  a  blessing  to  music,  for  it  made  Handel 
turn  definitely  to  the  oratorio  form.  After  producing  "Saul," 
"Israel  in  Egypt,"  and  similar  works,  he  brought  out  his  master- 
piece, "The  Messiah,"  in  1742.  This  is  a  work  that  still  stands  at 
the  head  of  the  repertoire,  nearly  two  centuries  after  it  was  written. 
It  shows  most  admirably  its  composer's  sure  touch,  varied  power  of 
utterance,  and  control  of  strong  dramatic  effect.  This  work  alone 
was  enough  to  win  Handel  a  lasting  renown.  For  ten  years  after 
producing  it  he  continued  writing  oratorios,  but  he  never  quite 
equalled  it  again.  Like  Bach,  Handel  became  blind  in  his  last  years; 
but  he  bore  the  affliction  with  equanimity,  and  continued  his  activ- 
ity in  music.  He  died  in  1759. 

Handel  was  a  hard  and  quick  worker.  His  great  "Messiah"  took 
him  only  about  three  weeks  to  write.  The  inspiring  nature  of  the 
subject  must  have  helped  him  to  compose  rapidly,  for  he  stated  that 
when  he  began  the  "Hallelujah"  chorus,  it  seemed  as  if  "all  Heaven 


80  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

and  Earth  were  lying  open  to  his  gaze."  Handel  sometimes  adopted 
the  themes  of  others,  and  some  critics  have  christened  him  "the 
great  robber";  but  the  percentage  of  plagiarized  work  is  so  infinitely- 
small,  in  comparison  with  the  composer's  own  achievements,  that 
it  cannot  count  against  him.  Yet  it  is  true  that  he  did  sometimes 
adopt  a  theme  from  other  composers,  much  as  he  transferred  themes 
from  his  own  early  works  into  later  ones.  His  song  "Lascia  ch'  io 
pianga"  figures  originally  as  a  sarabande  in  his  first  opera,  "  Almira." 
When  reproached  with  stealing  a  melody  from  a  certain  composer, 
Handel  once  replied,  "  That  pig  does  n't  know  what  to  do  with  such 
a  tune."  This  gives  a  clue  to  the  fact  that  while  a  short  melody 
might  be  borrowed,  its  treatment  and  development  were  the  com- 
poser's own;  and  he  beautified  whatever  he  appropriated. 

Handel  was  bluff  and  hearty  in  character  —  rather  arbitrary,  as 
was  necessary  for  an  opera  manager,  but  always  honest,  and  even 
generous.  He  had  a  tremendous  appetite,  and  is  shown  in  caricature 
with  a  hog's  head,  sitting  before  an  organ  decorated  with  sausages, 
ham,  and  other  solid  foods.  He  never  married.  Once  he  aspired  to 
win  a  young  lady's  hand;  but  her  father  resented  the  attentions  of  a 
"mere  fiddler."  Later,  when  Handel  grew  famous,  the  father  inti- 
mated that  he  would  withdraw  his  opposition;  but  by  that  time  the 
composer's  ardor  had  cooled. 

Handel's  operas  soon  dropped  out  of  the  repertoire.  They  were 
cast  in  the  conventional  mould  of  the  time,  and  grew  moribund  even 
before  Gluck's  reforms  introduced  higher  artistic  ideals.  The  Han- 
delian  operas  were  nearly  all  based  on  legendary  subjects,  usually 
mythological.  There  were  always  three  acts.  The  number  of  char- 
acters was  prescribed,  six  or  seven  of  a  certain  kind  being  always 
expected.  Each  of  these  characters  had  to  have  a  fixed  number  of 
appearances  in  concerted  or  solo  work,  and  the  latter  consisted  of 
arias  of  prescribed  character.  These  operas  were  tremendously  pop- 
ular in  their  day,  the  heroine's  costume  in  "Rodelinda"  being 
adopted  as  a  national  uniform  of  youth  and  beauty.  But  the  system 
was  too  conventional  to  last. 

Yet  if  Handel  did  not  try  to  be  a  reformer  in  opera,  he  at  least 
imbued  his  works  with  the  strength  of  his  own  genius.  Many  single 
numbers  from  these  operas  are  very  much  alive  to-day,  even  though 
the  operas  themselves  are  buried.  His  dramatic  power  of  expression 


HANDEL  81 

was  strikingly  great,  and  it  is  shown  in  dozens  of  these  selections 
which  are  still  heard.  Thus  the  famous  Largo,  so  familiar  in  its 
piano  or  violin  shape,  was  originally  a  number  in  "  Xerxes,"  in  which 
the  Persian  monarch  praised  the  grateful  shade  of  the  plane  tree 
under  which  he  encamped. 

Handel's  secular  cantatas  offer  a  similar  group  of  famous  solos. 
A  very  few  examples  may  well  include  "  0  ruddier  than  the  cherry," 
from  "Acis  and  Galatea";  the  brilliant  soprano  aria  "Sweet  bird," 
from  "II  Penseroso,"  full  of  warblings  that  imitate  the  nightingale; 
the  strong  "Revenge,  Timotheus  cries,"  from  "Alexander's  Feast"; 
or  the  expressive  "Angels  ever  bright  and  fair,"  from  the  more  ambi- 
tious "Theodora." 

The  oratorios  offer  a  still  larger  selection;  and  this  is  especially 
true  of  the  "Messiah,"  in  which  great  songs  are  as  thick  as  black- 
berries in  August.  The  very  first  two  vocal  numbers,  the  recitative 
"Comfort  ye"  and  the  air  "Ev'ry  valley,"  are  famous  solos  for  the 
tenor,  while  "Thou  shalt  break  them"  is  another  tour-de-force.  The 
contralto  has  the  bright  air  "0  thou  that  tellest  good  tidings,"  and 
the  expressive  "He  was  despised."  For  soprano  there  are  the  bril- 
liant solo  "Rejoice  greatly,"  and  the  wonderful  air  "I  know  that 
my  Redeemer  liveth."  The  bass  has  the  vigorous  "Why  do  the 
nations  so  furiously  rage,"  and  "The  trumpet  shall  sound,"  which  is 
a  duet  between  the  singer  and  the  instrument.  The  choruses,  too, 
though  less  apt  to  be  given  as  single  numbers,  are  of  the  most  glori- 
ous sort.  Best  among  them  are  the  characteristic  "All  we,  like 
sheep,"  the  powerful  "Unto  us  a  Son  is  bom,"  the  tremendously 
broad  "Hallelujah"  chorus,  and  the  finale  of  the  work. 

Handel  wrote  some  orchestral  works,  chiefly  overtures.  These, 
however,  are  not  often  heard,  except  when  attached  to  an  oratorio. 
They  are  mostly  in  what  is  known  as  the  French  form,  consisting  of 
a  slow  movement  followed  by  a  rapid  section,  the  latter  usually  a 
fugue.  His  orchestral  concertos  are  still  performed. 

Handel's  anthems  were  written  mostly  while  he  was  choirmaster 
for  the  Duke  of  Chandos.  At  the  same  time  he  wrote  a  number  of 
harpsichord  pieces,  including  fugues.  These  are  good,  though  they 
are  below  the  Bach  fugues  in  value  and  interest. 

Handel's  music  is  often  surprisingly  modem  in  character.  In  the 
harmonic  work  of  his  oratorios  he  foreshadowed  the  classical  period 


82  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

that  came  many  decades  after  his  death.  Oratorio,  unlike  opera, 
was  not  fettered  by  traditional  or  conventional  rules,  so  Handel 
could  make  of  it  all  that  his  genius  permitted.  His  success  in  this 
form  led  to  an  English  cult  of  oratorio  and  cantata  that  is  still  in  a 
flourishing  state,  even  if  it  has  not  produced  master-works.  Handel 
wrote  for  immediate  success.  If  his  works  lack  the  deeper  qualities 
and  the  more  involved  intellectuality  of  Bach,  they  were  far  more 
directly  effective  in  their  day;  and  they  deserve  all  their  renown. 

Handel  experimented  with  the  orchestra,  trying  out  lutes,  harps, 
and  early  clarinets.  His  introduction  of  horns  aroused  much  criti- 
cism. As  conductor,  the  composer  often  led  his  work  by  playing  at 
the  harpsichord  or  organ.  He  thus  filled  out  harmonies  which  were 
left  in  a  more  rudimentary  state  in  the  written  score.  It  has  there- 
fore been  found  necessary  for  later  musicians  to  fill  in  the  scoring  of 
certain  works  by  Handel,  the  chief  examples  being  two  versions  of 
the  "Messiah,"  one  arranged  by  Mozart  and  the  other  by  Robert 
Franz. 

Of  the  Hamburg  school  of  opera,  both  Mattheson  and  Telemann 
outlived  Handel.  The  former  wrote  few  works  with  much  effort, 
while  the  latter  composed  freely,  but  rather  superficially.  Other 
German  cities  soon  followed  Hamburg's  lead;  and  operas  by  Graup- 
ner,  Stolzel,  Graun,  and  their  kind  were  heard  in  Darmstadt,  Bres- 
lau,  Prague,  Berlin,  and  other  places.  Frederick  the  Great,  famous 
as  a  patron  of  music,  was  also  a  composer,  writing  the  opera,  "  II  Re 
Pastore." 

Italian  opera,  brought  to  its  climax  of  popularity  by  Alessandro 
Scarlatti,  was  carried  on  by  many  composers.  Antonio  Lotti  won 
success  in  many  fields  at  Venice.  Domenico  Scarlatti  wrote  several 
dramatic  works;  while  Mancini,  Sarri,  and  Fago  kept  the  school  in 
activity.  Porpora  wrote  nearly  fifty  operas,  but  was  best  known  as 
a  singing  teacher.  The  names  of  Feo,  Durante,  Leo,  and  the  artist 
Da  Vinci  are  somewhat  more  important,  and  bring  opera  to  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century;  but  none  of  their  stage  works  sur- 
vived for  long.  The  old  operas  were  comparatively  simple  in  struc- 
ture, and  as  a  result  they  were  produced  by  hundreds. 

Two  composers  of  a  later  generation  who  became  known  in  opera 
were  Nicola  Jommelli,  in  Italy,  and  Johann  Adolph  Hasse,  in 
Germany. 


HANDEL  83 

A  school  of  light  opera  had  its  rise  in  Naples.  Pergolesi,  known  by 
expressive  church  works,  won  a  tremendous  success  with  the  comedy 
"La  Serva  Padrona."  Logroscino,  who  followed  him,  developed 
grand  ensembles  at  the  ends  of  his  acts.  Galuppi,  who  is  apostro- 
phized in  one  of  Browning's  poems,  wrote  the  "Toccata"  that 
Browning  describes,  and  other  organ  works,  but  was  better  known 
by  his  many  operas,  the  light  ones  earning  him  the  title  of  "the 
father  of  opera  buffa." 

French  opera  offered  Campra  and  Destouches,  but  was  more  ably 
represented  by  Jean  Philippe  Rameau.  His  works  gradually  re- 
placed those  of  Lully,  from  which  they  did  not  differ  radically, 
although  he  was  more  gifted  musically.  Rameau  became  known 
by  an  early  treatise  on  harmony.  It  was  this  composer  who  once 
said,  "Music  is  dead,"  meaning  that  about  all  possible  combinations 
of  tone  had  been  worked  out,  and  nothing  new  could  be  found.  But 
since  then  music  has  been  pretty  lively  for  a  corpse,  as  the  long  list 
of  subsequent  masters  will  show. 

Jean  Jacques  Rousseau,  the  philosopher,  was  another  well-known 
opera  composer  of  the  time.  His  "Devin  du  Village"  made  a  great 
success,  while  his  later  "Pygmalion"  laid  the  foundations  of  melo- 
drama. Rousseau  championed  the  Italian  company  that  came  to 
Paris  with  Italian  singers  and  operas.  The  resulting  dispute  be- 
tween the  upholders  of  French  and  of  Italian  standards  was  known 
as  the  "  Guerre  des  Buffons."  After  an  acrimonious  struggle,  French 
opSra  comique  won  the  ascendancy. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  forgotten  operas  are  necessarily 
weak  or  unmusical.  Rousseau's  works  are  very  tuneful.  Revivals 
of  dramatic  works  by  Rameau,  Purcell,  and  others  show  that  these 
composers  wrote  good  music,  even  if  their  operas  are  cast  in  an 
archaic  mould.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Italians,  of  whom  Lotti 
and  the  Scarlattis  were  really  gifted  musicians.  If  the  Scarlatti 
operas  are  on  the  shelf,  the  piano  repertoire  still  contains  a  number 
of  pieces  by  both  the  elder  and  younger  Scarlatti.  Those  who  heard 
Paderewski's  early  programmes  will  remember  that  they  almost 
always  began  with  a  selection  from  these  compositions.  In  the 
violin  field,  Kreisler  and  Ysaye  have  won  remarkable  successes  with 
the  works  of  such  early  composers  as  Couperin,  Vitali,  Pugnani, 
Vivaldi,  and  others  of  the  sort;  while  the  compositions  of  Tartini 


84  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL   KNOWLEDGE 

are  often  played.  Musical  changes  are  sometimes  an  affair  of  manner 
rather  than  matter;  and  the  music  of  the  late  sixteenth  and  early- 
seventeenth  centuries  often  shows  the  rarest  beauty,  when  it  has 
once  been  unearthed  from  the  dust  of  ages. 

England  did  not  follow  Handel's  lead  in  opera,  but  even  during 
his  life  developed  a  school  resembling  the  German  Singspiel,  and 
known  as  the  ballad-opera.  In  this  a  number  of  songs  were  strung 
together  on  a  thread  of  dialogue,  to  make  an  amusing  or  satirical 
work.  The  first  example  of  this  form  was  the  "Beggar's  Opera," 
the  music  composed  and  arranged  by  Pepusch.  The  work  had  a 
great  success.  As  Gay  wrote  the  words  and  Rich  produced  the 
affair  (in  1728),  it  was  said  to  have  made  Gay  rich  and  Rich  gay. 

Henry  Carey,  sometimes  considered  the  composer  of  "  God  save 
the  King,"  was  another  writer  of  ballad-operas.  He  ridiculed  the 
bombastic  style  of  certain  Italian  operas,  and  satirized  it  very  ef- 
fectively. 

Of  a  later  date  was  Thomas  Augustine  Ame,  now  known  by  his 
dainty  settings  of  certain  lyrics  from  Shakespeare's  plays.  Ame 
wrote  oratorios,  operas,  masques,  and  other  dramatic  works.  He 
was  the  composer  of  the  popular  English  song  "Rule,  Britannia." 

In  spite  of  the  genius  of  Purcell  and  Handel,  which  kept  English 
opera  abreast  of  that  in  other  countries  during  their  lives,  England 
did  not  influence  the  development  of  opera.  The  ballad-opera  was 
not  high  enough  in  aim  to  inspire  imitation  in  other  countries.  More- 
over, it  soon  changed  its  character,  and  grew  into  the  over-senti- 
mental affair  that  retarded  musical  progress  in  England  until  quite 
recently. 


IX 

GLUCK 

Cristoph  Willibald  Gluck  was  born  at  Weidenwang,  in  Bo- 
hemia, in  1714.  He  studied  in  a  Jesuit  school  at  Komotau,  where 
he  learned  something  of  the  clavier,  the  organ,  the  violin,  the  'cello, 
and  singing.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  went  to  Prague,  where  he 
gave  lessons  and  played  at  rustic  gatherings.  Four  years  later  he 
came  to  the  notice  of  Prince  Lobkowitz  in  Vienna,  and  through  that 
prince  he  became  known  to  Coimt  Melzi,  who  took  him  to  Milan  for 
lessons  with  Sammartini. 

Gluck's  first  opera  was  brought  out  at  Milan  in  1741.  Although 
in  the  conventional  style,  or  perhaps  because  of  that  fact,  it  was 
popular  enough,  and  resulted  in  his  obtaining  many  commissions, 
A  London  trip  in  1745  was  not  successful,  because  Handel  held  the 
public  notice.  Visits  to  Hamburg  and  Dresden  brought  Gluck  at 
last  to  Vienna,  which  he  made  his  home.  Yet  he  continued  to  make 
trips,  which  ranged  from  Copenhagen  to  Naples.  At  Rome  the 
Pope  made  him  a  Chevalier  of  the  Golden  Spur;  and  for  this  reason 
he  became  known  as  "Ritter  von  Gluck." 

Many  of  his  works  at  this  period  were  on  texts  by  Metastasio. 
These  were  poetic  enough  at  times,  but  always  cast  in  the  conven- 
tional mould  of  the  day.  Even  in  setting  these,  however,  Gluck 
began  to  show  a  gradual  departure  from  ordinary  models  and  a  vein 
of  originality.  Such  works  as  his  "  Telemacco"  and  "  II  Re  Pastore" 
contained  hints  of  growing  individual  genius,  and  the  overture  of 
the  latter  proved  especially  effective.  Gluck  was  also  successful  in 
light  comedies,  such  as  "La  Rencontre  Imprevue."  But  now  he 
turned  to  more  serious  paths,  with  Calzabigi  as  librettist. 

The  first  example  of  Gluck's  new  style  was  "Orfeo  ed  Euridice," 
which  appeared  in  1762.  There  was  still  some  degree  of  conventional 
melodic  utterance,  which  may  be  seen  even  in  the  famous  solo  "I 
have  lost  my  Eurydice."  This  is  so  smooth  in  character  that  it 
might  equally  well  have  been  set  to  the  words,  "  I  have  found  my 


86  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Eurydice."  But  there  were  many  dramatic  touches  in  the  opera, 
such  as  the  barking  of  Cerberus,  the  threatening  refusal  of  the 
Furies  to  aid  Orpheus,  or  the  final  loss  of  Eurydice.  Gluck  was  de- 
veloping the  idea  that  operatic  music  should  not  be  a  set  of  mean- 
ingless melodies,  but  should  bring  out  the  dramatic  possibilities  of 
the  text.  The  Viennese  public  were  somewhat  bewildered  at  first, 
but  finally  accepted  the  new  work. 

Gluck  continued  with  "Alceste,"  on  another  of  the  Calzabigi 
librettos.  This  work,  brought  out  in  1767,  was  not  a  popular  success, 
because  of  the  gloomy  nature  of  its  subject. 

"Paride  ed  Elena,"  with  another  Calzabigi  text,  appeared  in  1770. 
It  showed  a  remarkable  control  of  romantic  lyricism,  and  contained 
many  strong  bits  of  solo  work.  By  this  time  Gluck  had  built  up  a 
considerable  appreciation  of  his  works  at  Vienna,  though  there  were 
adverse  critics  also.  Later,  he  met  with  the  same  experience  in 
Paris. 

It  was  not  until  1774  that  his  first  Parisian  work  was  brought 
out.  This  opera,  "Iphigenie  en  Aulide"  (Racine),  was  not  one  of 
the  best  in  the  new  style,  although  it  has  an  effective  overture.  The 
incompetence  of  the  performers  and  the  machinations  of  enemies 
delayed  the  production  considerably;  and  in  the  end  its  appearance 
was  due  largely  to  the  efforts  of  Marie  Antoinette.  That  unfortu- 
nate queen  had  known  Gluck  during  her  girlhood  at  Vienna,  and  in 
Paris  she  became  an  enthusiastic  patroness  of  his  works.  Jean 
Jacques  Rousseau,  himself  a  gifted  composer,  was  another  ardent 
supporter  of  Gluck.  But  there  were  many  opponents,  who  were  not 
only  ready  to  use  caricature  and  paragraph,  but  would  actually 
fight  duels  over  the  merits  of  the  new  operas. 

Gliick's  next  work  was  "Armide,"  which  was  given  in  1777.  It 
was  based  on  an  old  Quinault  text  which  had  been  set  by  Lully. 
This  opera  showed  much  romantic  beauty,  though  it  did  not  suc- 
ceed at  once. 

In  the  mean  time,  Gluck's  opponents  had  rallied  around  the 
Italian  Piccini,  who  represented  the  old  school  of  mellifluous  but 
meaningless  tunes.  Finally  it  was  suggested  that  the  rival  composers 
should  set  the  same  libretto,  "Iphigenie  en  Tauride";  and  this  they 
agreed  to  do.  Gluck  finished  his  setting  very  quickly,  but  had  to 
wait  some  time  for  that  of  Piccini.  The  two  were  finally  performed 


GLUCK 


HAYDN 


THE   MOZART  FAMILY 


V 


GLUCK  87 

in  1781.  Gluck's  work,  given  first,  made  a  tremendous  impression, 
while  Piccini's  production  fell  flat.  The  latter's  singers,  knowing 
that  failure  lay  ahead,  had  attempted  to  drown  some  of  their  sor- 
rows in  copious  libations.  The  prima  donna's  condition  was  espe- 
cially noticeable;  and  a  Parisian  wit  was  moved  to  cry  out,  "This 
is  not  Iphigenia  in  Tauris,  but  Iphigenia  in  Champagne."  Such 
sarcasms  gave  the  final  blow  to  Gluck's  rivals,  and  his  greatness 
was  acknowledged  by  the  musical  public. 

Gluck  died  at  Vienna  in  1787,  after  some  years  of  failing  health. 

Gluck's  earlier  years  have  been  held  by  some  critics  as  wasted; 
but  this  is  too  harsh  a  verdict.  His  earlier  operas,  to  be  sure,  are 
never  heard,  and  contain  nothing  of  real  artistic  originality.  But 
their  very  composition  must  have  been  of  value  to  the  composer  as 
so  much  technical  training.  His  close  acquaintance  with  existing 
styles  led  him  gradually  to  see  their  weakness,  just  as  Wagner's 
early  conducting  of  Italian  opera  caused  him  to  notice  its  hopeless 
conventionality. 

The  main  idea  of  Gluck  in  reforming  opera  was  to  bring  back  to 
it  the  dramatic  truth  and  significance  that  really  belonged  to  it. 
When  Peri  and  Caccini  founded  opera  by  trying  to  revive  the  ancient 
Greek  dramatic  ideals,  they  based  their  work  on  principles  that  were 
much  like  those  of  Gluck.  Their  melody  and  instrumentation  was 
much  more  primitive,  but  they  were  striving,  nevertheless,  to  let 
the  music  echo  the  ideas  of  the  text. 

Gradually  opera  began  to  take  shape  as  a  singing-concert,  which 
grew  to  have  wholly  conventional  structure  in  the  days  of  Handel. 
Such  a  musical  form  can  certainly  display  charm  of  a  vocally  melo- 
dic sort;  and  the  great  arias  of  Handel  are  still  favorite  concert  num- 
bers. But  until  the  principle  was  definitely  formulated  that  operatic 
music  should  support  its  text,  no  real  progress  toward  a  dramatic 
school  was  possible.  Individual  composers  could  work  toward  the 
truth,  but  a  reformer  was  needed  to  show  how  much  of  the  older 
conventionality  should  be  discarded.  That  reformer  was  Gluck. 

Even  in  his  early  works,  Gluck  did  not  adopt  the  florid  style  of 
Handel.  The  latter,  on  hearing  a  Gluck  opera  in  London,  said  of  its 
composer,  "He  knows  no  more  of  counterpoint  than  my  cook." 
But  as  Handel's  cook.  Waltz,  was  something  of  a  musician,  the 
comment  was  not  so  adverse  as  it  might  appear  at  first  sight. 


88  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

'  Gluck  dropped  the  old  French  overture  form,  and  adopted  that 
of  the  prelude,  or  introduction  leading  directly  into  the  play.  While 
his  later  overtures  were  worthy  classical  compositions,  the  descrip- 
tive nature  of  their  themes  was  made  to  conform  with  the  scenes 
that  would  follow.  The  old  rules  about  the  necessary  kinds  and 
numbers  of  arias  were  entirely  discarded.  This  meant  that  the  poet 
had  a  freer  hand  to  produce  something  of  literary  and  dramatic 
merit.  The  music  was  considered  as  following  the  text,  and  empha- 
sizing the  emotion  brought  out  by  the  dramatic  situation. 

The  orchestra,  too,  was  given  more  important  work  than  merely 
supporting  the  voices  or  indulging  in  occasional  short  passages.  It 
became  an  integral  part  of  the  dramatic  scheme.  The  touches  men- 
tioned above  in  "Orpheus"  (the  barking  of  Cerberus  and  the  gruff 
anger  of  the  PXiries)  are  only  a  few  of  many  that  may  be  found  in  the 
score.  In  "Iphig^nie  en  Tauride"  are  found  wild  tone-pictures  of 
barbarous  Scythian  revelry,  or  gloomy  mutterings  to  accompany 
the  exhaustion  of  Orestes.  The  other  operas  in  the  "great  six"  show 
equally  skilful  instrumental  touches. 

Works  of  this  sort  were  far  more  important  than  the  conventional 
strings  of  melody  that  earlier  writers  had  thrown  off  by  the  hun- 
dred. The  composer  could  not  toss  them  off  with  the  slight  attention 
demanded  by  works  of  the  former  school;  instead,  he  had  to  study 
his  text  and  characters,  and  put  into  the  music  real  expressive 
power  and  dramatic  force.  The  performers,  too,  had  to  understand 
the  aims  of  the  new  system  before  they  could  do  their  work  prop- 
erly. The  public  had  to  be  educated  up  to  entirely  new  standards, 
as  was  the  case  with  Wagner's  music  in  later  years.  Opera  was 
changed  from  an  entertaining  variety-concert  to  a  true  art-work; 
and  it  was  inevitable  that  some  who  understood  the  former  should 
be  unable  to  learn  to  appreciate  the  latter.  The  progress  made  by 
Gluck  in  the  direction  of  dramatic  strength  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
his  later  works  are  occasionally  given  even  to-day,  almost  a  century 
and  a  half  after  their  creation.  Gluck  did  not  discard  lyricism,  but 
used  it  as  a  means  for  dramatic  expression,  instead  of  an  excuse  for 
the  display  of  singers.  His  reforms  cleared  the  way  for  modem  opera, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  Rossini  reverted  to  the  type  of  florid  and 
meaningless  vocalism. 

Nicolo  Piccini,  who  sometimes  misspelled  his  own  name  as  Niccolo 


GLUCK  89 

Piccinni,  was  one  of  a  flourishing  school  that  had  its  headquarters 
at  Naples.  Ke  was  not  without  his  meed  of  deserved  fame;  for  he 
entered  into  competition  with  Logroscino,  and  supplanted  the  latter 
in  the  field  of  comic  opera.  His  command  of  melody  was  great,  and 
he  showed  an  admirable  mastery  of  concerted  finales.  He  was  really 
an  unwilling  rival  of  Gluck.  He  fulfilled  the  commissions  given  to 
him,  but  finally  acknowledged  his  rival's  greatness  with  absolute 
frankness.  After  the  latter's  death,  Piccini  even  tried  to  collect 
funds  for  an  annual  concert  of  Gluck's  works.  Piccini  wrote  over 
one  hundred  and  thirty  operas,  some  of  which  served  as  models  for 
Mozart  in  the  latter's  earlier  years. 

Antonio  Sacchini  was  a  fisher-boy,  whose  gifts  were  discovered  by 
Durante.  He  wrote  comic  operas  for  Naples,  and  showed  a  popular 
freshness  of  style  that  made  him  a  rival  of  Hccini.  He  composed 
also  for  orchestra  and  for  clavier. 

Tommaso  Traetta  saw  his  operas  produced  in  such  various  cities 
as  Vienna,  Parma,  Venice,  London,  and  St.  Petersburg.  He  was 
first  known  as  a  church  composer.  He  had  good  ideas  of  dramatic 
values,  and  even  foreshadowed  some  of  Gluck's  reforms. 

Other  opera  composers  of  this  time  were  Pietro  Guglielmi,  who 
was  able  to  rival  Cimarosa  and  Paisiello;  Johann  Christian  Bach, 
who  wrote  operas  in  Milan  and  London;  and  Johann  Gottlieb  Nau- 
mann,  who  won  fame  in  (Germany,  Denmark,  and  Sweden. 

Giovanni  Paisiello  (1741-1816)  wrote  many  symphonies  and 
quartets,  but  was  best  known  by  his  operas.  His  works  showed 
much  spontaneous  melody,  and  his  accompaniments  were  often 
original  and  ingenious.  His  operas  are  sometimes  strongly  dramatic, 
but  more  often  piquant  and  charming  in  style.  He  composed  at  the 
Russian  Court  for  eight  years,  and  afterwards  became  a  favorite 
of  Napoleon  at  Paris.  His  "Barber  of  Seville"  was  very  popular, 
and  for  some  time  prevented  Rossini's  work  on  the  same  subject 
from  becoming  well  known. 

Domenico  Cimarosa  (1749-1801)  was  almost  as  gifted  as  Mozart 
in  opera.  He  soon  became  a  competitor  of  Paisiello,  and  afterwards 
succeeded  the  latter  at  St.  Petersburg.  This  period  was  followed 
by  further  successes  in  Vienna  and  Italy.  Cimarosa  was  very  popu- 
lar, and  received  high  salaries.  His  best  work  is  "II  Matrimonio 
Segreto,"  produced  at  Vienna  m  1792;  but  many  of  his  other  works 


90  THE   BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

were  almost  as  great.  The  dainty  lightness  of  Mozart's  operas  had 
its  rise  in  the  works  of  Piccini,  Paisiello,  and  Cimarosa. 

Giuseppe  Sarti  worked  in  Italy,  Denmark,  and  St.  Petersbm-g.  In 
the  last-named  place  he  wrote  much  sacred  music.  He  was  the 
author  of  an  extraordinary  attack  on  Mozart's  quartets. 

Karl  Ditters  von  Dittersdorf  (1739-1799)  composed  many 
quartets,  some  concertos,  and  over  a  hundred  symphonies.  He 
wrote  oratorios  too,  but  was  best  known  by  his  comic  operas,  of 
which  "Doktor  und  Apotheker"  still  holds  the  boards  in  Germany. 

In  Paris,  Pierre  Montan  Berton  produced  a  few  operas  of  his  own 
before  becoming  a  Gluck  partisan. 

Francois  Danican-Philidor,  the  chess  expert,  was  another  Pari- 
sian opera-composer.  He  was  best  known  in  comic  opera,  and  won 
much  success  with  his  concerted  numbers  —  trios,  quartets,  etc. 

Pierre  Alexandre  Monsigny  (1729-1817)  devoted  himself  to 
comic  opera  when  forty  years  old.  He  showed  some  dramatic  in- 
stinct, but  lacked  technical  skill. 

Andr^  Ernest  Modeste  Gretry  (1741-1813)  was  a  contemporary 
and  successor  of  Monsigny,  whom  he  eclipsed  in  fame.  Gretry 
showed  a  marked  ability  to  handle  musical  declamation,  a  certain 
gift  of  melody,  and  an  excellent  dramatic  success.  He  became  known 
by  such  comedies  as  "Zemire  et  Azor,"  "Le  Tableau  Parlant,"  and 
"L'Amant  Jalouse,"  and  entered  the  serious  field  with  "Richard 
Coeur-de-Lion."  An  aria  from  the  last-named,  entitled  "0  Richard, 
0  mon  roi,"  is  still  a  popular  solo  number.  Gretry 's  operas  were 
orchestrated  very  thinly,  so  that  the  later  composers  have  some- 
times found  it  advisable  to  enrich  their  accompaniment.  These 
works  are  not  now  given,  except  as  curiosities;  but  many  individual 
songs  taken  from  them  are  still  effective  numbers  in  the  concert 
singer's  repertoire.  The  operas  as  a  whole  lack  the  variety  and 
dramatic  force  that  contemporary  audiences  demand;  but  that  is 
no  bar  to  the  enjoyment  of  short  selections  from  their  pages. 


HAYDN 

Franz  Josef  Haydn  was  born  on  March  31,  1732,  at  the  little 
Austrian  village  of  Rohrau.  His  parents  were  peasants,  and  his  home 
was  a  one-story  farmhouse.  He  showed  musical  inclinations  at  a 
very  early  age,  and  was  trained  to  some  extent  by  a  cousin  named 
Frankh.  At  length  he  was  heard  by  Reutter,  choir-director  in  the 
Vienna  Cathedral,  who  persuaded  the  lad's  parents  to  let  him  sing 
in  the  choir  of  St.  Stephen's. 

While  Frankh  was  severe  but  earnest,  Reutter  was  neither,  and 
neglected  his  protege  altogether;  so  that  while  Haydn  came  to  feel 
grateful  to  Frankh,  he  could  remember  only  two  lessons  given  to  him 
by  Reutter.  But  the  young  Franz  kept  on  at  the  church  singing, 
until  his  voice  broke,  and  he  was  replaced  by  his  brother  Michael. 
Misfortune  was  now  upon  him.  The  Empress  of  Austria  had  said 
of  him,  "Yoimg  Haydn  sings  like  a  crow"  ;  and  perhaps  this  re- 
mark, as  much  as  a  prank  played  on  a  fellow  student,  caused  his 
dismissal.  At  any  rate,  Haydn  found  himself  discharged,  after  a 
flogging,  when  seventeen  years  old. 

As  a  return  home  might  have  involved  the  giving-up  of  music, 
Haydn  determined  to  stay  in  Vienna.  He  lived  largely  on  the  charity 
of  friends,  taught  whenever  he  got  a  chance,  and  played  violin  for 
dances.  Meanwhile  he  continued  his  studies.  He  used  as  models 
Fux's  "  Gradus  ad  Pamassum,"  Mattheson's  works,  and  a  set  of  six 
sonatas  by  Carl  Philipp  Emanuel  Bach. 

An  unexpected  loan  from  a  kindly  tradesman  named  Buchholtz 
enabled  Haydn  to  hire  a  garret  of  his  own.  Through  this  he  met 
Metastasio,  who  not  only  brought  him  fashionable  pupils,  but 
introduced  him  to  Porpora.  Haydn  became  the  latter's  valet  in 
exchange  for  lessons;  and  he  has  been  sometimes  nicknamed  "Por- 
pora's  boot-black."  But  Porpora  helped  Haydn  greatly,  by  letting 
him  accompany  or  sit  by  at  the  lessons  of  richer  pupils.  Here  Haydn 
learned  composition  as  well  as  singing. 


92  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

At  twenty,  Haydn  had  written  his  first  mass,  and  one  of  the  comic 
operas  that  have  been  lost  since  that  time.  Three  years  later  he 
produced  his  first  string  quartet.  Soon  his  early  sonatas  gained  the 
notice  of  aristocracy.  Countess  Thun  brought  him  a  set  of  fashion- 
able pupils,  and  induced  Count  Morzin  to  engage  him  as  private 
orchestral  director.  In  that  position  he  composed  many  string 
quartets,  and  at  last  tried  his  hand  at  a  symphony,  in  1759. 

A  year  later  Haydn  married,  with  unfortunate  results.  He  had 
been  in  love  with  the  younger  daughter  of  a  wig-maker  named 
Keller,  and  had  tried  to  win  her  hand;  but  she  was  deeply  religious, 
and  at  last  disappointed  him  by  becoming  a  nun.  The  father  then 
suggested  that  Haydn  should  marry  her  elder  sister;  and  the  com- 
poser finally  did  so.  The  result  was  most  unhappy  for  the  obliging 
Haydn;  his  wife  became  selfishly  extravagant,  and  proved  to  be  a 
consummate  virago. 

In  1761,  Haydn  was  appointed  second  conductor  to  Prince 
Anton  Esterhazy.  When  that  patron  of  music  died,  his  successor, 
Prince  Nicholas,  made  Haydn  first  conductor,  with  a  reasonable 
salary;  and  Haydn  stayed  in  this  position  until  his  master's  death, 
in  1790. 

The  first  contract,  with  Prince  Anton,  showed  that  musicians  in 
those  days  were  practically  servants.  The  composer  was  directed 
to  be  strictly  temperate,  and  to  avoid  any  coarseness  in  eating,  dress, 
or  manners;  while  he  was  addressed  as  "Er,"  in  the  contemptuous 
third  person  reserved  for  underlings. 

But  in  spite  of  all  this,  the  composer  "lived  happily  ever  after." 
He  was  master  of  a  band  of  sixteen  musicians,  to  say  nothing  of 
singers  in  addition;  he  had  time  to  compose  as  much  as  he  wished; 
and  he  began  to  receive  money  for  the  sale  of  his  works,  which  were 
constantly  growing  in  public  appreciation.  He  remained  in  seclusion 
mostly,  writing  the  many  symphonies  and  string  quartets  that  have 
made  him  famous,  and  that  earned  him  medals,  rings,  and  other 
testimonials  during  his  life.  He  might  have  finished  his  career  in 
this  fashion;  but  in  1790  his  patron  died,  and  his  orchestra  was  dis- 
banded. 

Haydn  was  now  able  to  travel  freely;  and  an  English  manager 
named  Salomon  induced  him  to  visit  London.  In  that  capital  he 
received  the  highest  honors.  The  six  symphonies  that  he  had  com- 


HAYDN  93 

posed  for  British  perfonnance  met  with  an  enthusiastic  reception; 
the  Prince  of  Wales  entertained  him  for  three  days;  Oxford  gave 
him  an  honorary  doctor's  degree;  and  fashionable  pupils  flocked  to 
him  at  high  prices. 

By  1792  he  was  back  in  Vienna,  where  the  entire  city  dehghted  to 
honor  him.  At  that  time  a  young  man  named  Beethoven  came 
to  take  lessons  of  him,  at  the  rate  of  twenty  cents  an  hour.  Haydn 
rather  neglected  the  young  man  at  first,  perhaps  because  he  was 
used  to  higher  rates.  After  a  time  Beethoven  grew  so  independent, 
in  demeanor  as  well  as  composition,  that  Haydn  christened  him 
"the  Great  Mogul." 

Haydn  took  six  more  symphonies  to  London  in  1794.  On  this 
trip  he  was  invited  to  stay  at  Windsor  Castle;  but  he  preferred  to 
return  to  Vienna. 

The  English  enthusiasm  for  "God  save  the  King"  caused  Haydn 
to  decide  upon  writing  the  Austrian  National  Hymn.  Such  deliber- 
ate attempts  to  produce  national  music  are  almost  always  failures; 
but  in  this  case  the  song  proved  a  great  success. 

London  influenced  him  still  further  by  its  oratorio  music,  espe- 
cially that  of  Handel;  and  Haydn  determined  to  enter  this  field  also. 
His  first  effort,  "The  Creation,"  met  with  much  success  at  Vienna 
and  elsewhere,  and  is  still  a  favorite  with  oratorio  societies.  Haydn, 
like  Handel,  felt  that  his  gifts  were  the  result  of  divine  inspiration; 
and  this  was  shown  at  a  performance  of  "The  Creation,"  which 
took  place  shortly  before  his  death.  At  the  words,  "'Let  there  be 
light,'  —  and  there  was  light,"  a  striking  change  from  minor  to 
major  occurs.  On  that  day  nature  aided  the  effect;  for  while  the 
day  had  been  overcast,  the  sun  burst  forth  at  these  words.  The 
auditors  were  thrilled  by  this  coincidence;  and  the  aged  composer 
arose  in  excitement,  and  exclaimed,  pointing  to  heaven,  "It  all 
came  from  there." 

"The  Creation"  was  followed  by  "The  Seasons";  but  the  drudg- 
ery of  composition,  united  to  the  fervor  of  creative  work,  weakened 
the  composer  considerably.  He  spent  his  last  years  in  comparative 
inactivity,  and  died  at  Vienna  in  1809.  While  he  was  on  his  death- 
bed. Napoleon's  forces  were  bombarding  the  city.  His  servants  were 
terrified,  but  he  reassured  them  by  saying,  "You  are  safe  with 
Haydn."    During  the  same  bombardment,  Beethoven  took  to  a 


94  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

cellar  —  not  from  any  lack  of  bravery,  but  because  of  fear  that  the 
noise  of  the  guns  would  ruin  his  already  impaired  hearing.  When 
the  city  was  taken,  some  of  the  French  officers  bore  testimony  to 
Haydn's  fame  by  visiting  him  on  his  deathbed,  and  attending  his 
funeral. 

Haydn  is  now  known  by  his  symphonies,  his  sonatas,  and  the  two 
works  in  oratorio  form.  But  he  was  very  versatile,  and  attempted 
almost  everything  except  organ  pieces.  His  vocal  works  include 
masses,  operas,  and  songs.  The  operas  are  practically  all  lost, 
though  remnants  of  some  are  discovered  now  and  then.  Once  Haydn 
thought  that  his  chief  mission  would  be  the  composing  of  operas; 
but  he  grew  into  orchestral  work.  Among  his  songs,  such  a  dainty 
lyric  as  "My  mother  bids  me  bind  my  hair"  proves  that  he  could 
write  vocal  music  with  the  most  charming  grace.  Brahms  resusci- 
tated a  chorale  theme  by  Haydn  as  a  subject  for  variations;  but  too 
many  of  the  earlier  composer's  vocal  works  have  been  allowed  to 
lapse  into  undeserved  oblivion. 

The  orchestra  of  Haydn  was  somewhat  variable.  It  consisted  of 
the  usual  string  parts,  with  the  variation  occurring  in  the  wind  in- 
struments. The  former  were  divided  into  first  and  second  violins, 
violas,  'cellos,  and  contrabasses,  as  at  present.  The  latter  ranged 
from  oboes  and  horns  up  to  a  fairly  full  list  of  wood-wind  and  brass 
instruments,  though  mostly  without  clarinets.  The  later  classical 
orchestra,  as  developed  from  the  Haydn  model  by  Beethoven,  had 
four  wood-wind  parts  and  three  brass  parts,  the  former  being  flutes, 
oboes,  clarinets,  and  bassoons,  while  the  latter  were  horns,  trumpets, 
and  at  the  last,  trombones.  The  kettledrums  completed  the  list; 
and  Haydn's  naive  use  of  a  loud  kettledrum  stroke  in  the  "  Surprise  " 
symphony  was  very  effective  in  its  day. 

Haydn's  several  hundred  instrumental  works  include  about  one 
hundred  and  twenty-five  symphonies,  thirty  trios,  seventy-seven 
string  quartets,  about  one  hundred  pieces  for  various  chamber  com- 
binations, thirty-one  concertos  for  various  instruments,  and  about 
fifty  sonatas  or  other  works  for  clavier.  In  Haydn's  time  the  clavier 
(keyed  instrument)  still  referred  to  the  clavichord  or  harpsichord. 
The  piano  had  been  invented  in  1711,  but  it  did  not  become  really 
popular  until  Beethoven  turned  the  scale  in  its  favor  by  writing 
music  that  was  too  powerful  for  the  earlier  instruments.  The  best 


HAYDN  95 

of  Haydn's  clavier  works  are  found  in  the  volume  of  "Ten  Cele* 
brated  Sonatas"  by  him,  while  his  most  famous  symphonies  have 
been  gathered  into  a  similar  group  of  ten,  and  a  larger  set  of  twenty- 
four.  Haydn  wrote  also  nearly  two  hundred  solos  for  the  baryton, 
the  so-called  viola  di  bordone  that  had  s)nnpathetic  strings  like  the 
viola  d'  amore.  These  pieces  were  for  his  princely  master,  who  foimd 
much  pleasure  in  pla3dng  them  himself. 

With  Haydn  the  sonata  took  shape  at  last.  The  form  was  no 
longer  experimental,  as  in  the  hands  of  Galuppi,  Paradisi,  or  Bach's 
sons.  It  had  at  last  crystallized  into  something  definite,  which  Haydn 
and  Mozart  used,  and  which  Beethoven  brought  to  a  grand  culmi- 
nation. This  form  is  described  in  the  section  on  "  Musical  Form," 
in  this  work;  but  one  may  state  here  that  its  excellence  depended 
on  the  two  artistic  principles  of  balance  and  contrast.  The  three 
or  four  movements  forming  the  sonata  or  symphony  or  other  work 
in  sonata  form  were  in  contrasted  style,  and  in  so  far  were  an  out- 
growth of  the  old  suite  movements.  The  sonata  allegro  form,  upon 
which  so  many  movements  or  portions  of  orchestral  works  are  built, 
shows  three  main  divisions, — themes,  development  of  a  new  musical 
structure  from  the  thematic  material,  and  a  return  of  the  themes. 
The  first  and  second  of  these  themes  were  usually  well  contrasted, 
the  former  being  bold,  while  the  latter  was  often  tender  and  lyrical; 
and  a  short  closing  theme  followed  them.  While  the  sonata  allegro 
had  its  recognizable  divisions,  its  chief  strength  lay  in  the  fact  that 
it  did  not  hamper  composers.  The  great  sonata  writers,  especially 
Beethoven,  could  create  the  most  powerful  and  dramatic  music 
while  keeping  strictly  to  the  prescribed  outlines  of  the  form. 

Haydn's  style  was  not  that  of  a  Beethoven.  The  earlier  composer 
did  not  scale  Olympus,  nor  talk  in  the  accents  of  the  gods.  His 
utterances  consisted  rather  of  unaffected  bits  of  cheerfulness.  Some 
of  his  symphonies  seem  rather  artless  and  naive  when  judged  by 
modern  standards;  but  they  still  hold  our  interest.  They  have  suf- 
ficient vigor  and  virility  to  prevent  their  directness  from  becoming 
too  simple  in  effect.  There  is  strength  as  well  as  optimism  in  Haydn's 
music.  It  has  its  own  beauty,  too,  though  its  charms  are  those  of  a 
simpler  harmonic  system  than  that  used  by  the  more  recent  or- 
chestral colorists.  For  a  time  it  was  customary  to  call  him  "Papa 
Haydn,"  and  sneer  at  his  simplicity;  but  his  works  still  show  the 


96  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

charm  of  refreshing  directness.  At  the  time  of  their  composition, 
they  were  of  value  as  pioneer  work  in  the  orchestral  field.  Even 
Beethoven  followed  the  Haydn  models  at  first. 

If  Haydn's  symphonies  are  still  heard  on  their  own  merits,  the 
same  is  doubly  true  of  his  string  quartets.  In  these  his  clear  style 
and  calm  serenity  are  very  much  in  place;  so  that  they  still  remain 
models  of  their  school.  The  slow  movements  are,  perhaps,  a  little 
too  dragging  for  modem  standards,  but  apart  from  that  point  these 
quartets  hold  their  own  easily  against  nearly  all  later  works  in  the 
same  form. 

Haydn's  brother  Michael  became  noted  as  a  church  composer,  but 
he  was  a  good  orchestral  writer  also.  He  composed  over  two  dozen 
symphonies,  and  several  chamber  works;  but  he  kept  most  of  these 
in  manuscript,  and  thus  failed  to  have  any  great  influence. 

The  symphony  received  an  early  development  at  the  hands  of 
the  Mannheim  group  of  violinists.  Johann  Stamitz  was  the  pioneer 
of  this  group,  writing  nearly  fifty  symphonies  before  his  early  death 
in  1757.  These  symphonies  figured  frequently  on  early  programmes 
in  the  United  States,  which  are  admirably  described  by  Oscar  G. 
Sonneck  in  his  "  Early  Concert  Life  in  America."  Other  symphonists 
of  the  Mannheim  group  included  Franz  Xaver  Richter,  Anton 
Filtz,  Christian  Cannabich,  Ignaz  Holzbauer,  Eichner,  Toeschi, 
Beck,  Karl  Stamitz,  and  Anton  Stamitz.  All  these  men  composed 
symphonies,  and  made  the  growing  form  known  in  many  different 
places.  Others,  from  different  cities,  were  Schwindl,  Wagenseil, 
Wanhal,  Pichl,  Roessler,  Wranitzky,  Pleyel,  and  Wolf.  Many  of 
their  works  were  known  and  heard  in  the  eighteenth-century  pro- 
grammes of  our  own  coimtry,  and  "the  celebrated  Wranitzky,"  as 
he  was  called,  was  at  one  time  held  as  a  rival  of  Haydn. 

More  important  in  symphonic  development  was  Frangois  Joseph 
Gossec,  who  was  known  at  Paris  as  an  opera  composer.  His  sym- 
phonies and  string  quartets  showed  real  value. 

Luigi  Boccherini  was  an  Italian  symphonist  —  rather  a  lonely 
figure,  for  Italy  soon  reverted  wholly  to  opera  of  a  popular  variety, 
and  let  Germany  develop  the  classical  school  unaided.  He  com- 
posed some  S3anphonies  and  very  many  chamber  works. 

Dittersdorf  worked  in  this  field  also,  producing  about  fifty  sym- 
phonies. 


HAYDN  97 

Leopold  Hoffmann  wrote  church  music  in  Vienna,  and  at  the  same 
time  composed  such  clever  orchestral  works  that  he  is  said  to  have 
delayed  the  recognition  of  Haydn's  genius  for  some  time.  Haydn, 
however,  showed  more  virility  thap  many  of  his  contemporaries,  so 
that  their  works  are  now  little  kijovm. 


MOZART 

Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart,  "composer  by  the  grace  of  God," 
was  bom  at  Salzburg  on  January  27,  1756.  His  full  name  was 
Johann  Chrysostom  Wolfgang  Theophilus  Mozart.  His  father, 
Leopold,  was  a  musician  of  some  standing,  in  the  service  of  the  local 
archbishop.  Wolfgang's  sister  Maria  Anna  was  given  piano  lessons 
at  home  when  seven  years  old,  and  afterwards  became  a  famous 
performer.  At  her  early  lessons  her  little  brother  was  greatly  cap- 
tivated by  the  beauty  of  the  clavier  tones,  and  tried  to  reach  up  to 
the  keyboard.  His  extreme  musical  sensitiveness  was  shown  also 
by  the  small  size  and  unusual  shape  of  his  aural  passages.  His  ears 
were  so  delicately  built  that  the  sound  of  a  trumpet  would  send  him 
into  spasms  of  terror. 

The  boy  began  to  compose  little  pieces  when  only  four  years  old; 
and  at  the  age  of  six  he  was  discovered  hard  at  work  over  the  much- 
blotted  manuscript  of  a  clavier  concerto.  His  father,  happy  at  find- 
ing the  son  so  gifted,  began  to  train  him  carefully  from  his  earliest 
years.  Soon  Wolfgang  became  proficient  at  the  keyboard,  and  was 
taken  on  tours  with  his  sister.  The  two  child-prodigies  won  much 
attention,  even  from  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa.  On  a  later  trip 
to  London,  the  boy  performed  at  sight  some  difficult  pieces  by  Bach, 
and  gained  renown  by  improvising.  He  soon  became  still  further 
noted  by  playing  his  own  pieces. 

Returning  to  Salzburg  at  twelve  years  of  age,  he  wrote  the  opera 
"Bastien  et  Bastienne."  At  Vienna  he  composed  "La  Finta  Sem- 
plice,"  but  his  youth  prevented  its  performance.  A  trip  to  Italy, 
however,  proved  more  successful.  Mozart's  Italian  travels  (be- 
tween 1770  and  1773)  resulted  in  constant  ovations.  ^  His  new 
operas,  "Mitridate"  and  "Lucio  Silla,"  were  applauded  to  the  echo 
by  Milan  audiences.  The  Pope  gave  him  the  same  order  of  knight- 

*  For  an  account  of  one  of  his  display  performances,  see  the  chapter  "Some 
Famous  Pianists,"  in  this  volume. 


MOZART  99 

hood  that  Gluck  had  received.  The  people  called  him  "II  Cavaliere 
Filarmonico,"  while  the  nobles  made  him  an  honored  guest.  Padre 
Martini,  composer  and  historian,  was  amazed  at  Mozart's  ease  in 
improvising  fugues;  and  Hasse  exclaimed,  "This  boy  will  throw  us 
all  in  the  shade  some  day." 

After  his  return  from  Italy,  Mozart  brought  out  "La  Finta 
Giardiniera"  at  the  Munich  Carnival  of  1775.  This  caused  the  poet 
Schubart  to  exclaim  that  Mozart  would  become  "the  greatest 
operatic  composer  who  ever  lived." 

Unfortunately,  the  Archbishop  of  Salzburg,  in  whose  orchestra 
he  was  employed,  did  not  appreciate  the  young  composer.  When 
Mozart  asked  for  decent  pay,  the  Archbishop  declined  to  raise  his 
wages  above  his  former  stipend,  which  was  merely  nominal.  Mozart 
tried  again  to  earn  a  better  position,  this  time  by  composing  "II 
Re  Pastore";  but  his  efforts  went  for  nothing.  The  little  Salzburg 
Court  listened  to  his  works  readily  enough;  but  whenever  he  sought 
a  financial  return  for  them,  he  was  told  that  they  were  valueless, 
and  advised  to  learn  composition  in  an  Italian  conservatory.  The 
Archbishop  even  began  to  oppose  Mozart's  piano  tours,  and  said, 
"  I  don't  approve  of  such  beggary  from  town  to  town." 

Forced  to  try  for  an  official  position  elsewhere,  Mozart  again  met 
with  a  series  of  disappointments.  At  Munich  he  was  kept  dangling 
with  no  results.  At  Mannheim,  where  he  met  Abt  Vogler,  he  fared 
little  better.  Abt  Vogler  deserves  mention  as  the  musician  whom 
Browning  immortalized  in  his  noble  poem  of  that  name.  Vogler 
was  a  teacher  of  much  originality.  Mozart  called  him  a  charlatan, 
but  his  teaching  formed  both  Weber  and  Meyerbeer.  He  boasted 
that  he  could  make  his  pupils  composers  in  six  months. 

At  Mannheim  Mozart  met  also  a  family  named  Weber.  He  fell 
in  love  with  the  second  daughter,  Aloysia,  who  was  both  beautiful 
and  musical.  She  seemed  to  like  him  well  enough;  but  his  father, 
hearing  of  the  reason  for  Mozart's  delay,  ordered  him  to  proceed  at 
once  to  Paris.  Aloysia  was  piqued  at  his  departure;  and  whether 
because  of  this  or  for  some  other  reason,  she  declined  Mozart,  and 
afterwards  married  an  actor  named  Lange. 

At  Augsburg,  Mozart  tried  the  new  pianos  of  Stein,  and  recog- 
nized their  value;  but  he  never  really  gave  up  the  harpsichord. 

In  Paris  Mozart  did  not  attract  much  notice,  partly  because 


100  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

the  Gluck-Piccini  contest  held  public  attention.  He  declined  a 
small  position  in  the  royal  orchestra,  saymg  that  "whoever  entered 
the  royal  service  was  forgotten  at  Paris."  He  might  have  worked 
up  in  the  French  capital  as  Lully  did  a  century  earlier;  but  ap- 
parently he  did  not  approve  of  Parisian  standards.  After  the  death 
of  his  mother,  who  had  been  with  him,  he  returned  to  Salzburg, 
where  the  miserly  prelate,  Hieronymus,  had  at  last  begun  to  give 
a  grudging  appreciation.  There  he  became  concert-master,  with  a 
salary  of  five  hundred  florins  —  still  a  meagre  amount,  though  at 
that  tune  money  had  more  purchasing  power  than  at  present.  Of 
his  Paris  stay,  Mozart  had  written  home,  "  If  I  were  where  people 
had  ears  to  hear,  hearts  to  feel,  and  even  a  small  degree  of  percep- 
tion and  taste,  I  could  laugh  at  everything;  but  really,  as  far  as 
music  is  concerned,  I  am  living  among  mere  brute  beasts."  Mozart's 
greater  compositions  were  still  in  the  future,  so  Paris  was  not  to  be 
wholly  condemned. 

In  1781,  Mozart  composed  "  Idomeneo"  for  the  Munich  Carnival. 
This  work  was  an  advance  over  its  predecessors,  and  an  improve- 
ment over  the  Cimarosa-Piccini  style.  Its  success  made  Mozart 
devote  himself  largely  to  opera,  though  he  composed  church  music 
and  instrumental  works  also.  "Idomeneo"  was  no  longer  an  imita- 
tion, but  displayed  fully  the  melodic  fluency,  dramatic  grasp,  and 
power  in  handling  voices  that  became  so  marked  in  his  later  operas. 

In  the  ensuing  year,  Vienna  heard  his  "Abduction  from  the  Sera- 
glio," which  brought  opera  in  German  to  a  high  state  of  excellence. 
The  old  Singspiel  was  a  rather  elastic  affair.  Reichardt  had  made  it 
a  spoken  drama  with  music  in  the  unimportant  parts,  while  Benda 
changed  it  into  a  melodrama,  with  words  spoken  against  an  accom- 
paniment. Mozart  revived  the  old  idea,  and  let  the  important  parts 
be  sung,  while  only  the  most  unimportant  episodes  were  spoken. 
The  Emperor  thought  the  work  contained  "too  many  notes";  but 
Mozart  retorted  that  there  were  "just  enough  for  the  subject." 

Meanwhile  Mozart's  position  in  the  Archbishop's  entourage  was 
that  of  an  absolute  underling.  Dining  with  the  servants,  he  was 
subjected  to  all  sorts  of  indignities  by  his  strangely  hostile  master, 
and  was  often  branded  with  such  insulting  titles  as  "Lump,"  "Laus- 
bube,"  or  "Gassenbube"  —  words  that  are  hard  to  translate,  but 
are  about  on  a  par  with  our  "churl,"  "varlet,"  or  "guttersnipe," 


MOZART  101 

At  last  the  situation  became  unbearable,  and  Mozart  presented  his 
resignation;  whereupon  the  Archbishop  ordered  his  steward  to  kick 
the  composer  downstairs  —  which  was  done. 

Though  Mozart  suffered  enough  from  poverty  after  that  event, 
he  was  never  again  subjected  to  contumely. 

Having  lost  Aloysia  Weber,  he  turned  to  her  sister  Constance, 
whom  he  married  in  1782.  The  two  loved  each  other  truly  enough, 
but  he  earned  little  money,  while  she  was  a  poor  manager.  Yet  their 
cheerfulness  was  unfailing;  and  a  visitor  once  found  the  couple  danc- 
ing to  keep  warm  when  they  had  no  fuel  and  no  cash  to  buy  it. 
Constance  outlived  her  husband  by  more  than  fifty  years,  dying 
in  1842. 

Mozart's  poverty  seemed  as  much  a  matter  of  loyalty  as  any- 
thing else.  He  might  have  done  well  if  he  had  stayed  in  Paris;  Lon- 
don, which  welcomed  Haydn,  would  pretty  surely  have  enriched 
Mozart  also;  while  he  declined  a  liberal  offer  of  the  King  of  Prussia, 
to  stay  in  the  ill-paid  service  of  the  Emperor  of  Austria. 

He  continued  his  operatic  work  with  several  comedies,  such  as 
"L'  Oca  del  Cairo,"  "Lo  Sposo  Deluso,"  and  the  German  "Schau- 
spieldirektor."  But  these  were  soon  forgotten,  for  his  later  master- 
works  were  at  hand. 

"The  Marriage  of  Figaro,"  produced  in  1786,  contains  little  of 
the  political  suggestion  of  the  comedy  by  Beaumarchais,  but  is 
rather  an  intensely  exhilarating  bit  of  dramatic  and  musical  humor. 
The  plot  deals  with  the  love  of  Figaro,  valet  and  factotum  of  count 
Almaviva,  for  Suzanna,  the  maid  of  the  coimtess.  The  count's 
pronounced  admiration  for  Suzanna  is  made  into  a  means  of  dis- 
comfiting him.  The  others  start  to  trick  him  by  dressing  the  page 
Cherubino  in  Suzanna's  clothes,  and  afterwards  the  masquerade 
is  made  more  effective  by  having  Suzanna  and  the  countess  ex- 
change dresses.  The  count  then  makes  exaggerated  declarations 
to  a  supposed  Suzanna  who  is  really  his  own  wife.  The  count  is  also 
tormented  by  Figaro's  attentions  to  the  supposed  countess.  The 
final  imveiling  brings  about  the  count's  discomfiture,  Figaro's  mar- 
riage, and  a  general  reconciliation. 

The  music  to  this  vivacious  comedy  is  superlatively  delightful, 
and  contains  many  of  Mozart's  very  best  vocal  numbers.  Some  of 
the  most  attractive  selections  are  Figaro's  bright  duet  with  Suzanna, 

LIBRARY 

•TATE  TEACHERS   COULEOE 

BANTA    BARBARA.    CALIFORNIA 


102  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

his  half-humorous  defiance  to  the  count  ("Se  vuol  ballare"),  his 
inimitably  comic  lesson  in  soldiery  to  Cherubino,  who  is  to  be  sent 
off  to  the  army  in  disgrace,  Cherubino's  love-song  ("Voi  che 
sapete"),  the  beautiful  air  of  regret  sung  by  the  countess  ("Dove 
sono")>  and  Suzanna's  captivating  encouragement  of  the  count 
("Deh  vieni,  non  tardar")'  But  it  is  a  thankless  task  to  cite  single 
numbers,  for  the  complete  score  is  overflowing  with  delightful  musi- 
cal humor.  The  overture,  too,  is  a  gem  of  tonal  brightness. 

"Don  Giovanni,"  produced  in  1787,  achieved  another  great  suc- 
cess. It  deals  with  the  career  of  a  totally  wild  and  licentious  noble- 
man, who  invades  the  room  of  a  certain  Donna  Anna,  is  discovered 
by  her  father,  Don  Pedro,  and  kills  him  to  escape  unrecognized.  He 
continues  his  amorous  career  by  laying  siege  to  Zerlina,  a  peasant 
girl  who  is  about  to  marry  Masetto.  Don  Giovanni  captivates  her, 
but  is  thwarted  by  Donna  Anna  and  her  betrothed,  Don  Ottavio, 
who  come  with  Elvira,  a  former  conquest  of  the  adventurer's.  Don 
Giovanni  next  exchanges  costumes  with  his  servant  Leporello,  and 
pays  court  to  Elvira's  maid  while  Leporello  gets  a  beating  from 
Masetto,  who  thinks  him  Don  Giovanni.  Then  the  dissolute  noble- 
man sneers  at  Don  Pedro's  statue.  He  is  surprised  to  find  the  statue 
answering  his  invitation  to  sup  together;  and  the  climax  comes  when 
the  statue  does  actually  enter  the  banquet-room  and  drag  the 
criminal  down  to  perdition. 

•  Here,  as  in  "Figaro,"  there  is  a  profusion  of  melody.  Leporello's 
famous  "catalogue  aria"  is  a  rollicking  list  of  his  master's  conquests. 
Zerlina's  "Batti,  batti"  and  "Vedrai  carino"  are  gems  of  lyricism. 
Don  Giovanni's  duet  with  Zerlina,  "Reach  me  thy  hand,"  is  an- 
other of  many  famous  selections  from  this  work.  The  ensembles  are 
admirable;  and  Goxmod  said  of  the  trio  between  Don  Giovanni, 
Leporello,  and  Donna  Elvira,  that  if  all  compositions  but  this  were 
destroyed,  our  music  could  be  evolved  again  from  it.  While  such 
praise  is  exaggerated,  there  is  no  doubt  that  Mozart  showed  a  won- 
derful grasp  of  the  situation  in  this  and  other  concerted  selections. 
The  overture,  it  is  said,  was  written  during  the  night  before  the  per- 
formance. Mozart  worked  at  the  score  while  Constance  regaled  him 
with  home-made  punch,  or  told  him  stories  while  he  rested. 

"Don  Giovanni"  has  been  upheld  by  the  classicists  as  the  quin- 
tessence of  everything  worthy.  One  fairly  recent  writer  said  of  iti 


MOZART  103 

"Whether  we  regard  the  mixture  of  passions  in  its  concerted  music, 
the  profound  expression  of  melancholy,  the  variety  of  its  situations, 
the  beauty  of  its  accompaniment,  or  the  grandeur  of  its  heightening 
and  protracted  scene  of  terror,  'Don  Giovanni'  stands  alone  in 
dramatic  eminence."  But  one  may  question  such  immixed  praise, 
when  modern  standards  are  considered.  Even  in  comparison  with 
Gluck,  Mozart  was  none  too  powerful.  The  trombone  chords  that 
go  with  the  statue's  dread  awakening  are  highly  dramatic  in  effect; 
but  for  the  most  part  Mozart's  music  was  almost  too  fluent.  It  is 
that  quality,  combined  with  the  simplicity  of  the  early  harmonic 
effects,  that  makes  some  modem  composers  consider  Haydn  less 
monotonous.  At  the  same  time,  Mozart's  work  has  held  its  place 
in  the  repertoire  until  the  present,  and  its  merits  deserve  full  recog- 
nition. It  seems  lacking  to-day  because  of  its  slow  motion  and 
comparative  monotony  of  style;  but  in  its  time  it  was  held  dra- 
matic enough,  and  its  harmonies  seemed  the  height  of  expressive 
beauty. 

Even  after  these  works,  Mozart  remained  poor.  The  Emperor 
made  him  court  dance-composer  at  about  four  hundred  dollai's  a 
year,  but  this  was  done  merely  to  prevent  Mozart  from  going  to 
London. 

Mozart's  next  operas  were  the  light "  Cosi  fan  Tutti"  and  the  con- 
ventional "Clemenza  di  Tito."  Neither  of  these  proved  supremely 
important;  but  his  last  opera,  "The  Magic  Flute,"  met  with  a  better 
fate.  It  has  a  rather  mixed  libretto.  The  absurdities  of  the  text 
have  been  explained  by  the  statement  that  they  have  Masonic  sig- 
nificance; but  that  fact  does  not  m.ake  them  interesting  or  dramati- 
cally effective.  Its  plot  deals  with  the  High  Priest  Sarastro,  who  has 
rescued  Pamina  from  her  wicked  mother,  the  "Queen  of  the  Night." 
The  queen's  retinue  save  Tamino,  a  foreign  prince,  who  is  then 
given  a  magic  flute  and  told  to  bring  back  Pamina.  He  starts  with 
the  bird-catcher  Papageno;  but  instead  of  doing  any  rescue  work, 
he  becomes  a  disciple  with  Pamina.  After  a  long  and  spectacular 
probation  he  is  admitted  to  be  worthy,  and  marries  Pamina;  while 
Papageno  also  finds  a  mate. 

The  music  of  this  jumbled  work  is  fully  up  to  the  best  Mozart 
standard.  The  queen's  brilliant  solos,  the  deep  bass  numbers  of 
Sarastro,  and  the  bright  selections  of  Papageno,  are  all  effective  in 


104  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

their  way.  But  the  libretto  has  been  too  great  a  handicap,  and  the 
opera  received  few  performances  in  comparison  with  "Don  Gio- 
vanni.'* 

Of  the  three  dozen  songs  that  Mozart  wrote,  apart  from  his 
operas,  the  most  famous  is  the  tender  "Violet."  Mozart  composed 
fifteen  masses,  though  he  probably  wrote  very  little  of  the  one  known 
as  his  twelfth.  Such  mistakes  have  often  arisen,  from  the  careless- 
ness of  composers  or  publishers.  Thus  Schubert's  "Adieu"  is  prob- 
ably not  by  him;  Weber's  "Last  Thought,"  or  "Last  Waltz,"  was 
not  his  at  all,  but  sent  to  him  by  Reissiger;  while  Beethoven's  "  Fare- 
well to  the  Piano"  (a  publisher's  title)  was  written  before  he  com- 
posed some  of  his  greatest  piano  sonatas. 

In  addition  to  masses,  Mozart  wrote  motets  and  cantatas  for 
voices. 

His  piano  music  is  best  represented  by  his  two-hand  sonatas. 
These,  which  are  seventeen  in  number,  show  a  clearness  of  form  that 
makes  them  valuable  to  the  teacher.  Some  of  them  are  dramatic 
enough,  the  "Fantasia  and  sonata"  being  especially  powerful. 
Mozart  composed  also  five  four-hand  sonatas,  and  seventeen  organ 
sonatas. 

His  chamber  music,  which  is  still  prized  for  its  union  of  clearness 
with  fluency  and  a  proper  amount  of  expression,  is  headed  by 
twenty-six  string  quartets.  These  are  supplemented  by  quintets, 
many  violin-and-piano  sonatas,  and  concertos  for  piano  and  various 
other  single  or  multiple  instruments.  A  concerto  is  a  concert-piece, 
usually  in  three  movements,  to  display  one  or  more  instruments; 
and  it  may  have  either  piano  or  orchestral  accompaniment.  Modem 
composers  have  made  it  a  three-movement  symphony  with  a  thread 
of  solo  work  running  through  it. 

The  example  of  Haydn  and  others  led  Mozart  into  the  symphonic 
field  also.  Of  his  symphonies,  which  number  nearly  fifty,  the  last 
three,  which  he  wrote  in  1788,  toward  the  close  of  his  life,  are  de- 
cidedly the  greatest.  These  consist  of  the  so-called  "Jupiter  Sym- 
phony," the  "Clarinet  Symphony,"  in  which  that  instrument  was 
first  brought  into  the  sjmiphonic  orchestra,  and  the  tenderly  beauti- 
ful symphony  in  G  Minor. 

Mozart,  like  Haydn,  echoed  the  style  of  his  time  by  making  his 
symphonies  clear  and  fluent.  Where  Haydn  showed  vivacity,  how- 


MOZART  105 

ever,  Mozart  relied  more  on  smoothness.  Yet  in  his  three  last  sym- 
phonies, Mozart  showed  a  surprising  vigor. 

In  1791,  the  year  of  Mozart's  death,  he  wrote  his  famous  "Re- 
quiem." His  illness  was  upon  him,  and  he  had  a  presentiment  that 
he  was  composing  for  his  own  funeral.  There  were  other  unusual 
details  about  the  work,  too.  A  mysterious  stranger,  clothed  in  black, 
visited  him  to  give  him  the  commission  for  the  work,  and  to  name 
a  date  when  he  would  come  for  the  finished  composition.  He  re- 
turned on  time,  but  Mozart  had  been  busy  with  other  things,  the 
work  was  unfinished,  and  the  stranger  extended  the  time  to  still 
another  date.  Mozart,  it  is  said,  began  to  brood  over  the  matter. 
Ultimately  he  grew  to  consider  the  stranger  a  messenger  from  the 
other  world,  sent  to  announce  his  death.  He  had  what  was  called 
a  miliary  fever;  but  he  began  to  believe  also  that  some  one  had 
poisoned  him.  He  died  before  completing  the  "Requiem,"  and 
directed  his  pupil  Sussmayer  to  finish  the  work  for  him;  so  that  now 
it  is  not  definitely  known  which  parts  of  the  composition  were 
Siissmayer's  additions. 

The  mystery  of  the  stranger  in  black  was  afterwards  explained. 
He  was  a  certain  Leutgeb,  steward  of  Count  von  Wallsegg,  and  was 
sent  in  secrecy  because  his  master  wished  to  get  hold  of  the  "Re- 
quiem" and  publish  it  as  his  own. 

Mozart  was  a  most  delightful  personality,  being  lively,  fascinat- 
ing, and  a  versatile  talker.  He  was  full  of  droll  humor,  but  at  the 
same  time  gifted  with  keen  and  accurate  judgment.  If  he  was  rather 
too  easy-going  to  achieve  wealth,  he  at  least  bore  poverty  with 
cheerfulness.  He  was  fond  of  various  amusements,  and  often  thought 
out  his  themes  while  playing  billiards. 

His  burial-place  is  not  even  known.  The  day  of  his  funeral  was 
stormy,  and  his  coffin  was  hurried  into  a  public  grave.  Some  years 
later  his  admirers  wished  to  give  him  a  monument;  but  as  the  grave 
had  been  emptied  and  used  over  again,  the  composer's  remains  are 
not  beneath  the  memorial  that  was  finally  erected  to  his  memory 
in  the  large  central  cemetery  of  Vienna. 

The  Singspiel,  which  influenced  Mozart  to  some  extent,  was 
carried  on  by  such  men  as  Johann  Adam  Hiller,  Johann  Andre, 
Johann  Abram  Peter  Schulz,  Johann  Schenk,  Ferdinand  Kauer, 
and  others.    Owing  to  the  loose  structure  of  their  musical  plays, 


106  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

many  of  their  songs  became  popular  as  separate  numbers,  and  earned 
them  reputations  as  song-composers.  Schulz  became  famous  for  his 
collection  of  "Lieder  im  Volkston."  Johann  Haffner,  who  lived 
until  1833,  wrote  in  a  style  resembling  Gluck's,  and  exerted  a  great 
influence  in  Sweden. 

Antonio  Salieri  was  a  pupil  of  Gluck,  and  made  a  Parisian  isuc- 
cess  with  the  opera  "Les  Danaldes."  He  wrote  afterwards  for 
Vienna,  where  he  was  in  some  sense  a  rival  of  Mozart.  It  is  said 
that  he  prevented  the  proper  recognition  of  Mozart  at  the  imperial 
court;  and  those  who  accepted  Mozart's  idea  that  he  was  poisoned 
held  Salieri  responsible.  But  that  idea  has  absolutely  no  evidence 
to  support  it. 

There  were  many  pianist-composers  in  Mozart's  day.  In  Vienna 
were  Franz  Duschek,  Anton  Eberl,  and  Johann  Nepomuk  Hummel, 
the  last  being  Mozart's  pupil  for  a  time.  The  school  that  followed 
the  famous  Muzio  Clementi  included  Beethoven  in  its  ranks;  while 
others  of  this  group  were  Dussek,  Mueller,  Cramer,  Woelfl,  and 
Prince  Louis  Ferdinand.  Hiillmandel,  Louis  Adam,  and  Steibelt 
were  identified  with  Paris.  Nearly  all  of  these  men  composed  some- 
thing for  their  instrument. 

English  song-plays  were  written  by  Samuel  Arnold  and  William 
Jackson;  but  Charles  Dibdin  became  much  greater  than  either. 
Dibdin's  many  musical  plays  were  often  on  maritime  subjects,  or 
at  least  contained  his  famous  sea-songs,  such  as  "The  Token," 
"Tom  Bowling,"  etc.  They  were  most  inspiring  to  their  auditors; 
and  it  is  said  that  Dibdin's  songs  were  worth  ten  thousand  men  to 
the  English  navy. 

Among  other  English  composers,  Michael  Arne,  son  of  Thomas 
A.  Arne,  produced  nine  operas.  Thomas  Linley  composed  a  dozen  of 
these  song-plays,  and  wrote  also  many  graceful  songs.  His  son  was 
a  personal  friend  of  Mozart.  Others  who  worked  in  the  vocal  field 
were  William  Shield,  James  Hook,  Thomas  Carter,  Michael  Kelly, 
and  William  Reeve.  Stephen  Storace,  the  violinist,  was  another 
Singspiel  composer,  and  a  close  friend  of  Mozart. 

English  music  of  that  time  came  to  include  catches  and  glees. 
The  glee  was  simply  a  part-song,  often  unaccompanied,  and  in 
spite  of  its  name  it  was  not  necessarily  lively  or  mirthful.  The 
catch  was  a  song  that  depended  for  its  point  upon  some  comicality 


MOZART  107 

in  the  use  of  words.  Thus  in  one  of  Bishop's  catches,  the  question- 
ing phrase,  "Ah,  how,  Sophia,"  becomes  "A  house  afire"  when  sung 
quickly  in  the  chorus;  and  other  similar  alterations  of  sense  follow 
in  due  course.  Madrigals  were  also  composed,  and  a  madrigal  club 
existed;  but  this  form  was  rather  indefinite  at  the  time. 

Italian  opera  was  continued  by  such  men  as  Vittorio  Trento, 
Giuseppe  Mosca,  Vincenzo  Lavigna,  and  others.  Greater  than 
these,  however,  was  Ferdinand  Paer.  Writing  at  first  in  a  conven- 
tional style,  Paer  afterward  learned  much  by  hearing  Mozart's 
operas  at  Vienna.  His  works  include  a  setting  of  the  subject  used 
later  by  Beethoven  in  "Fidelio."  Another  composer  of  the  same 
epoch  was  Simon  Mayer,  a  Bavarian  who  worked  in  Italy.  His 
"Lodoiska"  and  "Medea"  anticipated  Cherubini's  works  on  the 
same  subjects.  Mayer  taught  Donizetti,  and  so  may  serve  as  a  link 
between  the  Gluck-Mozart  period  and  the  Donizetti-Rossini  school. 


xn 

BEETHOVEN 

LuDWiG  VAN  Beethoven  was  bom  at  Bonn,  probably  on  De- 
cember 16,  1770.  There  is  some  doubt  about  the  day,  while  Bee- 
thoven himself  used  to  assert  that  his  birth-year  was  1772.  He  was 
of  Belgian  descent,  his  grandfather  having  come  from  Antwerp  to 
the  Electoral  Chapel  at  Bonn  in  1733.  His  father  was  a  singer  in 
the  chapel.  His  mother  was  of  low  degree,  being  the  daughter  of  a 
cook;  but  she  was  much  more  useful  in  the  household  than  her 
shiftless  husband. 

Mozart's  precocity  and  childish  success  served  as  an  example 
which  other  fathers  desired  to  see  their  sons  emulate.  This  was  the 
case  in  the  Beethoven  family,  as  well  as  in  Weber's.  But  Beethoven 
was  scarcely  a  child-prodigy;  and  his  father  was  certainly  not  the 
man  to  develop  one.  The  father  was  dissipated  and  worthless,  and 
his  efforts  to  train  the  child  were  irregular  and  severe.  With  a  boon 
companion  named  Pfeiffer,  he  would  rout  out  the  youngster  at  all 
hours  of  the  day  or  night,  and  force  him  roughly  to  the  keyboard. 
Visitors  sometimes  saw  him  shedding  tears  at  the  piano;  and  it  is  a 
wonder  that  his  father's  harshness  did  not  drive  him  to  hate  music. 
He  did  play  in  public  when  eight  years  old,  and  he  composed  at 
ten;  but  he  was  not  the  money-making  prodigy  that  his  indigent 
father  desired. 

At  twelve  Beethoven  began  taking  lessons  of  his  first  good  teacher, 
the  court  organist,  Neefe.  That  worthy  pedagogue  gave  his  pupil  an 
excellent  training  in  Bach's  works,  and  inspired  him  with  a  real  love 
of  good  music.  At  this  time  he  composed  some  early  sonatas,  and 
an  admirable  two-voiced  fugue.  In  the  next  year  the  young  Bee- 
thoven became  cembalist  at  the  theatre,  leading  the  orchestra  from 
the  keyboard  in  the  usual  fashion  of  the  time.  A  year  later  he  was 
made  assistant  organist. 

In  1787  the  Elector  sent  Beethoven  to  Vienna  for  a  time.  There 
he  met  Mozart,  who  was  astounded  at  his  power  of  improvisation, 


BEETHOVEN 


BEETHOVEN  109 

and  exclaimed,  "Watch  this  young  man;  he  will  yet  make  a  noise  in 
the  world." 

Returning  to  Bonn,  Beethoven  played  viola  in  the  reorganized 
orchestra.  This  work,  like  his  theatre  conducting,  may  have  seemed 
unimportant  drudgery  in  a  way,  but  it  gave  him  that  thorough  com- 
prehension of  the  instruments  that  is  shown  in  all  his  larger  works. 

When  Beethoven's  mother  died,  the  Elector  arranged  to  pay  a 
part  of  the  father's  salary  to  the  young  man,  so  that  it  would  not 
evaporate  too  quickly  in  drink.  In  1792  the  father  died  —  an  event 
which  was  reported  to  the  Elector  as  "a  great  loss  to  the  tax  on 
liquors." 

Receiving  leave  to  settle  at  Vienna,  Beethoven  began  his  long 
course  of  lessons  with  Haydn.  One  day,  however,  he  showed  an 
exercise  to  a  musician  named  Schenk,  and  learned  that  Haydn  had 
left  a  number  of  mistakes  imcorrected.  From  that  time  on,  he  took 
lessons  with  Schenk  also.  He  received  some  training  from  Salieri, 
and  studied  a  good  deal  with  the  great  contrapuntal  teacher  Al- 
brechtsberger.  Beethoven  was  so  radical  in  his  work  that  the  latter 
advised  his  other  pupils  to  avoid  the  newcomer,  and  not  be  misled 
by  his  bad  example.  But  soon  Beethoven  began  upon  the  composi- 
tions that  were  to  make  him  famous,  and  then  he  could  afford  to  dis- 
regard his  mentors.  When  he  dedicated  his  three  sonatas.  Op.  2,  to 
Haydn,  the  latter  inquired  why  Beethoven  had  not  printed  "Pupil 
of  Haydn"  after  his  name;  whereupon  Beethoven  replied,  "Because 
I  never  learned  anything  from  you."  But  this  retort,  though  just 
enough,  should  be  supplemented  by  the  fact  that  even  if  Haydn  was 
careless  in  the  lessons,  his  music  influenced  Beethoven  greatly,  and 
served  as  a  model  for  the  younger  man's  earlier  works. 

In  person,  Beethoven  was  short  and  stocky,  like  a  stunted  giant. 
His  face  seems  intensely  expressive  and  powerful,  but  as  a  whole  he 
was  said  to  have  had  a  picturesque  ugliness.  4lis  manners  were  often 
brusque  and  uncouth.  His  lack  of  order  was  noticeable,  both  in  his 
costume  and  in  his  way  of  living.  He  would  work  amid  a  litter  of  old 
papers  and  other  relics,  sometimes  stopping  to  declaim  about  order 
with  Ciceronian  fulness.  He  was  careless  about  notifying  landlords 
when  he  moved,  and  often  got  into  lawsuits  on  that  account.  He 
had  a  habit  of  cooling  his  wrists  by  pouring  water  over  them  —  a 
proceeding  none  too  beneficial  to  the  ceilings  in  the  rooms  below  his. 


110  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Yet  in  spite  of  all  these  eccentricities,  he  made  many  friends 
among  the  nobility,  and  kept  them  through  life.  They  must  have 
recognized  not  only  his  commanding  genius,  but  the  innate  nobility 
of  his  character.  Though  practically  uneducated  except  in  music, 
he  built  for  himself  a  natural  religion,  and  had  broad  ideals  of 
human  brotherhood. 

First  among  these  friends  came  Count  Waldstein  and  the  Breu- 
nings,  at  Bonn.  He  taught  music  to  Eleonora  von  Breuning,  and  at 
the  same  time  his  contact  with  her  and  her  cultivated  family  rem- 
edied some  of  the  defects  of  his  education.  In  Vienna  he  was  known 
and  liked  by  such  people  as  the  Lichnowskys,  Prince  Lobkowitz, 
Van  Swieten,  Prince  Kinsky,  the  Russian  ambassador  Rasumow- 
sky,  and  even  many  members  of  the  royal  families. 

Beethoven  was  continually  falling  in  love,  though  somehow  he 
never  got  as  far  as  marriage.  Perhaps  it  would  have  been  better  for 
him  if  he  had  tied  the  Gordian  knot  of  matrimony;  for  he  would 
have  been  looked  after,  and  possibly  kept  alive  some  extra  years, 
to  give  the  world  more  master-works.  His  first  idol  (or  ideal)  was 
Eleonora  von  Breuning.  Following  her  came  a  long  list,  including 
Countess  Erdody,  Babette  de  Keglevics,  Baroness  Ertmann,  Bet- 
tina  von  Brentano,  Countess  Giulietta  Guicciardi,  and  Amalia  See- 
bald.  When  Beethoven  died,  three  letters  were  found  in  his  desk, 
written  by  him,  and  containing  the  most  impassioned  devotion. 
It  is  not  absolutely  sure  which  lady  was  the  "Immortal  Beloved" 
that  they  mentioned;  but  Countess  Guicciardi  was  almost  certainly 
the  person  for  whom  they  were  meant.  She  was  a  pupil  of  Beethoven, 
and  at  times  he  grew  irritable  enough  over  her  playing,  in  spite  of  his 
love.  She  afterwards  married  Count  Gallenberg. 

The  three  periods  of  Beethoven's  work  extended  approximately 
from  1795  to  1802,  from  then  to  1814,  and  from  that  year  to  his 
death,  in  1827.  It  was  in  1795  that  he  began  his  actual  list  of  pub- 
lished works.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  label  his  compositions  with 
opus  numbers.  An  opus  is  simply  a  work  or  a  group  of  works  pub- 
lished together.  If  a  composer  issues  a  piece  without  any  opus  num- 
ber it  is  usually  a  sign  that  he  considers  this  work  unimportant. 
Beethoven's  early  compositions  are  left  without  numbers,  his  Op.  1 
being  three  piano  trios  published  in  1795,  while  his  Op.  2  consisted 
of  his  first  three  piano  sonatas. 


BEETHOVEN  111 

After  a  trip  to  Nuremberg,  Prague,  and  Berlin,  Beethoven  settled 
down  to  composition  as  his  life-work.  Other  productions  of  his 
first  period  consisted  of  the  scena  "Adelaide,"  a  septet,  six  string 
quartets,  fifteen  sonatas  in  all,  the  First  Symphony,  the  music  to 
the  ballet  "Prometheus,"  and  the  oratorio  "The  Mount  of  Olives." 
After  these  works  were  written  he  felt  deafness  growing  upon  him. 
By  1802  this  worried  him  so  much  that  he  feared  for  his  sanity.  He 
described  his  condition  in  a  letter  to  his  brothers  that  is  known  as 
his  will;  yet  even  in  that  despairing  document  he  showed  a  deter- 
mination to  defy  the  blows  of  fate. 

It  is  in  the  music  of  his  first  period  that  Beethoven  shows  the  in- 
fluence of  Haydn.  But  where  Haydn  and  Mozart  had  sometimes 
made  music  a  matter  of  passing  entertainment  to  their  auditors, 
Beethoven  let  it  echo  the  noble  sentiments  and  aspirations  that 
seethed  within  his  own  intense  nature.  Even  in  the  first  period, 
Beethoven's  music  showed  a  power  and  intensity  of  expression  that 
was  far  above  anything  that  his  contemporaries  could  bring  forth. 
The  first  of  his  piano  sonatas  is  based  on  the  Haydn  form,  though 
having  four  movements;  yet  Haydn  could  never  in  the  world  have 
equaled  its  tremendous  strength,  which  suggests  a  young  giant  tug- 
ging at  his  fetters.  There  are  many  reminiscences  of  Haydn  in  some 
of  the  other  works  —  sometimes  in  parts  of  the  string  quartets,  but 
especially  in  the  brisk  and  lively  finale  of  the  First  Symphony. 
On  the  whole,  though,  Beethoven  showed  a  vigor  and  a  dramatic 
intensity  that  must  have  seemed  like  a  revelation  after  the  light 
geniality  of  Haydn  and  the  smoothness  of  Mozart. 

The  second  period  was  astonishingly  brilliant,  and  during  its 
twelve  years  Beethoven  poured  forth  a  constant  stream  of  great 
masterpieces.  The  dozen  piano  sonatas  of  this  time  included  the 
intense  "Waldstein"  and  "Appassionata"  sonatas.  The  noble 
"Kreutzer  Sonata"  for  violin,  and  the  famous  sonata  in  A  for 
'cello,  came  early  in  this  period.  The  "  Kreutzer  Sonata,"  dedicated 
to  the  violinist  of  that  name,  may  be  cited  especially  as  a  wonderful 
example  of  pure  beauty  in  music;  for  Tolstoy  saw  fit  to  read  into  it 
certain  debased  meanings,  that  could  only  have  existed  in  his  own 
mind.  The  string  quartets  of  this  period  include  the  three  that  are 
dedicated  to  Rasumowsky.  The  so-called  triple  concerto,  with 
piano,  appeared  in  1804.  The  fourth  piano  concerto  (with  orchestra. 


112  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

of  course)  came  out  in  1805,  and  the  fifth  m  1809.  While  the  latter 
was  being  given  once  in  Vienna,  the  French  soldiers  under  Napo- 
leon were  in  the  city;  and  an  ofiicer,  on  hearing  it,  called  it  "the 
Emperor  among  concertos"  —  a  name  that  has  clung  to  it  since. 
In  this  period  came  the  overtures  entitled  "  Coriolanus,"  "  Egmont," 
"The  Ruins  of  Athens,"  and  "King  Stephen."  The  chief  vocal 
works  were  the  mass  in  C,  the  cantata  "Der  Glorreiche  Augen- 
bhck,"  and  the  opera  "  Fidelio."  The  Second  Symphony  belongs  to 
the  first  period  in  style,  its  suave,  hymn-like,  slow  movement  again 
suggesting  Haydn.  But  with  the  Third  Symphony  (1804)  Bee- 
thoven found  a  freer  and  more  virile  utterance.  The  Fourth  Sym- 
phony came  two  years  later,  the  Fifth  and  Sixth  in  1808,  and  the 
Seventh  and  Eighth  m  1812. 

In  speaking  of  Beethoven's  symphonies,  one  may  exhaust  all  the 
adjectives  in  the  dictionary  and  scarcely  do  justice  to  these  great 
works.  They  are  minutely  described  in  Sir  George  Grove's  book 
entitled  "Beethoven's  Nine  Symphonies."  They  are  not  all  of 
equal  value.  The  story  goes  that  a  pupil,  asked  how  many  sjma- 
phonies  Beethoven  wrote,  answered,  " Three."  "What  were  they  ?  " 
inquired  the  surprised  teacher;  whereupon  the  pupil  responded, 
"The  Third,  the  Fifth,  and  the  Ninth."  Those  three  are  certainly 
the  greatest,  but  the  Sixth  and  Seventh  are  hardly  below  them  in 
value.  When  Wilhelm  Gericke,  former  leader  of  the  Boston  Sym- 
phony Orchestra,  was  asked  which  one  of  Beethoven's  symphonies 
he  preferred,  he  replied,  "Always  the  one  I  have  played  last." 

To  describe  them  at  length  would  demand  a  book;  and  their 
glories  can  only  be  briefly  outlined  here. 

No.  1.  1st  movement.  Starts  with  an  adagio  introduction  which 
aroused  criticism  by  not  beginning  in  the  tonic  key.  The  sonata 
allegro  has  a  first  theme  built  of  a  rhythmic  three-noted  figure,  the 
accent  coming  on  the  third  note;  a  melodious  tributary  and  second 
theme,  in  Haydn's  style;  and  an  expressive  closing  theme  with  little 
downward  drops  after  apparent  cadences.  Development  and  re- 
capitulation of  themes  follow,  as  is  proper  in  the  sonata-allegro  move- 
ment. 

2d  movement.  An  andante  with  expressive  song-like  themes. 

Sd  movement.  A  tremendously  virile  minuet,  with  trio  full  of 
rhythmic  iteration. 

4th  movement.  A  bright  rondo  in  Haydn's  cheerful  style. 


BEETHOVEN  113 

No.  2.  1st  movement.  An  ornate  introduction  leads  to  the  sonata 
form.  The  first  theme  is  brisk,  lively,  and  full  of  chatter  because  of 
repeated  notes;  the  second  theme  is  of  similar  character,  with  fanfare- 
like effects;  while  the  closing  theme  brings  minor  modulations. 

2d  movement.  A  song-like  larghetto,  the  first  theme  of  which  has 
been  used  as  a  hymn. 

3d  movement.  Has  the  minuet  shape,  but  is  marked  scherzo.  Bee- 
thoven afterwards  made  the  scherzo  into  a  much  freer  form. 

Mh  movement.  A  rapid,  brilliant  movement,  with  more  vigor  than 
the  finale  of  the  First  Symphony.  It  has  a  broad  coda.  Beethoven 
often  put  very  important  climaxes  into  his  codas. 

No.  3.  Eroica  Symphony.  Was  planned  to  glorify  Napoleon,  but 
title  changed  when  he  seized  the  imperial  throne. 

1st  movement.  Themes  now  more  pregnantly  expressive.  The 
first,  in  triple  rhythm,  moving  with  a  slow,  majestic  swing;  the  sec- 
ond a  three-noted  figure  echoed  about  among  the  instruments;  and 
a  long  double  closing  theme,  the  first  part  contemplative,  the  second 
triumphant. 

2d  movement.  A  long  and  tremendously  expressive  funeral  march, 
interspersed  with  phrases  of  tenderest  regret,  and  contrasted  with  a 
major  section  of  consolatory  character. 

3d  movement.  A  scherzo,  still  showing  minuet  divisions,  but  much 
freer  than  that  of  the  Second  Symphony.  Rapid,  chattering  style, 
now  and  then  suddenly  showing  forth  into  bold  relief;  quarter-notes 
in  swift  f  rhythm.  The  trio  contains  broadly  noble  horn  passages. 

Jfth  movement.  Variation  form.  Effective  enough,  though  hardly 
equal  to  the  earlier  movements,  and  not  so  "heroic"  a  finale  as  that 
of  the  Fifth  Symphony. 

No.  U.  1st  movement.  An  impressive  minor  and  modulatory  in- 
troduction. A  first  theme  of  simple  but  pleasing  harmonic  struc- 
ture; a  tributary  passage  increasing  in  power;  a  second  theme  of 
chattering,  imitative  character,  except  for  some  unison  string  work; 
and  a  syncopated  closing  theme. 

2d  movement.  A  song-like  adagio,  embroidered  with  many  rapid 
notes  of  very  small  denominations.  Highly  praised  by  Berlioz. 

3d  movement.  A  reversion  to  the  minuet  form,  but  very  free.  Not- 
ably beautiful  horn  passages  in  the  trio. 

4th  movement.  Bold  themes  of  lively  and  vigorous  character.  Im- 
portant contrabass  passages. 

No.  5.  A  classic  among  symphonies,  notable  for  its  tremendous 
vigor,  and  the  simple  means  by  which  this  strength  is  obtained. 
1st  movement.  In  minor  except  where  the  sonata  form  pennits 


114  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

major.  Themes,  development,  recapitulation,  and  coda  built  almost 
wholly  from  the  first  four-noted  figure,  treated  in  various  ways. 
This  rhythm  (three  eighth-notes  followed  by  an  accented  note)  was 
said  to  have  been  suggested  by  a  nocturnal  reveller  pounding  on  a 
door  for  admission;  but  Beethoven  gave  it  a  better  significance  by 
saying,  "  Thus  Fate  knocks  at  the  door."  The  coda  in  this  move- 
ment especially  powerful.  The  whole  movement  intensely  effective. 

2d  movement.  An  andante,  built  out  of  two  short  themes,  the  first 
being  song-like,  while  the  second  has  a  fanfare  character.  The  con- 
summate art  of  Beethoven  is  shown  by  the  skill  and  beauty  with 
which  he  handles  these  themes,  making  their  simple  harmonies  seem 
as  perfectly  balanced  and  as  inevitably  right  as  if  they  were  the  very 
"music  of  the  spheres." 

3d  movement.  A  mysteriously  effective  scherzo,  in  which  the  heavy 
four-note  rhythm  of  the  first  movement  recurs.  The  trio,  in  rapid, 
rushing  style,  forms  a  good  contrast.  Much  contrabass  work.  A 
soft  but  impressive  transition  passage  leads  directly  into  the  finale. 

4th  movement.  A  grandly  triumphant  allegro,  with  reminiscences 
of  the  mysterious  scherzo  for  a  middle  part. 

No.  6.  Pastoral  Symphony.  The  first  great  programme  work  in 
musical  history.  Tone-picture  of  life  in  the  country. 

1st  movement.  Cheerful  impressions  on  going  to  the  country.  The 
first  sixteen  bars  give  a  theme  from  parts  of  which  the  rest  of  the 
movement  is  built.  All  rhythmic,  lively,  and  cheerful  in  character. 

2d  movement.  Andante,  entitled  "  By  the  Brook."  A  tone-picture 
of  gently  rippling  water,  varied  by  bird-calls. 

3d  movement.  Joyous  gathering  of  the  peasants.  Themes  of  lively 
rustic  character.  A  peasants'  dance,  in  which  an  old  bassoonist  joins 
in  with  battered  instrument  (see  chapter  on  the  bassoon).  Recur- 
rence of  opening  theme.  Approach  and  breaking  of  a  storm,  with 
instrumental  suggestions  of  rising  wind,  thunder,  etc.  Thanksgiving 
after  the  end  of  the  storm.  Practically  a  five-movement  symphony 
with  the  last  three  joined  together. 

No.  7.  Very  rhythmic.  Sometimes  called  the  apotheosis  of  the 
dance. 

1st  movement.  A  slow  introduction,  with  runs  and  broad  chords. 
The  allegro  begins  with  a  waltz-like  theme  of  most  pleasing  character; 
the  same  rhythm  being  carried  through  the  second  theme  and  the 
closing  theme. 

2d  movement.  Marked  allegretto,  but  really  the  slow  movement  of 
the  symphony.  A  most  wonderful  use  of  the  rhythm  shown  by  a 
quarter-note,  two  eighths,  and  two  more  quarters.  This  rhjrthm  is 
carried  entirely  through  the  movement.  The  chords  at  first  corre- 


BEETHOVEN  115 

spond  to  this  rhythm,  and  a  bipartite  theme  (with  second  half  re- 
peated) in  minor  is  worked  up  to  a  great  climax.  A  side-section,  in 
major,  brings  into  the  upper  part  an  infinitely  melodious  theme  with 
triplet  accompaniment,  while  the  bass  continues  the  former  rhythm. 
The  first  theme  returns,  worked  out  in  very  elaborated  and  effec- 
tive counterpoint.  The  side-section  and  a  suggestion  of  the  original 
theme  then  end  the  movement. 

3d  m&vement.  Scherzo  is  here  replaced  by  presto,  though  the  form 
is  kept  the  same.  Mysterious,  chattering  themes  are  alternated  with 
a  simple  but  rhythmic  trio. 

Jf-th  movement.  A  tremendously  rapid  rondo,  of  brusque  and  lively 
character. 

No.  8.  Light  and  short  in  comparison  with  the  three  preceding 
ones,  but  very  humorous,  bright,  and  pleasant.  This  and  the  Seventh 
Symphony  were  inspired  partly  by  the  enlivening  influence  exerted 
on  Beethoven  by  Amalia  Seebald. 

1st  movement.  No  introduction.  Themes  cheerful,  having  almost 
the  character  of  a  slow  waltz. 

2d  movement.  A  light,  dainty  allegretto  scherzando,  with  themes 
tossed  about  and  mimicked  in  humorous  fashion. 

3d  movement.  Tempo  di  menuetto.  Like  a  playful  minuet  in  style. 

^h  movement.  Allegretto  vivace.  Lively,  chattering  themes  in  even 
rhythm. 

No.  9.  The  Choral  Symphony,  introducing  voices  in  the  finale.  A 
tonal  picture  of  world-struggles  followed  by  human  brotherhood. 

1st  movement.  Empty  fifths  and  fourths,  serving  as  an  introduc- 
tion, lead  directly  into  the  wildly  strong  first  theme.  The  second 
theme  is  more  tender  in  character,  and  in  the  contrasting  major 
mode;  while  the  closing  theme  is  short.  After  development  and 
recapitulation,  the  coda,  ending  in  a  grand  climax,  lets  the  sombre 
mood  of  the  first  theme  prevail. 

2d  movement.  Molto  vivace.  A  gracefully  melodious  theme  in  niij 
said  to  resemble  a  certain  Russian  folk-dance.  This  is  varied  andcon- 
tinued  through  the  movement,  which  ends  tranquilly  in 

3d  movement.  An  adagio  of  very  expressive  character  meantf  to  • 
t5T)if y  the  best  sentiments  of  humanity.   Its  two  contrasted  sections, 
however,  are  scarcely  so  striking  as  the  slow  movement  of  tne  Fifth 
Sjmiphony. 

^h  movement.  At  first  in  some  sense  a  review  of  preceding  move- 
ments. Wild  themes  from  the  first  and  second  movement  are  re- 
buked by  stem  passages  on  the  contrabass;  a  suggestion  of  the 
adagio  dies  away  plaintively ;  then  the  contrabass  breaks  into  the 
impressive  theme  that  is  sung  afterward,  to  the  words  of  Schiller's 


o-         f- 


116  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

"Ode  to  Joy."  The  inner  meaning  of  all  this  is  that  human  striving 
(the  first  three  movements)  is  to  be  replaced  by  universal  brother- 
hood, shown  by  the  sentiments  of  the  song. 

The  Ninth  Symphony  belongs  to  Beethoven's  third  period,  in 
which  he  gave  up  piano  performances  because  he  was  entirely  deaf. 
Other  works  of  this  period  were  the  great  "Missa  Solemnis,"  the 
last  five  piano  sonatas,  and  the  last  of  his  string  quartets.  These 
show  a  discarding  of  the  forms  that  he  used  in  such  powerful  style 
in  his  second  period.  The  sonatas  are  more  like  free  rhapsodies,  and 
the  Ninth  Symphony  an  approach  toward  the  modem  tone-picture 
idea.  Toward  the  end,  Beethoven  said  that  all  he  had  written  was 
as  nothing  beside  what  he  was  planning;  and  we  may  conclude  that 
if  he  had  lived  he  would  have  given  us  great  orchestral  canvases,  as 
broadly  outlined  as  those  of  Liszt,  with  perhaps  even  more  valuable 
thematic  material. 

In  1815,  Beethoven's  brother  Caspar  died,  leaving  the  composer 
with  the  charge  of  a  nephew.  Lawsuits  with  the  boy's  mother  fol- 
lowed; and  the  boy  himself  gave  Beethoven  much  trouble.  The 
young  ward  of  the  composer  has  usually  been  rated  as  a  black  sheep, 
because  of  some  escapades  that  troubled  his  uncle;  but  the  nephew 
finally  went  into  the  army,  and  afterward  settled  down  as  a  good 
citizen.  Beethoven's  arbitrary  ways  no  doubt  caused  at  least  a 
part  of  whatever  friction  arose.  He  lavished  affection  on  the  nephew, 
but  perhaps  showed  too  little  self-control  for  a  really  good 
guardian. 

Beethoven  loved  the  open  air,  and  used  to  walk  about  frequently. 
On  these  walks  he  would  often  stop  to  note  down  themes  in  some  one 
of  his  many  sketch-books.  The  difference  between  the  themes  of  the 
notebooks  and  their  final  form  in  his  published  works  is  often  re- 
markable, and  proved  that  Beethoven  possessed  the  capacity  for 
taking  pains  that  Carlyle  calls  genius.  But  he  had  inspiration  also. 
Sometimes  he  would  become  so  absorbed  in  his  themes  as  to  block 
traffic,  or  cut  his  friends.  At  times,  when  he  wandered  far  afield, 
the  authorities  would  look  with  suspicion  on  such  an  eccentric 
stranger;  and  once  he  was  arrested  as  a  vagrant.  But  he  was  safe 
from  trouble  in  one  favorite  spot  —  a  tree  in  Schonbrunn,  whose 
forked  branches  formed  a  natural  seat. 

Beethoven  had  no  fixed  position.  Once  he  thought  of  becoming 


BEETHOVEN  117 

a.  Kapellmeister  under  Jerome  Bonaparte;  but  his  friends  subscribed 
for  an  annuity  to  keep  him  in  Vienna.  In  spite  of  later  currency 
depreciation  and  many  lawsuits,  the  composer  was  never  driven  into 
bankruptcy.  He  was  always  able  to  sell  his  works,  and  had  many 
influential  friends  upon  whom  he  could  rely.  The  respect  in  which 
he  was  held  was  shovm  at  his  first  performance  of  the  Ninth  Sym- 
phony, at  Vienna.  Beethoven,  being  totally  deaf,  did  not  hear  the 
wild  applause  at  the  end,  but  stood  gazing  at  the  orchestra.  At 
last  one  of  the  performers  turned  him  around;  and  the  audience, 
recognizing  his  inability  to  hear  their  clapping,  began  to  wave  hats 
and  handkerchiefs  at  him. 

Beethoven's  illness,  a  tendency  to  dropsy,  was  complicated  by 
lung  trouble.  The  latter  may  have  resulted  from  a  visit  to  a  sur- 
viving brother  at  Gneixendorf  ;  for  he  had  to  sleep  in  a  draughty 
room  while  there,  and  he  returned  in  very  bad  weather. 

On  his  deathbed  (in  1827)  he  came  to  know  and  appreciate  Schu- 
bert. He  also  saw  a  picture  of  Haydn's  birthplace  and  remarked, 
"^Strange  that  such  a  great  man  should  have  been  bom  in  such  a 
hovel."  His  irritability  remained  with  him,  and  he  even  quarrelled 
with  his  doctors.  The  very  manner  of  his  death  was  unusual  and 
dramatic.  A  great  storm  had  come  over  the  city;  and  after  a  loud 
clap  of  thunder  Beethoven  raised  himself,  shook  his  fist  at  the  ele- 
ments, and  fell  back  dead. 

Beethoven's  works  may  be  listed  as  follows:  — 

For  piano,  thirty-two  sonatas,  one  four-hand  sonata,  and  over 
one  hundred  smaller  pieces,  including  variations,  dances,  rondos, 
bagatelles,  etc. 

For  voice,  with  piano  or  orchestra  mostly,  the  opera  "Fidelio," 
one  oratorio,  two  masses,  ten  cantatas  of  various  sorts,  one  chorale 
fantasia,  a  number  of  concert-solos,  eighteen  canons,  and  about 
two  hundred  and  forty  songs,  nearly  two  thirds  of  the  songs  being 
written  for  the  publisher  Thomson,  of  Edinburgh. 

For  orchestra,  nine  symphonies,  eleven  overtures,  incidental 
music,  about  ten  minor  works  (including  the  tone-picture  "The 
Battle  of  Vittoria"),  five  concertos  for  piano,  and  one  concerto  for 
violin. 

For  various  instrumental  combinations,  eight  piano  trios,  three 
piano  quartets,  one  piano  quintet,  one  triple  concerto,  ten  violin 


118  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

sonatas,  five  'cello  sonatas,  one  horn  sonata,  five  trios,  sixteen  string 
quartets,  two  quintets,  two  sextets,  one  septet,  and  two  octets. 

His  compositions  are  nearly  all  alive  to-day,  but  the  symphonies, 
overtures,  piano  sonatas,  and  string  quartets  receive  more  per- 
formances at  present  than  his  other  works.  Of  the  overtures,  that 
to  "Egmont"  is  perhaps  the  most  intensely  powerful,  with  "Corio- 
lanus"  a  good  second;  but  the  three  "Leonora"  overtures,  especially 
the  third,  are  also  strongly  dramatic.  The  early  string  quartets  are 
great,  while  the  last  few  show  the  utter  breadth  of  Beethoven's 
final  style.  The  piano  sonatas  are  nearly  all  famous  solo  selections. 
Best  among  the  early  ones  are  the  first  three  and  the  "Pathetique," 
the  latter  being  full  of  tremendously  strong  contrasts  and  great 
possibilities.  The  well-beloved  "Moonlight  Sonata"  is  not  really 
a  moonlight  affair.  One  of  the  weird  stories  that  are  sometimes 
saddled  upon  an  innocent  work  states  that  Beethoven,  wandering  in 
a  forest,  came  upon  a  house,  entered  to  find  it  filled  by  a  social 
gathering,  and  improvised  this  work  with  the  moonlight  streaming 
over  the  keyboard.  In  reality,  he  composed  the  work  in  his  study, 
and  entitled  it  "Sonata  quasi  una  fantasia."  Another  false  story 
arises  from  the  name  of  the  piece  entitled  "Farewell  to  the  Piano." 
This  piece  was  not  Beethoven's  last  for  the  piano,  and  his  own  title 
for  it  was  "Thoughts  on  Departure."  Of  the  later  sonatas,  the 
"Waldstein"  and  "Appassionata"  are  great,  while  the  last  five  are 
freer  in  form,  but  grandly  effective. 

The  opera  "Fidelio"  deals  with  the  misfortunes  of  Florestan,  a 
Spanish  nobleman  who  has  been  supplanted  and  imprisoned  by 
Pizarro.  Florestan's  wife  Leonora  disguises  herself  as  a  youth,  under 
the  name  of  Fidelio,  and  enters  Pizarro's  emplojnnent  as  assistant 
to  Rocco,  his  jailer.  Pizarro,  learning  of  the  governor  Ferdinand's 
approach,  decides  to  kill  Florestan;  but  at  the  crucial  moment 
Leonora  prevents  him  from  stabbing  his  victim  by  flourishing  a 
pistol.  Just  at  this  moment  the  governor's  trumpet-call  is  heard 
from  without;  and  when  that  official  learns  the  truth,  he  banishes 
Pizarro  and  restores  Florestan  to  all  he  had  lost.  The  music  is 
somewhat  symphonic  according  to  modem  standards,  but  strongly 
dramatic.  Fidelio's  outburst  of  indignation  ("Abscheulicher"),  fol- 
lowed by  the  smooth  aria  "Komm,  Hoffnung,"  is  a  favorite  concert 
selection;  while  the  second  act  as  a  whole  is  a  marvel  of  intensity. 


BEETHOVEN  119 

But  the  purely  orchestral  Beethoven  was  the  greatest^  after  all. 
In  treating  the  instruments,  Beethoven  brought  out  their  capabili- 
ties in  the  fullest  measure.  Those  that  earlier  composers  had  held 
unimportant  were  often  raised  by  him  to  a  position  of  prominence. 
He  thought  orchestrally,  and  his  last  five  sonatas  seem  like  sjnn- 
phonic  rhapsodies  for  piano. 

His  themes  were  almost  always  fraught  with  the  most  intense 
feeling  and  significance.  Their  vigor  is  unexampled,  and  their  depth 
of  musical  expression  remarkable.  When  the  works  of  several  dif- 
ferent composers  are  practised  constantly,  some  of  them  seem  to 
wear  threadbare  after  a  short  time;  but  Beethoven's  works  never 
grow  stale.  They  arouse  constant  admiration  for  their  strength,  and 
mark  their  composer  as  primus  inter  pares  —  a  leader  among  the 
musical  Titans  who  have  tried  to  scale  Olympus. 


xm 

SCHUBERT 

Franz  Peter  Schubert  was  undoubtedly  the  most  spontaneous 
of  composers.  Melodies  occurred  to  him  with  the  most  amazing 
rapidity,  and  his  short  life  was  one  continual  outpouring  of  com- 
positions. He  seldom  revised  his  work,  being  in  this  respect  the 
opposite  of  Beethoven.  But  he  gave  forth  his  "native  wood-notes 
wild"  in  an  inexhaustible  stream.  Even  Mozart,  his  only  rival  in 
this  respect,  was  certainly  behind  him  in  melodic  and  harmonic 
expressiveness. 

Schubert  was  bom  on  January  31,  1797,  in  the  large  family  of 
a  poor  schoolmaster  at  Lichtenthal,  a  suburb  of  Vienna.  His  home 
life  was  restricted  by  poverty,  but  his  father  and  his  elder  brothers 
Ignaz  and  Ferdinand  were  devoted  to  music,  which  Franz  soon  found 
to  be  a  congenial  atmosphere.  He  received  his  earliest  instruction 
at  home,  with  the  addition  of  some  lessons  from  Holzer,  the  local 
choir-leader.  Schubert's  natural  genius  had  evidently  begun  to 
make  itself  manifest;  for  Holzer  said,  "He  seems  to  have  known  in- 
stinctively whatever  I  tried  to  teach  him." 

Soon  after  he  reached  the  age  of  eleven  he  was  transferred  to  the 
choir-school  (Konvikt-Schule)  of  the  imperial  chapel  in  Vienna,  where 
he  stayed  until  1813.  There  he  had  some  chances  to  develop  him- 
self, such  as  hearing  occasional  operas,  or  playing  in  the  school 
orchestra,  of  which  he  became  first  violin  and  assistant  conductor. 
The  playing  at  home,  too,  grew  to  a  larger  scale,  and  the  domestic 
performances  sometimes  included  symphonies  as  well  as  quartets. 
He  began  to  compose  also.  In  that  branch  he  was  handicapped  at 
first  by  an  unusual  situation  —  the  lack  of  money  to  buy  music- 
paper.  Fortunately  the  situation  was  discovered  by  an  older  and 
richer  student,  who  generously  bought  the  needed  supplies.  Schu- 
bert's poverty  was  shown  in  another  way;  for  the  students  were  none 
too  well  fed,  receiving  only  two  meals  a  day,  and  a  letter  exists  in 
which  Franz  begged  his  brother  for  extra  Kreutzers  (pennies)  to  buy 
more  food. 


SCHUBERT  121 

Schubert  received  a  few  lessons  from  Ruzicka,  who  taught  thor- 
oughbass at  the  school.  This  was  supplemented  by  occasional  ad- 
vice from  Salieri.  But  on  the  whole,  as  with  Holzer  in  the  earlier 
days,  he  was  practically  self-taught.  He  felt  the  greatest  admiration 
for  the  works  of  Mozart  and  Beethoven,  though  they  do  not  seem 
to  have  served  as  models  for  his  own  vein  of  emotional  expression. 
He  might  have  obtained  imperial  aid  if  he  had  worked  harder  at 
certain  general  subjects  in  the  school  course;  but  he  did  not  do  this, 
and  when  his  voice  broke  he  was  thrown  on  his  own  resources. 

For  a  time  he  taught  in  the  primary  grades  of  his  father's  school, 
to  escape  military  conscription.  During  this  period  he  worked  as 
much  as  possible  at  composition;  and  when  the  school-teaching  was 
given  up  he  devoted  himself  wholly  to  music.  Even  before  this  time 
he  had  composed  large  works.  At  seventeen  he  had  written  his  first 
mass,  which  pleased  his  devout  father  so  greatly  that  the  latter  pre- 
sented the  youth  with  a  new  piano.  An  early  opera  is  now  only  a 
fragment,  for  it  was  left  as  a  pledge  in  care  of  a  friend  named  Hiit- 
tenbrenner,  at  whose  house  a  servant  used  the  first  act  and  part  of 
the  second  to  light  the  fires.  Schubert  wrote  so  much  that  many  of 
his  works  were  lost  through  carelessness  of  various  kinds;  and  even 
at  his  death  his  manuscripts  were  rated  as  a  "pile of  old  music,  worth 
ten  florins."  Schumann,  Sir  George  Grove,  and  others  did  much 
valuable  work  in  recovering  various  Schubert  manuscripts;  and  it  is 
possible  even  now  that  some  of  his  lost  works  may  be  rediscovered. 

At  eighteen,  Schubert  wrote  one  of  his  most  powerful  songs,  "The 
Erl-King,"  producing  it  in  a  single  day.  Goethe,  the  author  of  the 
poem,  did  not  appreciate  this  setting,  and  seems  to  have  been  some- 
what lacking  in  good  musical  taste;  but  the  public  and  the  critics 
now  rate  it  as  one  of  the  most  dramatic  songs  ever  written. 

From  this  time  on  Schubert  came  face  to  face  with  poverty,  and 
was  often  saved  from  actual  want  only  by  the  aid  of  his  friends. 
Most  helpful  among  these  was  the  Swedish  poet-musician  Franz 
von  Schober.  This  "friend  in  need,"  who  was  fairly  well  off,  had 
admired  some  Schubert  songs  before  meeting  their  composer;  and 
when  the  two  became  acquainted.  Von  Schober  suggested  that  they 
share  lodgings,  and  took  advantage  of  this  plan  to  shoulder  almost 
the  entire  financial  burden.  Von  Schober  was  a  valuable  friend  to 
Schubert,  for  he  understood  the  composer's  moods  and  made  due 


122  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

allowance  for  them.  He  was  also  able  to  introduce  Schubert  to  cer- 
tain valuable  friends,  such  as  the  baritone  Vogl.  With  Vogl  or  Von 
Schober  the  composer  made  several  very  pleasant  vacation  trips. 
Another  friend  of  this  little  group  was  the  poet  Mayrhofer,  whose 
melancholy  disposition  must  have  been  cheered  by  Schubert's  gen- 
iality. From  this  beginning  there  came  ultimately  a  fairly  large 
circle  of  poets,  painters,  and  musicians,  including  Lachner,  Schwind, 
Spaim,  and  other  notables.  They  were  a  somewhat  Bohemian  lot, 
leading  a  rather  shiftless  life;  but  they  made  it  a  life  of  at  least  some 
happiness.  In  its  way  the  circle  was  almost  communistic.  If  one 
had  money,  all  shared  it  with  him,  and  drank  champagne  until  a 
renewed  financial  deficit  forced  them  back  to  simpler  potations. 
Once,  when  Schubert  sold  a  group  of  songs  to  a  publisher,  he  took 
the  coterie  to  hear  the  great  violinist  Paganini,  at  over  two  dollars 
a  ticket.  Hats,  coats,  and  other  articles  of  clothing  were  appropriated 
whenever  needed,  and  any  one  making  a  visit  arrayed  himself  in  the 
best  of  this  borrowed  plumage.  During  a  week  of  poverty,  Schubert 
once  missed  his  wooden  spectacle  case.  After  a  hunt,  he  found  that 
Schwind,  too  poor  at  the  time  to  buy  a  pipe,  had  filled  the  case  with 
tobacco,  bored  a  hole  in  it,  and  inserted  a  stem,  at  which  he  was 
puffing  contentedly. 

Schubert  was  recognized  as  the  leader  of  the  Bohemian  gatherings; 
and  they  were  called  "  Schubertiades,"  in  his  honor.  All  the  members 
of  the  clique  were  active  in  some  phase  of  artistic  work.  When  a 
newcomer  was  introduced,  Schubert  invariably  asked,  "Kann  er 
was?"  This  question,  which  meant  "Can  he  do  anything,"  finally 
became  Schubert's  own  nickname. 

In  1818,  a  change  came,  in  the  shape  of  a  chance  to  teach  at  the 
Hungarian  estate  of  Count  Johann  Esterhazy.  There  he  must  have 
become  acquainted  with  the  gypsy  music,  which  is  echoed  in  so 
many  of  his  own  great  works.  Unlike  Beethoven,  he  did  not  impress 
the  aristocracy.  He  felt  ill  at  ease  when  with  them,  and  more  at 
home  among  the  servants.  But  this  did  not  prevent  him  from  falling 
in  love  with  the  Count's  younger  daughter,  Caroline,  on  a  later 
visit.  His  passion  was  sincere,  if  hopeless.  It  has  been  stated  that 
once,  when  Caroline  asked  why  he  dedicated  nothing  to  her,  he 
replied,  "All  that  I  ever  did  is  dedicated  to  you." 

Schubert's  remarkable  rapidity  in  composition  is  attested  by 


>IENDELSSOHN 


SCHUBERT  128 

many  anecdotes.  If  a  musical  idea  came  to  him  at  night,  he  would 
often  arise  to  write  it  down.  In  this  way  he  composed  his  song  "Die 
Forelle."  But  when  he  reached  for  the  bottle  of  sand,  then  used 
for  blotting  purposes,  he  was  so  sleepy  that  he  seized  the  bottle  of 
ink  instead,  and  poured  its  contents  over  half  the  manuscript  before 
he  discovered  his  mistake.  Too  tired  to  rewrite  the  work,  he  took  no 
further  pains  with  it  for  many  days. 

Still  more  suggestive  of  his  speed  in  creative  work  was  his  com- 
position of  "Hark,  hark,  the  lark."  On  a  summer  morning  in  1826, 
he  was  returning  with  a  party  of  friends  from  an  early  walk.  At  the 
restaurant  "Zum  Biersack,"  in  Wahring,  Schubert  saw  his  friend 
Tieze  at  one  of  the  tables;  and  the  party  joined  the  latter  at  break- 
fast. While  they  were  waiting  to  be  served,  Schubert  began  to  look 
over  a  translation  of  Shakespeare  that  Tieze  had  brought.  Always 
hunting  for  poems  that  could  be  set  to  music,  Schubert  soon  noticed 
"  Hark,  hark,  the  lark,"  the  beautiful  morning  song  in  "  Cjonbeline." 
In  a  moment  he  exclaimed,  "  If  I  only  had  paper  here,  I  have  just 
the  right  setting  for  this  poem."  At  these  words  Doppler,  who  was 
one  of  the  party,  started  ruling  staff-lines  on  the  back  of  a  bill  of 
fare,  and  soon  handed  the  improvised  music-paper  to  the  com- 
poser. Schubert  then  wrote  his  exquisitely  beautiful  setting  of 
the  poem,  completing  it  with  full  harmony  in  the  space  of  twenty 
minutes. 

If  Schubert  composed  quickly,  he  also  forgot  quickly.  Once  he 
sent  Vogl  a  song,  which  the  latter  found  too  high,  and  directed  a 
copyist  to  transpose  down  to  the  desired  key.  A  week  or  two  after- 
ward, Schubert  saw  the  song,  now  in  a  strange  handwriting,  and 
looked  it  over.  "That's  not  bad,"  he  said;  "who  composed  it?" 

As  a  pianist,  Schubert  was  expressive  enough,  but  too  lazy  to  gain 
any  real  mastery  over  technique.  On  one  occasion  he  broke  down 
while  trying  to  play  one  of  his  own  works,  the  "Fantasie,"  op.  15. 
Continuing,  he  found  himself  in  difficulty  for  a  second  time;  whereat 
he  jumped  up  from  the  piano-stool  in  a  rage,  and  exclaimed  to  the 
friends  who  were  present,  "That  stuff  is  only  fit  for  the  devil  to 
play!  "  ("Das  Zeug  mag  der  Teufel  spielen!  "). 

Schubert's  retiring  manners  really  stood  in  the  way  of  his  career. 
He  refused  a  post  as  com't  organist,  probably  through  a  distaste  for 
the  formalities  required.  He  met  Beethoven  and  Weber  in  1822, 


124  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

but  did  not  get  into  close  touch  with  them;  and  Beethoven  did  not 
recognize  Schubert's  greatness  until  he  examined  some  of  the 
younger  man's  works  while  on  his  own  deathbed.  In  similar  fashion, 
Schubert  found  it  hard  to  treat  of  business  matters,  and  became  a 
prey  to  the  avarice  of  his  publishers.  Thus  Diabelli  bought  a  large 
number  of  Schubert  songs  for  about  ten  florins  apiece;  while  he  made 
over  twenty-seven  thousand  florins  from  a  single  one  of  these,  "The 
Wanderer."  In  1826,  when  the  supply  seemed  to  exceed  the  de- 
mand, Schubert  sold  some  of  the  songs  in  the  famous  "  Winterreise" 
set  for  twenty  cents  apiece. 

After  attending  Beethoven's  funeral  in  1827,  Schubert  proposed  a 
toast  to  the  next  great  composer  who  would  die,  not  knowing  that  it 
was  to  be  himself. 

Schubert's  friends  often  reproached  him  with  carelessness  in  com- 
position; and  toward  the  close  of  his  life  their  words  took  effect. 
He  showed  more  than  usual  care  in  writing  his  great  symphony  in 
C,  and  revised  the  manuscript  considerably.  After  that  he  even 
decided  to  take  lessons  in  counterpoint,  feeling  that  the  skilful 
handling  of  voices  (parts)  and  figure  treatment  would  give  added 
strength  to  his  works.  He  had  planned  the  course  with  Sechter,  but 
he  died  before  he  could  start  it.  Toward  the  end  of  the  year  1828  he 
was  attacked  by  a  sudden  distaste  for  food,  which  soon  changed  into 
a  fever  of  the  typhus  sort,  similar  to  the  one  that  carried  off  Mozart. 
Schubert's  friends  did  not  at  first  realize  the  serious  nature  of  his 
illness;  but  even  if  they  had  known,  their  best  efforts  would  prob- 
ably have  been  insufficient  to  save  a  constitution  worn  out  by  irreg- 
ular living.  Schubert  died  on  November  19,  1828,  when  less  than 
thirty-two  years  old. 

The  epitaph  on  Schubert,  by  the  poet  Grillparzer,  states,  very 
justly,  — 

"Fate  has  buried  here 
A  rich  possession,  but  yet  greater  promise." 

Schubert  was  by  nature  a  song-composer,  and  all  his  works,  even 
the  orchestral  ones,  charm  us  by  their  wealth  of  spontaneous  melody ; 
but  if  he  had  carried  out  his  plans  of  study,  and  united  the  solid 
value  of  contrapuntal  knowledge  with  the  melodic  beauty  of  his 
works,  there  is  no  telling  to  what  heights  he  might  or  might  not  have 
risen.  As  it  was,  he  earned  a  place  among  the  world's  masters  at 


SCHUBERT  125 

thirty-one  —  an  age  at  which  Beethoven  had  not  yet  finished  the 
first  period  in  his  activity,  and  Wagner  had  written  only  one  of  the 
operas  that  were  destined  to  make  him  famous.  In  person,  Schubert 
was  short,  stout,  and  round-shouldered,  with  a  chubby  face,  a  pasty 
complexion  (due  to  poor  food),  thick  black  hair,  and  alert  eyes, 
which  were  unfortunately  near-sighted.  He  spent  his  mornings  in 
composition,  which  with  him  was  little  more  than  the  copying  of 
works  already  completed  in  mental  vision. 

Schubert's  operas  are  now  forgotten  for  the  most  part.  He  wrote 
quite  a  number  of  them,  but  the  librettos  were  often  poor,  and  his 
style  was  lyrical  rather  than  strongly  dramatic.  Best  known  among 
his  operatic  compositions  are  the  overture  and  entr'actes  of  "Rosa- 
munde." 

Two  of  Schubert's  ten  symphonies  have  survived  in  the  repertoire 
of  the  present  —  the  "Unfinished"  Symphony,  and  the  one  in  C. 
The  former  consists  of  two  remarkably  emotional  and  expressive 
movements,  the  opening  one  being  in  the  sonata-allegro  form  of  a 
first  movement,  while  the  second  is  a  calm  but  richly  expressive  slow 
movement.  The  warm  feeling  of  the  first  movement  and  the  rich 
harmonies  of  the  second  make  this  work  absolutely  sui  generis  —  a 
veritable  lyric  among  symphonies.  The  C-major  work  is  based  on 
larger  proportions.  The  broadly  developed  themes  of  its  first  move- 
ment, the  fiery  gypsy  character  of  its  second,  the  lyinc  brightness 
of  its  scherzo,  and  the  triumphant  glory  of  its  finale  are  familiar  to 
many  concert-goers.  This  work  may  not  have  the  astonishing  depth 
of  expression  that  Beethoven  showed,  say  in  the  finely  wrought 
slow  movement  of  his  Seventh  Sjnnphony;  but  the  Schubert  com- 
position charms  us  none  the  less  by  its  wealth  of  melody  and  the 
changing  beauty  of  its  harmonies. 

Schubert's  other  works  include  twenty  expressive  string  quartets, 
and  chamber  music  for  various  combinations.  His  two  dozen  piano 
sonatas  are  rather  long  and  diffuse  for  a  form  that  should  be  power- 
ful rather  than  IjTical.  His  many  shorter  piano  pieces,  avoiding 
this  defect,  are  often  very  successful.  They  consist  of  dances, 
marches,  impromptus,  moments  musicals,  and  so  on.  His  sacred 
productions  consist  of  six  masses,  two  sacred  cantatas  (including 
"Miriam's  Song  of  Victory"),  and  a  number  of  motets  and  hymns, 
some  quite  elaborate.   For  voice  he  wrote  also  about  sixty  part- 


126  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

songs;  but  he  is  best  known  by  his  solo  songs,  which  number  between 
six  and  seven  hundred. 

Schubert's  songs  brought  into  existence  the  highly  poetic  and  ex- 
pressive style  of  lyric  known  as  the  German  Lied.  The  Lied  is  a  com- 
plete work  that  contains  the  maximum  of  artistic  creation  in  the 
minimum  of  space.  The  Lied  may  be  compared  to  a  gem  in  music, 
while  the  longer  symphony  or  overture  resembles  rather  a  large 
decorative  fresco.  Such  songs  as  Schubert's  "Erl-King,"  or  "The 
Wanderer,"  contain  vivid  bits  of  the  most  widely  different  styles, 
welded  into  an  artistic  whole  with  the  utmost  skill  and  delicacy. 
The  same  variety  is  shown  in  the  other  songs  when  they  are  taken 
as  a  whole,  though  often  a  single  song  may  be  devoted  to  a  special 
style.  Thus  the  "Schone  Miillerin"  cycle,  depicting  the  love  of  a 
rustic  swain  for  the  miller's  daughter,  and  his  jealousy  of  the  green- 
clad  himter  who  supplants  him  in  her  affections,  is  pervaded  by 
suggestions  of  mill-stream  and  forest,  although  its  various  numbers 
differ  among  themselves  in  character.  Songs  like  "Die  Allmacht"  or 
"Aufenthalt"  demand  breadth  or  power.  Others  again,  like  "Die 
Post,"  or  "Das  Fischermadchen,"  are  lyric  melodies  of  swingy 
enthusiasm  or  compelling  charm.  Some  numbers  in  the  "Winter- 
reise"  and  elsewhere  are  settings  of  apparently  immusical  subjects, 
done  in  such  a  clever  way  that  the  accompaniment  proves  effective 
after  all.  In  setting  emotional  subjects,  Schubert  did  not  quite 
reach  to  the  depth  of  Schumann;  but  he  showed  the  way  for  the 
latter,  and  surpassed  him  in  the  variety  of  uses  to  which  he  put  his 
lyric  ability. 

There  had  been  song-composers  before  Schubert,  such  as  Schulz, 
Zelter,  and  others.  But  where  their  work  was  primitive  or  experi- 
mental, Schubert's  represents  a  full  artistic  fruition. 

With  Schubert  as  a  song-composer  two  other  men  have  been 
classed  —  Robert  Schumann,  and  Robert  Franz.  ^  The  former  will 
be  treated  under  his  own  name;  but  Franz's  work  may  well  be  de- 
scribed here. 

Robert  Franz  was  bom  in  1815,  at  Halle,  where  he  lived,  with 
short  exceptions,  until  his  death  in  1892.  Gifted  with  musical  taste 
at  an  early  age,  he  enjoyed  greatly  the  choral  singing  that  took 

*  The  family  name  was  Knauth,  but  his  father  changed  it  to  Franz,  by  royal 
permission. 


SCHUBERT  127 

place  at  his  home.  In  school  he  added  alto  parts  to  the  songs,  and 
nearly  earned  a  flogging  from  the  teacher,  who  did  not  understand 
such  deviations  from  the  printed  notes.  After  some  study  at  Dessau, 
Franz  returned  to  his  native  place,  where  he  gradually  became  known 
as  a  song-composer,  and  was  made  a  chorus-director.  Poverty  and 
deafness  came  upon  him,  but  Liszt  came  to  his  aid,  and  gave  a  series 
of  "Franz  concerts"  that  put  him  beyond  the  reach  of  want. 

Franz  thought  that  after  Beethoven  it  was  sacrilege  to  attempt 
symphonies;  and  he  limited  himself  to  song-composition.  In  a  letter 
to  Louis  C.  Elson,  Franz  claimed  that  "music  began  with  the  lyric 
form,  and  will  end  with  it  —  a  process  of  development  that  is  true 
of  poetry  also."  Whether  one  agrees  with  the  prediction  or  not,  he 
must  admit  that  Franz's  songs  did  much  to  justify  it.  They  show 
something  of  the  lyric  charm  that  was  Schubert's  and  the  melodic 
strength  that  was  Schumann's;  but  with  these  they  unite  a  delicacy 
of  artistic  workmanship  that  deserves  the  highest  praise.  They  are 
often  of  such  an  intimate  nature  that  they  lose  effect  in  large  con- 
cert-halls. Some  of  them,  like  "Mit  schwarzen  Segeln,"  show  power 
enough;  but  most  of  them  are  more  quietly  contemplative.  This 
quality  may  be  found  in  such  widely  different  lyrics  as  the  rhap- 
sodical "An  die  bretteme  Schiffswand"  and  the  infinitely  tender 
"Slumber-Song."  Franz  wrote  some  choral  music,  but  avoided 
the  instrumental  field. 

Karl  Loewe,  bom  near  Halle  in  1796,  attempted  the  larger  forms. 
After  a  youth  of  performance  that  was  finally  stopped  by  apoplexy, 
he  devoted  himself  to  composition.  His  works  include  operas,  ora- 
torios, orchestral,  chamber,  and  piano  pieces;  but  he  became  best 
known  by  his  dramatic  ballads.  Undoubtedly  Schubert's  "Erl- 
King"  and  "Wanderer"  pointed  out  the  way  for  these;  but  Loewe 
carried  the  form  to  much  greater  length,  and  made  it  extremely 
dramatic.  Such  ballads  as  "Su-  Olaf,"  "Archibald  Douglas," 
"Odins  Meeresritt,"  "Edward,"  "Heinrich,  der  Vogler,"  and  others 
of  the  sort  are  really  little  dramas  for  solo  voice  and  piano.  He 
practically  founded  the  ballad  form. 


XIV 

WEBER  AND  ROMANTICISM 

Carl  Maria  von  Weber  was  bom  at  Eutin  in  1786.  He  was  a 
cousin  of  the  Constance  Weber  who  married  Mozart.  His  father  had 
been  the  local  choirmaster  and  conductor  for  some  years,  and 
had  hoped  for  a  child-prodigy  among  his  offspring.  The  children  of 
his  first  wife  showed  only  a  meagre  amount  of  talent;  so  that  when 
the  young  Carl  brought  forth  a  juvenile  composition,  the  father 
began  to  think  that  his  hopes  might  be  realized.  He  did  not  hesi- 
tate to  falsify  his  son's  age,  wishing  thus  to  draw  attention  to  a 
new  child-prodigy.  But  he  was  not  such  a  well-equipped  teacher  as 
Leopold  Mozart,  and  his  son  was  not  nearly  so  precocious  as  the 
yoimg  Mozart. 

Weber's  father  was  restless  as  well  as  versatile.  The  family  began 
a  long  period  of  wandering  when  Carl  was  only  a  year  old.  Vienna, 
Cassel,  Meiningen,  Nuremberg,  and  many  other  places  were  visited 
in  search  of  theatrical  or  other  emplo3nnent;  and  it  is  only  a  slight 
exaggeration  to  say  that  Weber  grew  up  behind  the  scenes. 

Weber's  training  was  desultory,  though  he  had  some  lessons  from 
Michael  Haydn  at  Salzburg.  At  Munich,  under  Kalcher,  the  boy 
produced  his  first  opera,  "Die  Macht  der  Liebe."  Weber's  father 
grew  interested  at  this  time  in  the  lithographic  work  of  his  friend 
Senef elder,  and  thought  of  giving  up  music;  but  he  did  not  carry  out 
his  design.  In  Freiburg,  Weber  produced  "Das  Waldm.adchen," 
which  was  afterwards  rewritten  as  "Sylvana."  Next  came  "Peter 
Schmoll,"  which  was  still  immature,  and  had  little  more  success 
than  its  two  predecessors. 

After  study  with  Abt  Vogler,  who  helped  him  much,  Weber  be- 
came Kapellmeister  at  Breslau.  There  he  wrote  the  opera  "Riibe- 
zahl,"  now  unfortunately  lost.  There,  too,  he  accidentally  ruined  his 
attractive  voice  by  sipping  at  a  glass  of  his  father's  nitric  acid,  which 
he  mistook  for  wine.  Unlike  the  Irishman  in  the  anecdote,  who 
merely  stated  that  he  "had  never  tasted  that  brand  before,"  Weber 


WEBER  AND  ROMANTICISM  129 

fell  to  the  floor  unconscious,  and  did  not  recover  his  health  for  a 
long  time. 

At  Stuttgart,  Weber  entered  into  the  fast  court  life  that  flourished 
under  Duke  Ludwig  of  Wiirtemberg.  There  he  was  drawn  into  vari- 
ous kinds  of  gayety  and  dissipation,  and  became  one  of  a  coterie 
known  by  the  pleasing  title  of  "Faust's  Descent  into  Hell."  As 
secretary  to  the  Duke,  Weber  received  some  of  the  wrath  that  his 
ducal  master  had  aroused  in  King  Frederick;  and  he  made  the  breach 
irreparable  by  directing  to  the  chamber  of  that  royal  gossip  an  old 
lady  who  was  asking  for  the  court  washerwoman.  As  a  result, 
Weber  was  banished  when  one  of  his  servants  secretly  negotiated  a 
loan  by  promising  a  court  appointment  in  return  for  it  —  an  act 
of  which  the  composer  was  wholly  ignorant. 

But  this  banishment  was  of  good  influence,  for  a  more  orderly  life 
was  coming.  At  Darmstadt  there  was  renewed  work  with  Abt 
Vogler,  who  said  of  Weber  and  Meyerbeer  that  they  would  express 
his  artistic  principles  for  him.  At  this  time  came  Weber's  first  real 
success  in  opera  —  the  one-act  comedy  "Abu  Hassan." 

Still  more  conducive  to  good  effects  was  Weber's  marriage  with 
Caroline  Brandt.  She  made  him  give  up  the  wild  associates  and 
habits  of  his  Stuttgart  days,  and  lead  a  more  orderly  and  industri- 
ous life,  before  she  would  consent  to  the  marriage.  In  after  life  she 
continued  to  be  his  good  angel. 

It  was  during  his  stay  as  conductor  in  Dresden  that  he  started 
composing  the  works  that  have  made  him  most  famous.  His  opera 
■'''Preciosa"  belongs  to  this  period,  but  his  fame  rests  chiefly  on 
three  great  stage  works  —  "Der  Freischiitz,"  "Euryanthe,"  and 
"Oberon." 

The  plot  of  "Der  Freischiitz"  is  based  on  the  old  legend  of  a 
demon  who  gives  huntsmen  magic  bullets  in  exchange  for  their 
souls.  The  demon's  name  is  Zamiel,  and  the  huntsman  Kaspar  is 
in  his  power.  Kaspar,  who  must  furnish  a  new  victim  to  prolong  his 
own  lease  of  life,  beguiles  to  Zamiel's  glen  a  young  huntsman  named 
Max,  who  loves  Agatha,  daughter  of  the  chief  huntsman  Kuno. 
As  Kuno  is  about  to  retire.  Max  wishes  to  succeed  him,  for  Agatha's 
sake.  Max  is  made  to  shoot  badly  in  the  preliminary  contest,  which 
impels  him  to  get  the  magic  bullets.  With  these  he  shoots  perfectly, 
but  the  last  one,  which  was  to  do  Zamiel's  bidding,  aims  itself 


130  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

at  Agatha.  Deflected  by  a  sacred  wreath,  it  kills  Kaspar  instead. 
Zamiel  is  satisfied  with  this  victim,  whereupon  Max  confesses  and  is 
forgiven. 

This  work  is  justly  considered  as  the  foundation  of  the  romantic 
school  in  German  opera.  The  school  derived  its  name  partly  from 
its  subjects,  and  partly  from  its  methods  of  treating  them.  The 
classic  mythological  texts  of  the  Metastasio  sort  were  now  replaced 
by  legendary  lore,  or  historical  pageantry.  The  music  was  based 
largely  on  the  folk-song  style. 

Weber's  opera  contains  many  examples  of  the  simple  beauty  that 
pervades  the  Grerman  Volkslied.  Artificialities  were  banished  in  a 
smooth  flow  of  music  that  made  a  strong  popular  appeal.  Such  num- 
bers as  the  horn  quartet  in  the  overture,  or  the  close  of  Agatha's 
prayer,  are  exactly  in  the  style  of  the  German  folk-music.  Such 
music  as  this,  in  connection  with  the  brisk  hunting-choruses  and  the 
impressive  incantations,  must  have  exerted  a  strong  appeal  when 
contrasted  with  some  of  the  conventionalities  that  had  preceded  it. 
The  entire  German  nation  went  wild  over  the  work.  After  a  Vienna 
performance,  Weber  wrote,  "Greater  enthusiasm  there  cannot  be, 
and  ...  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  rise  higher  than  this.  To  God  alone 
the  praise!" 

"Preciosa"  was  based  on  a  Spanish  gypsy  subject,  and  had  no 
national  import.  "Die  Drei  Pintos,"  a  comedy  written  at  this  time, 
was  left  unfinished,  and  not  performed  until  after  the  composer's 
death. 

"Euryanthe,"  Weber's  second  great  success,  was  handicapped 
by  a  mixed  and  poor  libretto.  Count  Adolar,  praising  the  virtue  of 
Euryanthe,  his  betrothed,  is  told  by  Lysiart,  a  rejected  suitor,  that 
she  can  be  made  faithless.  Lysiart,  aided  by  Euryanthe's  maid 
Eglantine,  obtains  a  ring  and  learns  a  secret  about  Adolar's  sister 
Emma,  both  of  which  seem  to  compromise  Euryanthe  by  showing 
her  to  be  on  confidential  terms  with  him.  Adolar,  incensed,  drags 
her  to  the  wilderness  to  kill  her,  and  leaves  her  alive  only  because 
she  saves  him  from  a  serpent.  Returning,  Adolar  is  told  by  Eglan- 
tine that  she  compromised  Euryanthe  out  of  jealousy.  Lysiart  stabs 
Eglantine  and  is  led  off  to  punishment;  while  Euryanthe,  who 
has  been  found  and  saved  by  the  king,  is  restored  to  the  repent- 
ant Adolar.    The  music  of  this  work  was  again  of  high  rank;  and 


WEBER  AND   ROMANTICISM  131 

Beethoven,  on  hearing  it,  wrote,  "  I  am  glad ;  for  this  is  the  way  that 
the  Germans  must  get  the  upper  hand  of  the  Itahan  sing-song." 

"Oberon,"  the  prototype  of  much  fairy  music,  is  founded  on  the 
old  romance  of  Sir  Huon  of  Bordeaux.  Oberon  has  quarrelled  with 
Titania,  and  will  not  be  reconciled  until  he  finds  two  lovers  who  are 
constant  through  everything.  Puck  brings  news  of  Sir  Huon's  pil- 
grimage to  Bagdad,  a  penalty  imposed  because  he  had  killed  Charle- 
magne's son.  As  one  of  his  tasks,  Huon  rescues  the  Caliph's  daughter 
Rezia,  with  whom  he  falls  in  love.  The  pair  are  persecuted  by  fate, 
enduring  shipwreck  and  slavery;  but  they  remain  faithful,  so  that 
Oberon  is  reconciled  to  Titania  at  last.  Huon  is  ultimately  pardoned 
by  Charlemagne. 

This  work  has  in  it  many  possibilities,  and  there  is  a  strong  con- 
trast between  the  delicate  fairy  music  and  the  powerful  climaxes  in 
other  parts  of  the  opera.  One  of  the  scenes,  "Ocean,  thou  mighty 
monster,"  is  still  a  favorite  display  piece  for  concert  sopranos. 

Weber  is  best  known  by  his  operas,  but  he  composed  many  other 
works.  He  wrote  three  detached  overtures  and  two  symphonies. 
He  produced  a  number  of  orchestral  concertos,  the  two  for  piano 
and  the  "Concertstuck"  being  best  known.  He  composed  several 
cantatas,  of  which  "Kampf  und  Sieg"  is  the  most  famous.  He  was 
a  great  pianist,  and  wrote  many  solos  for  his  instrument,  includ- 
ing four  sonatas,  a  nimiber  of  rondos,  some  very  effective  polo- 
naises, and  so  on.  His  dances  include  the  well-known  "  Invitation 
to  the  Dance."  His  "Last  Waltz,"  as  already  stated,  was  not  his, 
but  Reissiger's.  It  was  found  among  his  papers  after  his  death,  but 
Reissiger  was  able  to  prove  that  he  had  given  Weber  the  manu- 
script. Weber  died  at  London  in  1826.  His  "Oberon"  was  com- 
posed for  London,  and  in  spite  of  his  consumption  he  went  to  the 
British  capital,  on  what  proved  to  be  his  last  trip.  "Oberon"  was 
a  great  success,  and  added  one  more  proof  to  the  fact  that  its  com- 
poser was  remembered  best  for  his  operas. 

Ludwig  Spohr,  who  was  bom  in  1784,  is  sometimes  named  as  the 
real  founder  of  the  romantic  school.  But  in  spite  of  Spohr's  many 
claims  to  fame,  he  hardly  deserves  that  title.  His  best  operas  in- 
cluded "Faust,"  "Zemire and  Azor,"  " Jessonda,"  "Der  Berggeist," 
and  "  Der  Alchymist."  The  first  of  these  (not  on  Goethe's  drama, 
incidentally)  was  produced  in  1818.    But  while  it  antedated  "Der 


132  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Freischiitz"  by  three  years,  it  did  not  cause  any  national  feeling,  or 
serve  to  found  a  school. 

Spohr  studied  the  violin  during  boyhood,  and  won  some  attention 
by  writing  a  concerto  at  the  age  of  fourteen.  By  further  study,  and 
the  hearing  of  great  artists,  he  developed  himself  into  a  leading 
violinist,  of  a  broad  and  solid  school  that  superseded  the  Parisian 
coterie  of  Rode  and  Kreutzer.  He  was  active  also  as  an  opera  con- 
ductor, and  Weber  helped  him  to  become  court  choirmaster  at 
Cassel,  where  he  remained  for  many  years.  He  married  the  harpist 
Dorette  Scheidler,  and  composed  many  harp-and-violin  duets  for 
her  and  himself. 

Spohr's  works  consist  of  nine  symphonies,  including  the  famous 
"Consecration  of  Tones";  fifteen  violin  concertos,  and  other  works 
of  the  sort;  much  chamber  music;  ten  operas  in  all;  and  several 
oratorios,  such  as  "Calvary"  and  "The  Last  Judgment."  Many  of 
these  works  have  retained  their  popularity;  but  they  are  almost  all 
marked  by  Spohr's  peculiar  mannerisms.  He  wrote  in  a  very  modu- 
latory style,  sometimes  so  chromatic  as  to  seem  artificial.  He  has 
been  likened  to  a  man  who,  on  wishing  to  enter  a  house,  will  not  walk 
through  the  front  door,  but  dodges  around  the  comers,  and  finally 
jumps  in  through  some  unexpected  window.  Yet  much  of  his  music 
is  effective,  for  he  was  a  good  contrapimtist  and  a  fair  master  of 
orchestration. 

Peter  von  Winter  and  Joseph  Weigl  antedated  the  romantic 
school,  at  least  by  their  operas.  They  form  a  link  between  the 
Mozart-Salieri  period  and  the  school  that  followed  Weber.  Winter's 
"  Unterbrochene  Opferfest"  and  Weigl's  "Schweizerfamilie"  were 
their  best  works.  Others  of  this  intermediate  period  were  Frie- 
drich  Himmel  and  Ignaz  von  Seyfried.  Himmel  became  known  as  a 
pianist,  but  wrote  several  operas,  treating  romantic  subjects  in  "Die 
Sylphen"  and  "Der  Kobold."  Sejrfried,  a  pupil  of  Mozart,  Haydn, 
and  Winter,  treated  such  effective  topics  as  "Die  Druiden"  and 
"Der  Wundermann  am  Rheinfall."  Ernst  Theodor  Hoffmann,  the 
famous  writer,  produced  a  number  of  operas,  of  which  "Undine," 
his  best  work,  was  given  in  1816.  From  all  this  it  may  be  seen  that 
various  German  composers  were  working  toward  the  rom.antic 
school;  but  Weber  was  the  first  to  give  the  school  a  conscious  exist- 
ence, and  a  firm  foundation  on  German  folk-music. 


WEBER  AND  ROMANTICISM  133 

The  chief  successor  of  Weber  in  the  romantic  school  was  Heinrich 
Marschner  (1795-1861).  After  some  years  as  a  boy-prodigy,  he  met 
Beethoven,  and  began  to  settle  down  to  composition.  He  became 
associated  with  Weber  at  Dresden.  Of  his  fifteen  operas,  the  most 
famous  were  "The  Vampire,"  "Hans  Heiling,"  and  "Templar  and 
Jewess,"  the  last  being  based  on  the  story  of  "  Ivanhoe."  Marschner 
became  known  also  by  his  chamber  works,  piano  music,  and  songs. 
His  success  in  treating  scenes  of  homely  simplicity  or  supernatural 
weirdness  was  not  far  behind  that  of  Weber  himself.  Both  men  in- 
fluenced Wagner. 

Adalbert  von  Gyrowetz  is  almost  forgotten  to-day,  though  he 
lived  from  the  time  of  Mozart  to  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. He  produced  stage  works  after  Weber,  but  his  chief  suc- 
cesses came  with  "Der  Augenarzt"  in  1811  and  "Robert"  in  1813. 
He  composed  symphonies,  chamber  works,  and  sonatas  with  great 
facility. 

Peter  Joseph  von  Lindpaintner,  another  pupil  of  Winter,  became 
known  by  "The  Vampire,"  produced  in  1829,  and  the  later  "Lich- 
tenstein."  With  him  may  be  mentioned  Poissl,  Blum,  Kuhlau  the 
flutist,  and  Schnyder  von  Wartensee. 

Karl  Gottlieb  Reissiger  won  fame  by  his  "Yelva,"  "Die  Felsen- 
miihle,"  and  "Turandot,"  which  were  given  soon  after  Weber's 
death.  He  wrote  ten  masses,  and  the  oratorio  "David,"  as  well  as 
chamber  works  and  light  piano  pieces. 

Konradin  Kreutzer  composed  songs,  piano  pieces,  and  chamber 
works,  but  was  best  known  by  his  operas.  Most  successful  among  the 
latter  were  "The  Spendthrift"  and  "The  Camp  before  Granada," 
both  of  which  are  still  performed  in  Germany. 

Gustav  Albert  Lortzing  had  a  rather  unsettled  youth,  much  as 
Weber  did.  Lortzing  was  a  tenor  of  some  renown,  and  his  operas 
show  a  very  practical  and  easy  leading  of  the  voices.  Most  successful 
among  them  were  "Die  beiden  Schiitzen,"  the  humorous  "Czar 
und  Zimmermann,"  "Hans  Sachs,"  "Der  Wildschiitz,"  "Undine," 
and  "Der  Waffenschmied."  A  posthumous  work,  "Regina,"  was 
given  in  1899  with  fair  success. 

Other  names  deserving  mention  are  Reuling,  Titl,  Netzer,  and 
Nicolai. 

The  work  of  all  these  men  is  now  largely  relegated  to  the  past. 


184  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Even  the  Weber  operas  are  not  often  heard  outside  of  Germany. 
Their  merits  were  such  as  to  win  them  immense  popularity  in  their 
day;  but  the  standards  of  the  present  demand  more  advanced  Hbret- 
tos  and  more  spicily  dramatic  music.  But  if  the  romantic  operas  are 
mostly  off  the  stage,  they  still  contain  much  that  is  of  value  for  the 
concert  platform.  In  many  cases  their  composers  were  gifted  enough ; 
but  they  cast  their  material  in  a  form  that  is  now  held  antiquated. 
Works  by  Weber  and  Spohr  are  still  to  be  found  on  the  dramatic 
stage,  and  are  fairly  familiar  on  concert  programmes.  Weber  is 
especially  remembered  for  the  excellence  of  the  overtures  to  his 
three  great  operas.  But  apart  from  them  the  school  is  little  known 
now.  Popular  taste,  however,  is  not  necessarily  a  safe  guide;  and 
the  work  that  was  done  by  the  romantic  school  should  not  be  for- 
gotten or  underestimated. 


XV 

MENDELSSOHN 

Felix  Mendelssohn-Bartholdy,  bom  in  1809,  came  of  a 
wealthy  and  cultivated  family,  originally  Jewish,  but  adopting 
Christianity.  His  grandfather  was  the  famous  philosopher  and 
scholar  Moses  Mendelssohn.  His  father,  the  banker  Abraham  Men- 
delssohn, used  to  say,  after  Felix  became  known,  "Formerly  I  was 
rated  as  the  son  of  my  father;  now  I  am  considered  the  father  of  my 
son." 

There  were  four  children  in  the  family,  the  eldest,  Fanny,  being 
gifted  musically.  Both  she  and  Felix  showed  an  early  aptitude  for 
music,  and  both  possessed  what  their  mother  called  "Bach-fugue 
fingers."  Both  displayed  talent  in  composing,  though  at  that  time, 
for  some  unknown  reason,  such  gifts  were  looked  at  askance  in  girls. 
Mendelssohn  afterward  printed  some  of  his  sister's  pieces  as  his  own, 
rather  than  let  them  lie  in  obscurity.  But  he  met  with  retribution 
for  this  on  at  least  one  occasion.  When  he  was  presented  to  Queen 
Victoria,  she  tried  to  please  him  by  praising  his  song  "Italy";  but 
he  had  to  admit,  with  shame,  that  this  was  one  of  his  sister's  com- 
positions. 

Mendelssohn  studied  under  various  good  teachers,  and  even  re- 
ceived help  from  Cherubini  while  on  a  Paris  trip.  By  the  age  of 
twelve  the  boy  was  already  a  good  composer  for  voice,  piano,  and 
other  instruments.  He  admired  Beethoven,  and  especially  Bach. 
Weber  influenced  him,  and  Moscheles  helped  him.  The  result  of  all 
this  was  that  when  he  was  seventeen  years  old  he  produced  some  re- 
markable compositions.  These  included  a  string  quartet  in  B  minor, 
an  octet  for  strings,  and  the  short  opera  "Camacho's  Wedding." 
But  more  important  than  all  of  the  above  was  the  overture  to  "A 
Midsummer  Night's  Dream,"  —  a  work  of  such  maturity  and  dainty 
charm  that  no  other  composer  of  seventeen  years  has  come  any- 
where near  equalling  it. 

In  1828,  Mendelssohn  began  the  earnest  study  of  Bach's  great 


136  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

"St.  Matthew  Passion,"  and  soon  he  organized  a  performance  of  the 
work,  which  took  place  at  Leipsic.  This  did  much  toward  bringing 
all  of  Bach's  music  into  renewed  attention.  Mendelssohn  was  a 
zealous  devotee  of  Bach;  and  his  own  music  shows  the  earlier  mas- 
ter's influence. 

Soon  after  this,  Mendelssohn  made  his  first  trip  to  the  British 
Isles.  His  journey  to  Scotland  was  especially  productive  of  results; 
and  its  effects  are  seen  in  many  of  his  compositions,  both  large  and 
small.  He  composed  many  songs  in  the  Scotch  style,  which  he 
seemed  able  to  assimilate  with  more  success  than  other  Continental 
composers;  while  his  "Hebrides"  Overture  (sometimes  called  "Fin- 
gal's  Cave  ")  and  the  Scotch  Symphony  show  the  influence  of  that 
Northern  land  on  his  larger  works.  When  he  first  visited  Fingal's 
Cave,  and  saw  the  sea  swishing  against  the  majestic  basalt  columns 
imder  a  gray  sky,  he  was  so  impressed  that  the  scene  translated  itself 
into  tones  for  him.  On  the  back  of  an  old  envelope  he  scrawled  a 
theme  of  twenty  measures,  which  he  sent  back  to  his  sister  as  a  de- 
scription of  the  place;  and  this  theme  was  afterward  used  as  the 
opening  of  his  "Hebrides"  Overture.  Its  minor  lilt  gives  a  wonder- 
ful picture  of  the  waves,  echoing  the  rhythm  of  the  wavelets  over  the 
deeper  bass  of  the  larger  surges  in  truly  inimitable  fashion. 

Back  in  Germany,  Mendelssohn  tried  for  positions  in  Berlin,  and 
conducted  festivals  in  Diisseldorf  and  elsewhere.  But  his  real  home 
was  Leipsic.  There  he  became  conductor  of  the  Gewandhaus  Or- 
chestra, and  lived  in  the  most  pleasant  and  useful  activity.  It  was 
during  this  period  that  he  performed  for  the  first  time  Schubert's 
great  symphony  in  C,  which  Schumann  had  discovered  at  Vienna. 

Mendelssohn's  charming  personality  was  now  winning  him  many 
friends.  He  was  full  of  magnetism  and  liveliness,  besides  being  kind 
and  tactful.  He  was  eager  to  do  favors  for  others,  and  constantly 
active  in  their  behalf.  In  his  domestic  circle  he  was  full  of  gayety, 
and  this  sometimes  showed  itself  in  a  musical  way.  After  his  sister 
married  the  painter  Hensel,  Mendelssohn  composed  the  cantata 
"Son  and  Stranger"  for  a  domestic  festival.  Hensel  was  very  un- 
musical, so  Mendelssohn  "tempered  the  wind  to  the  shorn  lamb"  by 
giving  him  a  part  consisting  of  a  single  note,  repeated  whenever 
necessary.  Even  then,  Hensel  failed  to  hit  the  note  correctly;  and 
the  little  party  burst  into  a  storm  of  merriment  at  his  expense. 


MENDELSSOHN  IS7 

Mendelssohn  himself  married  Cecile  Jeanrenaud,  whom  he  met 
at  PVankfurt.  She  was  the  daughter  of  a  Swiss  clergyman.  Five 
children  resulted  from  this  union. 

A  trip  to  Italy  was  followed  by  the  composition  of  the  Italian  Sym- 
phony; but  this  was  not  so  characteristic  as  the  Scotch  work. 

As  a  conductor,  Mendelssohn  was  sunny  and  cheerful  in  his  read- 
ings, but  not  deep.  His  style  may  be  shown  by  his  statement  that 
"too  slow  a  tempo  was  infernal."  The  bright,  rapid  character  of  his 
own  works  shows  that  he  was  most  at  home  in  that  vein,  and  not 
successful  in  handling  dramatic  passages.  In  his  compositions  for 
orchestra  he  avoided  the  dramatic  vein  for  the  most  part.  His  chief 
work  in  that  field,  the  "Ruy  Bias"  Overture,  is  not  rated  as  a  great 
success.  This  overture  was  the  occasion  of  a  rapid  piece  of  work  on  his 
part.  It  was  wanted  for  a  certain  concert,  but  he  delayed  writing  it 
until  only  a  short  time  was  left.  Then  he  completed  the  work  in  two 
days,  filling  in  each  measure  for  all  the  instrumental  parts  before 
proceeding  to  the  next.  Composers  usually  make  it  a  practice  to 
write  out  the  string  parts  first,  with  only  the  most  important  melo- 
dies in  the  other  instruments.  The  missing  parts  are  filled  in  last. 
This  method  is  much  easier  than  the  one  Mendelssohn  adopted  for 
the  occasion. 

At  Leipsic,  Mendelssohn  composed  a  long  series  of  important 
works.  There  were  piano  pieces  of  much  value;  the  oratorio  "St. 
Paul,"  given  in  England  as  well  as  Germany;  the  violin  concerto, 
which  is  still  one  of  the  few  great  examples  of  its  kind;  and  the  effec- 
tive symphonic  cantata  known  as  the  "  Hymn  of  Praise."  His  activ- 
ity in  behalf  of  teaching  resulted  in  the  founding  of  the  great  Leipsic 
Conservatory. 

His  last  large  work,  the  oratorio  "Elijah,"  was  conducted  by  him 
at  Birmingham  in  1846,  and  won  a  tremendous  success. 

In  connection  with  this  work,  Mendelssohn  had  a  narrow  escape 
from  plagiarism.  When  he  first  wrote  the  solo,  "  0  rest  in  the  Lord," 
he  set  it,  note  for  note,  to  Leeves'  tune  of  the  Scotch  song  known 
as  "Auld  Robin  Gray."  Composers  always  have  many  themes  in 
mind,  and  in  Beethoven's  case  these  themes  were  transferred  to  note- 
books. Mendelssohn  had  evidently  heard  the  Scotch  song,  but  had 
forgotten  its  identity,  and  he  came  to  regard  it  as  one  of  his  own 
melodies.  When  the  work  was  shown  to  his  English  friend  Horsley, 


188  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

the  latter  sent  Mendelssohn  a  copy  of  the  song  m  question ;  where- 
upon the  composer  altered  the  number  by  writing  the  beautiful 
melody  now  used. 

The  work  of  writing  "  Elijah  "  was  somewhat  wearing  to  Mendels- 
sohn. He  planned  a  complete  revision  of  the  oratorio,  while  hunting 
up  suitable  text  for  another  work,  "  Christus."  In  the  midst  of  this 
task  he  received  word  that  his  sister  Fanny  had  died.  There  had 
always  been  the  closest  relationship  between  them;  and  when  Men- 
delssohn heard  the  news,  he  fell  in  a  faint.  This  shock,  in  combina- 
tion with  the  extra  work  that  he  was  doing,  proved  too  much  for  his 
delicate  constitution;  and  he  never  recovered  his  health.  He  died  in 
1847. 

Mendelssohn  was  by  all  odds  the  most  unequal  of  the  great  com- 
posers. His  works  seem  to  show  that  it  is  but  a  step  from  the  sub- 
lime to  the  commonplace,  if  not  the  ridiculous.  Some  of  his  com- 
positions arouse  the  liveliest  admiration  and  wonder,  while  others 
disappoint  all  really  musical  hearers  by  their  trite  simplicity. 

This  strange  condition  of  things  may  be  explained  by  the  fact  that 
Mendelssohn  wrote  too  much.  He  adopted  as  his  motto  the  phrase. 
Nulla  dies  sine  tinea,  meaning  that  no  day  should  pass  without  its 
line,  at  least,  of  music.  While  such  constant  activity  was  praise- 
worthy in  its  way,  the  composer  could  not  count  upon  the  presence 
of  his  highest  inspiration.  If  genius  were  only  a  capacity  for  taking 
pains,  then  Mendelssohn  surely  earned  the  title.  But  in  music  one 
expects  more  than  mere  work;  it  must  be  work  of  an  inspired  sort, 
revealing  great  ideas  and  broadening  the  hearer's  mental  or  emo- 
tional vision,  before  we  admit  that  its  composer  is  a  genius.  Some  of 
Mendelssohn's  music  stands  the  test;  but  not  all. 

The  so-called  "Songs  without  Words,"  for  piano,  show  traces  of 
the  weaker  and  more  conventional  Mendelssohn.  These  are  short 
piano  pieces  of  much  daintiness  and  charm  in  their  way.  They  also 
show  a  most  skilful  handling  of  comparatively  simple  forms,  so  that 
the  student  will  find  them  of  much  interest  and  value.  But  here  and 
there  is  a  trace  of  conventionality  in  their  melodies,  which  makes 
them  seem  too  simple  and  sugary.  The  same  defect  is  found  more 
frequently  among  the  composer's  shorter  vocal  works.  Many  of  his 
songs  are  daintily  graceful,  or  sweetly  melodious;  but  some  of  them 
are  merely  fluent  without  being  great. 


MENDELSSOHN  139 

On  the  other  hand,  certain  piano  works  by  Mendelssohn  are  of  the 
utmost  excellence.  Examples  of  these  are  the  preludes  and  fugues, 
especially  the  great  one  in  E  minor,  and  the  famous  "  Variations  Se- 
rieuses."  Both  of  these  works  display  Mendelssohn's  strong  points, 
and  are  tremendously  effective.  They  show  a  leaning  toward  counter- 
point that  makes  their  composer  a  true  disciple  of  Bach.  There  is 
not  only  strength  in  them,  but  balance,  contrast,  and  skill.  The 
appeal  of  such  music  is  in  part  intellectual.  There  is  something  of 
the  idea  of  design  to  be  grasped,  something  of  formal  beauty  as  well 
as  forceful  expression.  Mendelssohn  was  a  consummate  master  of 
the  skill  that  makes  form  serve  as  a  potent  factor  in  the  sum  total 
of  musical  greatness.  Thus  Wagner,  whom  many  critics  consider 
the  very  antithesis  of  Mendelssohn,  admired  the  "Hebrides"  Over- 
ture greatly  for  these  qualities. 

Of  Mendelssohn's  orchestral  works,  the  "Reformation"  Sym- 
phony contains  a  great  climax  on  "Ein  feste  Burg."  The  Italian 
Symphony  has  a  fairly  conventional  first  movement,  a  scherzo  with 
charming  horn  passages  in  the  trio,  a  sombre  but  strong  slow  move- 
ment, and  a  dashing  saltarello  close.  The  Scotch  Sjonphony  has  a 
first  movement  consisting  of  rapid  work  in  minor,  sometimes  lightly 
chattering,  but  often  broadly  powerful;  it  ends  with  a  tone-picture  of 
a  storm.  Its  second  movement  is  the  daintiest  of  light,  charming 
scherzos,  with  a  marked  Scotch  flavor  to  its  themes.  The  third 
movement  is  more  conventionally  melodic.  The  finale,  again  in 
minor,  shows  almost  savage  power,  and  certainly  suggests  the  wild- 
ness  of  the  Scotch  scenery.  The  interweaving  of  two  clarinet  parts 
just  before  its  coda  gives  a  wonderful  touch  of  brooding  loneliness. 
The  coda  itself  is  a  broad  but  rather  conventional  ending,  in  major. 

Mendelssohn  was  the  first  to  give  importance  to  the  concert  over- 
ture, making  it  a  more  or  less  definite  programme  piece  apart  from 
any  opera  or  incidental  music,  such  as  followed  the  older  overtures. 
The  style  of  the  "Hebrides"  Overture,  as  already  intimated,  is  a 
imion  of  grace,  strength,  and  skill  that  is  highly  artistic.  The  dain- 
tiness of  the  "Midsummer  Night's  Dream"  Overture  cannot  be 
exaggerated.  Mendelssohn  afterward  wrote  other  music  for  this 
play,  including  the  richly  beautiful  nocturne  and  the  widely  known 
"Wedding  March."  "Calm  Sea  and  Prosperous  Voyage"  was  an- 
other of  his  overtures  that  enjoyed  great  vogue  for  a  time,  though 


140  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

its  picture  of  monotony,  followed  by  favoring  winds  and  a  trium- 
phant reception  in  port,  is  rather  tame  in  contrast  with  recent  works. 

Mendelssohn  wrote  much  chamber  music,  including  string  quar- 
tets and  piano  trios  of  great  value.  In  such  pieces  he  showed  all  the 
requisite  skill  in  balancing  and  interweaving  the  parts. 

His  choral  works,  however,  have  made  Mendelssohn  most  widely 
known.  The  two  oratorios  and  the  "Hymn  of  Praise"  meet  with  a 
constant  welcome.  Fragments  of  an  opera,  "Die  Lorelei,"  show 
some  beauty;  but  his  cantatas  are  far  more  effective.  Of  these,  such 
works  as  the  music  to  Sophocles'  "Antigone"  and  "(Edipus  at 
Colonus"  show  a  most  solid  and  strong  handling  of  the  voices.  In 
the  sacred  field  Mendelssohn  composed  also  the  cantata  "Lauda 
Sion,"  settings  of  eight  psalms,  and  many  motets  and  anthems. 

The  chief  of  those  who  came  under  Mendelssohn's  influence  was 
Niels  Wilhelm  Gade,  the  Danish  composer.  Bom  in  1817,  Gade 
achieved  his  first  great  success  in  1840,  with  the  "Ossian"  Overture. 
He  spent  five  years  at  Leipsic,  and  became  so  devoted  to  the  Men- 
delssohn style  and  standard  that  some  critics  have  nicknamed  him 
"Mrs.  Mendelssohn."  Yet  his  works  have  enough  originality  in 
them.  Even  if  not  so  characteristic  as  Grieg,  Gade  still  shows  some 
Scandinavian  traits  in  his  music,  allied  to  a  poetic  romanticism.  He 
became  known  by  his  attractive  cantatas,  such  as  "  The  Crusaders," 
"Comala,"  "Psyche,"  "The  Message  of  Spring,"  etc.  He  composed 
also  symphonies,  overtures,  a  violin  concerto,  chamber  music,  piano 
pieces,  and  songs.  But  outside  of  his  own  country  his  works  are 
not  often  heard. 

Hartmann,  whose  daughter  Gade  married,  deserves  mention  as  a 
pioneer  in  Danish  music.  Hartmann  was  much  influenced  by  Spohr 
at  first.  The  Hartmann  symphonies  and  overtures  are  practically 
on  the  shelf.  He  achieved  more  success  with  his  four  operas,  and 
smaller  works  for  voice  or  piano. 

Another  member  of  this  Danish  coterie  was  Erik  Siboni,  whose 
symphonies,  choral  works,  and  chamber  music  show  Mendelssohn's 
influence. 

Ferdinand  Hiller  (1811-85)  was  known  in  various  fields.  He  com- 
posed operas,  oratorios,  orchestral  works,  chamber  m.usic,  piano 
pieces,  etc.  These  were  marked  by  technical  skill,  and  had  a  fair 
share  of  expressive  power.   But  as  a  whole  they  lack  the  vigor  of 


MENDELSSOHN  141 

deep  originality.  They  are  in  part  what  is  known  as  "  Kapellmeister- 
musik,"  —  that  is,  music  of  only  the  average  routine  excellence  that 
an  orchestral  leader  would  be  expected  to  show. 

William  Stemdale  Bennett  (1816-75)  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
Mendelssohn  who  became  famous  as  a  pianist.  His  works  were 
chiefly  for  his  instrument.  They  display  some  skill,  and  a  few  analo- 
gies with  Chopin,  but  they  lack  a  deep  appeal.  Bennett  composed 
also  an  oratorio,  "The  Woman  of  Samaria,"  and  a  pastoral,  "The 
May  Queen." 

Moritz  Hauptmann  was  a  Mendelssohn  protege  who  was  best 
known  by  his  writings.  The  same  is  true  of  Ernst  Richter,  though 
the  latter  composed  instrumental  works  and  the  oratorio  "The 
Redeemer." 

Ignaz  Moscheles,  the  pianist,  became  another  of  the  Leipsic  group. 
His  compositions  are  piano  solos  or  concertos. 

Ferdinand  David,  the  violinist,  who  was  made  concert-master  of 
the  Gewandhaus  Orchestra,  composed  much  for  violin,  but  wrote 
also  in  the  larger  forms. 

Julius  Rietz  was  a  'cellist  who  assisted  Mendelssohn  at  Diissel- 
dorf .  He  composed  overtures,  symphonies,  and  smaller  works. 

Karl  Reinecke  was  a  Mendelssohn  pupil  who  became  well  known 
to  many  Americans  as  a  teacher  of  composition.  He  conducted  the 
Leipsic  Orchestra  for  thirty-five  years,  following  Mendelssohn's 
standards.  As  composer  he  wrote  symphonies,  overtures,  concertos, 
chamber  works,  and  many  smaller  pieces.  His  "  Nut-cracker  and 
Mouse- King"  music  is  a  charming  example  of  mock-heroic  fairy 
music. 

Salomon  Jadassohn,  whose  works  on  harmony  and  counterpoint 
have  caused  hard  labor  for  many  music  students,  was  another  versa- 
tile composer.  He  wrote  orchestral  and  chamber  works,  but  his  most 
interesting  productions  are  his  sets  of  canons  and  other  contrapuntal 
pieces.  His  skill  in  writing  canons  earned  him  the  nickname  of  "the 
musical  Krupp." 

Franz  Lachner  (1803-90)  was  of  more  importance  in  his  day.  He 
knew  Beethoven,  and  was  a  prominent  member  of  the  "Schubert- 
iades."  He  was  active  as  a  conductor  at  Vienna  and  Munich.  He 
wrote  symphonies,  chamber  music,  oratorios,  and  operas,  including 
"Catarina  Comaro"  and  "Benvenuto  Cellini."    But  he  is  best 


142  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

known  because  of  his  orchestral  suites.  The  old  suites  of  Bach's  day 
were  sets  of  dances.  In  Lachner's  hands  the  suite  became  a  set  of 
movements  not  unlike  those  of  the  symphony,  but  somewhat  more 
informal  in  style.  One  of  these  suites  contains  a  well-known  march 
and  an  admirable  orchestral  fugue. 

Wilhelm  Taubert  was  another  Mendelssohn  disciple.  His  compo- 
sitions include  symphonies,  overtures,  chamber  works,  and  inci- 
dental music  to  various  plays. 

With  the  exception  of  Lachner,  all  of  these  men  were  more  or  less 
directly  influenced  by  Mendelssohn.  Lachner  was  a  conservative 
whose  works  placed  him  in  line  with  the  others.  Lachner  was  so 
opposed  to  the  freedom  of  the  growing  Wagnerian  movement  that 
he  gradually  withdrew  from  composition  after  1865.  All  these  men 
worked  along  the  lines  of  fairly  strict  form.  They  did  not  always 
display  deep  inspiration;  but  they  possessed  the  learning  and  skill 
demanded  by  the  classical  style,  and  in  many  instances  their  works 
were  sufficiently  great  to  win  and  hold  public  esteem. 


XVI 

SCHUMANN 

Robert  Schumann  was  bom  in  1810  at  Zwickau,  in  Saxony.  The 
son  of  a  bookseller  and  a  doctor's  daughter,  he  inherited  literary 
taste  from  his  father  and  a  vein  of  deep  sentiment  from  his  mother. 
His  early  education  was  rather  desultory,  though  he  showed  an  apti- 
tude for  music,  becoming  a  pianist  and  organizing  a  school  orchestra. 
When  he  was  sixteen  his  father  died,  and  his  mother  decided  to  make 
him  a  lawyer.  But  at  this  time  he  acquired  a  vein  of  dreaminess,  and 
a  devotion  to  the  mystic  writings  of  Jean  Paul,  that  did  not  exactly 
promise  legal  success.  He  was  sent  to  Leipsic  to  study  law;  but  he 
showed  much  more  interest  in  the  piano  lessons  that  he  took  from 
Friedrich  Wieck.  He  was  greatly  devoted  to  Schubert's  works,  and 
became  known  himself  for  his  power  in  improvising.  He  was  finally 
sent  off  to  Heidelberg,  and  after  that  to  Italy.  But  at  last  what  he 
called  the  "twenty-years'  war"  ended  in  his  favor,  and  he  was 
allowed  to  devote  himself  to  music. 

At  this  time  Schumann  was  rather  opposed  to  theoretical  studies. 
He  held  that  a  composer  could  write  well  by  instinct.  While  he  had 
to  alter  his  opinion  of  the  value  of  such  studies,  he  never  thoroughly 
mastered  orchestration,  and  the  instrumental  colors  of  his  orches- 
tral works  are  often  very  muddy.  At  this  time  Schumann  was  prac- 
tising to  be  a  great  pianist;  and  all  his  musical  ideas  occurred  to  him 
in  a  pianistic  form,  even  later  in  life.  While  Schubert  thought  vo- 
cally, and  Beethoven  orchestrally,  Schumann  imconsciously  fitted 
everything  to  the  piano  keyboard.  The  result  is  shown  in  the  fact 
that  his  sjonphonies  show  less  loss  of  effect  than  almost  any  others 
when  transcribed  for  piano. 

Schumann  tried  to  strengthen  the  weak  fourth  fingers  of  his  hands 
by  means  of  a  pulley-and-weight  device.  As  a  result,  he  lamed  one 
of  his  fingers  so  badly  that  he  had  to  give  up  all  thoughts  of  becoming 
a  great  performer.  But  his  loss,  as  he  considered  it,  was  the  world's 
gain;  for  the  accident  turned  him  to  composition,  and  led  him  into 


144  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

bringing  forth  many  beautiful  works.  Schumann  then  began  the 
theoretical  studies  that  he  had  previously  held  in  such  contempt; 
and  the  mistakes  in  his  early  harmony  exercises  prove  that  he  was  in 
need  of  trainmg. 

Soon  after  these  events  Schumann  entered  the  critical  field,  found- 
ing the  paper  known  as  the  "Neue  Zeitschrift  fiir  Musik."  This 
"New  Paper  on  Music"  is  still  flourishing.  At  first  it  fulfilled  a  val- 
uable mission;  for  the  fetters  of  classicism  were  being  discarded  by 
the  freer  school  of  romanticists,  of  which  Schumann  himself  was  a 
leader.  The  greatness  of  the  classical  masters  remained  undimmed; 
but  Schumann  and  his  comrades  were  ready  to  give  due  apprecia- 
tion to  new  styles,  and  prevent  the  old  forms  from  becoming  a  clog 
on  originality.  Thus  while  Mendelssohn  composed  with  one  eye  on 
the  past,  Schumann  looked  more  to  the  future.  Of  Chopin  he  wrote, 
"Hats  off,  gentlemen!  A  genius!"  He  spoke  of  the  piano  sonatas 
of  Brahms  as  "veiled  symphonies,"  —  a  term  that  has  been  used 
to  describe  the  last  five  sonatas  of  Beethoven.  He  also  knew  and 
encouraged  Wagner. 

He  had  already  begun  composing,  and  was  getting  known  as  a 
writer  of  piano  pieces.  These  ranged  from  his  variations  in  honor  of 
Fraulein  Abegg,  which  used  the  letters  of  her  name  as  a  musical 
theme,  to  the  varied  and  attractive  group  of  little  tone-pictures 
known  as  the  "  Carnival."  The  latter,  written  in  1835,  was  dedicated 
to  Ernestine  von  Fricken,  a  fellow  pupil  of  his  to  whom  he  was  much 
devoted  at  the  time.  Her  native  village  of  Asch  was  hinted  at  again 
and  again  in  the  work,  by  the  use  of  the  notes  A,  Es  (E-flat),  C,  and 
H  (our  B-natural).  The  pieces  consist  of  little  ballroom  pictures, 
such  as  the  "Promenade,"  "  Valse,"  "Aveu,"  or  "Reconnaissance"; 
hints  at  masqueraders,  such  as  Arlequin,  Pierrot,  or  Colombine;  and 
even  tonal  descriptions  of  real  characters,  such  as  Chopin  or  Chia- 
rina,  the  latter  being  Clara  Wieck,  who  afterwards  became  his  wife. 

Schumann's  courtship  of  Clara  Wieck,  and  their  subsequent  devo- 
tion to  each  other,  have  been  so  minutely  described  that  many  peo- 
ple believe  she  was  his  only  love.  But  his  thoughts  were  evidently 
elsewhere  when  he  wrote  the  "Carnival."  His  admiration  was  so 
pronounced  that  Ernestine  von  Fricken  afterwards  complained  of 
his  desertion,  and  acted  as  though  a  breach-of-promise  suit  would 
be  in  order. 


SCHUMANN 


SCHUMANN  145 

One  of  the  false  stories  in  musical  history  has  woven  itself  about 
the  Schumann  piece  known  as  "Warum"  ("Why"),  which  is  one 
of  a  set  of  eight  great  fantasy-pieces.  This  "  Why,"  with  its  question- 
ing upward  cadence,  was  considered  an  inquiry  as  to  why  Friedrich 
Wieck  should  oppose  Schumann's  love  for  his  daughter  Clara,  which 
began  to  show  itself  in  1836.  Whoever  made  up  the  story  claimed 
also  that  this  piece  moved  Wieck  to  withdi'aw  his  opposition.  But 
the  story  seems  to  exhibit  a  total  disregard  for  facts. 

In  the  first  place,  the  piece  was  dedicated  to  another  fellow 
student,  the  Scotch  pianist  Anna  Robena  Laidlaw;  and  Schumann 
wrote  to  her  concerning  the  music,  and  various  other  matters.  In 
the  second  place,  Wieck  did  not  withdraw  his  opposition  to  the 
match,  and  opposed  it  until  Schumann  brought  a  successful  lawsuit 
against  him,  restraining  him  from  further  opposition  without  cause. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  is  romance  enough  in  Schumann's  love 
and  marriage  without  importing  any  falsehoods  or  exaggerations. 

Clara  Wieck  was  bom  in  1819.  She  grew  up  to  be  a  famous  pian- 
ist, and  at  first  was  something  of  a  child  prodigy.  When  she  was 
seventeen,  Schumann's  intimacy  with  her  began  to  ripen  into  love, 
and  the  two  came  to  an  understanding.  Since  her  youth  and  his 
poverty  made  it  necessary  for  them  to  wait,  he  set  about  making  a 
career  in  earnest.  He  went  to  Vienna  to  seek  a  better  opening,  but 
that  gay  capital  did  not  appreciate  the  dreamy,  poetic  composer. 
He  gave  some  lectures  which  resulted  in  a  doctor's  degree  from  a 
imiversity.  Also  he  worked  at  his  periodical  until  it  became  reason- 
ably successful.  After  all  this  he  had  to  resort  to  law  to  make  Wieck 
consent;  but  he  was  successful,  and  the  marriage  took  place  in  1840. 

Clara  Schumann  was  a  faithful  helpmeet,  inspiring  her  husband 
to  do  his  best  work,  and  making  his  piano  pieces  known  to  the  public 
by  frequent  performances.  She  outlived  him  for  many  years;  but 
she  always  considered  it  a  sacred  duty  to  bring  his  compositions  into 
popular  notice.  During  his  life  she  was  more  of  a  public  figure  than 
the  composer  himself.  When  the  pair  once  visited  a  certain  court, 
where  she  played,  one  of  the  noble  auditors,  after  praising  her  execu- 
tion, turned  to  her  husband,  and  asked,  "Are  you,  too,  musical?" 

The  year  after  Schumann's  marriage  was  marked  by  great  activity 
on  his  part.  At  this  time  he  translated  his  happiness  into  the  beau- 
tiful song-cycles  entitled  "Poet's  Love"  and  "Woman's  Love  and 


146  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Life."  He  wrote  also  his  joyous  First  Symphony,  a  triumphant 
work  of  much  beauty. 

In  1842  he  was  busy  at  his  chamber  music,  and  in  the  next  year 
he  began  his  larger  vocal  compositions.  After  this  he  suffered  a  ner- 
vous breakdown  from  overwork.  Moving  from  Leipsic  to  Dresden, 
where  he  gradually  recovered,  he  became  intimate  with  Hiller,  and 
grew  to  know  Wagner.  He  gradually  resumed  his  own  work,  finish- 
ing the  opera  "Genoveva"  and  his  "Faust"  Cantata.  A  trip  to 
Diisseldorf  resulted  in  his  beautiful  Rhine  Symphony,  the  third  of 
his  four,  though  perhaps  the  manuscript  of  the  fourth  was  completed 
at  an  earlier  date. 

In  1853  the  composer's  mental  malady  took  fresh  hold  upon  him. 
He  attended  spiritualist  meetings,  and  insisted  that  Beethoven  was 
trying  to  communicate  with  him  by  knocks  in  the  rhythm  of  the 
figure  that  begins  the  Fifth  Symphony.  He  continually  heard  the 
note  A  sounding  in  his  ears;  and  he  thought  that  certain  themes  were 
brought  to  him  by  spirits.  One  of  these  themes,  which  he  wrote 
down,  was  used  by  Brahms  in  the  variations  that  end  with  a  funeral 
march.  Feeling  that  his  reason  was  going,  Schumann  tried  to  drown 
himself.  The  last  two  years  of  his  life  were  passed  in  an  asylum  at 
Endenich.  He  died  in  1856. 

The  romance  and  poetry  of  Schumann's  nature  showed  themselves 
most  admirably  in  his  music.  But  in  place  of  the  excessive  emotion 
of  Chopin,  Schumann's  works  usually  show  a  hearty,  healthy  enthu- 
siasm that  carries  all  their  auditors  by  storm.  Less  skilled  in  tech- 
nique than  Mendelssohn,  and  much  less  gifted  in  coimterpoint,  he 
showed  a  far  deeper  and  more  vital  inspiration.  His  works  seem  to 
combine  earnest  thoughtfulness  and  depth  of  feeling  with  a  joyous 
strength.  In  his  reviews,  and  in  the  "Carnival,"  Schumann  dis- 
tinguished two  sides  of  his  character,  the  dreamy  and  poetic  nature 
being  named  Eusebius,  while  his  more  impatient  and  fiery  side  was 
called  Florestan.  A  judicial  blend  of  the  two  he  christened  Meister 
Raro.  The  distinction  is  one  that  does  not  apply  to  Schumann's 
works  except  in  a  few  cases. 

The  depth  and  power  of  Schumann's  music  was  not  at  first  appre- 
ciated. Liszt,  to  be  sure,  called  him  "  the  greatest  music  thinker  since 
Beethoven."  Wagner,  however,  said  patronizingly  that  Schumann 
"had  a  tendency  toward  greatness."   Mendelssohn  did  not  appre- 


SCHUMANN  147 

ciate  Schumann  properly,  though  the  two  were  associated  for  a  time 
in  Leipsic.  The  public,  especially  the  English  public,  understood 
Mendelssohn's  grace  and  skill,  but  was  slow  in  comprehending  the  ex- 
pressive warmth  of  Schumann.  Chorley  was  noticeably  bitter  against 
Schumann,  speaking  of  his  music  as  "the  broken-crockery  school." 
Mendelssohn  himself  must  be  held  somewhat  to  blame  for  Chorley's 
abuse.  A  word  would  have  stopped  it,  but  Mendelssohn  did  not 
utter  that  word. 

Among  the  best  of  Schumann's  piano  works  are  the  "Papillons," 
a  toccata,  the  "Carnival,"  the  "  Fantasiestiicke,"  three  sonatas,  a 
set  of  "Novelettes,"  and  the  great  variations  known  as  the  "Etudes 
symphoniques."  He  wrote  many  short  pieces,  such  as  the  "  Kinder- 
scenen,"  containing  the  familiar  "Traumerei."  His  chamber  music 
includes  a  great  piano  quartet  and  quintet,  three  trios,  two  violin 
sonatas,  and  many  other  pieces  for  solo  instrument  with  piano.  His 
longer  vocal  works  include  the  opera  "Genoveva"  (with  a  beautiful 
overture),  the  cantata  "Faust,"  "Paradise  and  the  Peri,"  "The 
Pilgrimage  of  the  Rose,"  etc.  In  this  field  also  is  his  charming 
"Manfred,"  which  is  partly  melodramatic.  A  melodrama,  as  al- 
ready explained,  consists  of  spoken  words  against  a  musical  back- 
ground. In  this  case  there  is  only  one  reader,  who  recites  many 
of  the  selections  chosen  from  Byron's  poem.  But  it  is  possible  to 
have  various  characters,  and  to  give  actual  spoken  plays  in  this 
form. 

Schumann's  songs  are  in  many  cases  the  most  enthusiastic  out- 
pouring of  emotional  warmth.  Less  varied  in  style  than  Schubert's, 
they  strike  a  fuller  note  of  feeling.  There  are  almost  two  hundred 
and  fifty  of  them,  varying  from  the  melting  lyricism  of  "  Woman's 
Love  and  Life"  to  the  more  narrative  vein  of  such  ballads  as 
"Blondel's  Song,"  or  "The  Two  Grenadiers."  So  intense  is  their 
emotion  that  in  many  cases  they  seem  to  pulsate  with  the  warmth 
of  life  itself. 

The  Schumann  symphonies,  though  not  always  well  orchestrated, 
are  gloriously  spirited  works.  The  first  of  them  has  a  rushing, 
rhythmic  first  movement,  a  contemplative,  slow  movement,  a 
strong,  brusque  scherzo,  and  a  finale  that  alternates  with  strong 
chords  a  rapid,  chattering  theme  of  rare  brightness.  The  Second 
Symphony  has  a  slow,  broad  introduction,  followed  by  rapid  chord- 


148  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

themes;  a  quiet  slow  movement;  a  strongly  rushing  scherzo;  and  a 
finale  full  of  grand  chord  effects.  The  Third,  or  Rhenish,  Symphony- 
has  a  triumphantly  joyous  first  movement;  a  scherzo-like  movement 
that  is  redolent  of  half -humorous  Rhine- wine  songs;  a  slow  move- 
ment of  expressive  charm;  a  church  service  suggesting  Cologne 
Cathedral;  and  a  varied,  animated  chord-finale,  representing  the 
pleasant  intercourse  of  the  people  after  the  service.  The  Fourth 
Symphony  strikes  a  new  note  for  Schumann,  varying  strong  minor 
effects  with  exotic  orientalism.  Its  first  movement,  after  a  striking 
introduction,  has  minor  themes  of  almost  wild  power,  with  a  con- 
trasted middle  part  in  major,  and  a  gloriously  triumphant  coda;  the 
slow  movement  seems  Oriental  in  its  odd  harmonies  and  languorous 
style;  the  third  movement  is  again  a  brusque  scherzo;  while  the 
finale,  in  spite  of  some  conventional  moments,  brings  renewed  sug- 
gestions of  power. 

Schumann's  influence  has  been  very  great.  While  Mendelssohn 
excelled  him  in  popularity  during  their  lives,  time  has  brought  an 
appreciation  of  Schumann's  strength  of  expression.  His  music  has 
been  an  inspiration  to  many  composers,  not  only  in  his  own  country, 
but  in  Scandinavia  and  Russia  also.  He  has  come  in  for  some  abuse 
at  the  hands  of  the  extreme  French  modernists;  but  as  they  rely  too 
much  on  an  ultra-refined  delicacy  of  effect,  it  is  evident  that  they  do 
not  understand  the  value  of  his  music,  and  do  not  appreciate  the 
qualities  of  emotional  breadth  and  vigor  that  pervade  it. 

The  most  prominent  name  associated  with  Schumann's  is  that  of 
Robert  Volkmann  (1815-93),  who  came  to  Leipsic  in  1836,  and  stud- 
ied with  Schumann.  Volkmann  taught  at  Prague  and  Pesth,  the 
atmosphere  of  the  latter  place  giving  some  of  his  works  a  Hungai-ian 
gypsy  flavor.  He  composed  symphonies,  overtures,  string-serenades, 
chamber  music,  and  various  vocal  works.  His  overture  to  "  Richard 
Iir*  has  enjoyed  a  fair  amount  of  popularity.  But  it  contains  a 
decided  anachronism,  in  the  shape  of  the  tune  "The  Campbells  are 
comin'."  A  Scotch  tune  hardly  fits  an  English  battle-field;  but  when 
one  remembers  that  the  tune  in  question  was  composed  a  hundred 
years  or  so  after  the  battle  of  Bosworth  Field,  the  melody  begins  to 
seem  decidedly  out  of  place.  But  this  blunder  does  not  detract  from 
the  dramatic  power  of  the  work. 

Friedrich  Kiel  (1821-85)  hved  in  Berlin,  but  followed  the  leader- 


SCHUMANN  149 

ship  of  the  Leipsic  coterie.  He  composed  an  oratorio,  "Christus," 
and  many  other  sacred  works.  He  also  wrote  much  chamber  music. 
In  style  he  was  conservative,  following  Mendelssohn  as  much  as 
Schumann. 

Theodore  Gouvy  was  of  French  birth,  and  lived  much  at  Paris. 
His  works,  however,  belong  with  those  of  the  romanticists,  and  were 
appreciated  most  in  Germany.  He  composed  seven  sjmiphonies, 
two  overtures,  a  number  of  chamber  works,  an  opera,  and  other 
vocal  productions. 

Karl  Graedener  (1812-83)  was  a  'cellist  at  Kiel  and  Vienna.  He 
composed  two  symphonies,  a  piano  concerto,  and  much  chamber 
music,  including  admirable  violin  sonatas  and  'cello  sonatas.  He  was 
best  known  by  his  songs,  choral  works,  and  piano  pieces,  which 
were  Schumannesque  in  style.  He  showed  a  keen  sense  of  form,  and 
a  good  command  of  harmonic  richness. 

Woldemar  Bargiel  (1828-97)  was  another  composer  who  showed 
the  Schumann  influence  plainly,  though  he  did  not  have  much  per- 
sonal contact  with  the  Leipsic  master.  Bargiel's  works  include  a 
symphony,  three  overtures,  some  chamber  works,  and  many  shorter 
pieces.  Bargiel  was  a  stepbrother  of  Clara  Schumann.  Incidentally, 
Madame  Schumann  fits  into  this  list  because  of  her  piano  works. 

Other  orchestral  composers  who  belong  with  Schumann  as  disci- 
ples or  imitators  are  Julius  Otto  Grimm,  who  wrote  symphonies  and 
canons  for  strings  at  Miinster;  Albert  Dietrich,  whose  symphony 
and  cantatas  were  produced  at  Oldenburg;  Richard  Wuerst,  who 
produced  orchestral,  chamber,  and  operatic  works  in  Berlin;  and 
Ludwig  Meinardus,  who  wrote  symphonies,  but  was  best  known  by 
his  choral  works. 

Heinrich  Dorn  was  a  Berlin  composer  who  wrote  orchestral  pieces, 
but  was  best  known  by  his  operas.  These  were  a  belated  offshoot  of 
the  Weber  school.  Dorn,  however,  did  not  approve  of  the  Wagnerian 
movement,  though  in  many  ways  it  was  an  outgrowth  of  the  Weber 
school. 

Theodor  Kirchner  was  a  protege  of  Schumann  who  became  known 
by  his  short  piano  pieces.  He  composed  also  some  chamber  music, 
and  a  number  of  songs. 

Schumann's  chief  disciple  in  the  song  field  was  undoubtedly  Adolf 
Jensen  (1837-79).  Studying  in  Russia  and  with  Gade,  he  planned 


150  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

to  take  lessons  of  Schumann,  but  was  prevented  by  ill  health.  He 
was  always  poor,  and  was  troubled  by  consumption,  which  finally 
carried  him  off.  Jensen  was  an  enthusiast  who  could  hardly  stop 
when  he  started  to  play  over  the  world's  masterpieces  for  himself. 
As  a  result,  he  paid  for  long  sessions  of  Wagner's  music  by  many 
hours  of  pain.  Jensen  composed  large  works,  such  as  the  posthumous 
opera  "Turandot,"  the  cantata  "Jephtha's  Daughter,"  and  a 
"Gaudeamus"  set  to  Scheffel's  words.  His  songs  are  gems  of  the 
Lied  school,  and  show  a  warmth  of  feeling  much  like  that  of  Schu- 
mann. His  piano  works  are  very  beautiful  and  fluent,  though  not 
vigorous.  The  charming  "Bride-Song,"  one  of  his  best-known 
pieces,  is  one  of  a  set  of  four-hand  music,  which  includes  also  a 
wedding  march,  a  dance-Hke  "Reigen,"  and  a  nocturne. 

Carl  Banck  was  another  song  composer  who  followed  Schumann. 
Banck's  works  are  imassuming  in  style,  but  their  grace  and  charm  is 
well  shown  by  such  a  lyric  gem  as  his  "Abendreigen." 

Franz  Abt,  though  not  belonging  to  the  Schumann  school,  de- 
serves mention  as  being  a  composer  of  more  popular  vein.  His  songs 
do  not  reach  the  highest  level,  but  they  show  a  fluent  smoothness 
that  makes  them  widely  known. 

Other  song  composers  who  should  be  named  here  are  Edward 
August  Grell,  Karl  Curschmann,  Friedrich  Kucken,  Karl  Eckert, 
and  Joseph  Dessauer. 


XVII 

CHOPIN 

It  is  not  every  composer  who  can  have  two  centennials  of  his 
birth  celebrated,  in  two  successive  years;  but  Frederic  Chopin 
achieved  this  seemingly  impossible  feat.  Many  authorities  give  the 
date  of  his  birth  as  March  1, 1809.  Some,  however,  including  one  or 
two  who  ought  to  have  known  about  it,  place  the  event  in  1810.  The 
latter  date  is  probably  right. 

Chopin  was  bom  at  Zelazowa  Wola,  near  Warsaw.  His  father  was 
French,  and  his  mother  Polish.  From  them  he  seemed  to  inherit  a 
combination  of  Parisian  grace  and  elegance  with  Polish  intensity 
and  patriotism.  He  was  one  of  four  children,  two  of  his  sisters  be- 
coming well-known  writers.  His  father  was  a  successful  private 
school  teacher,  who  imparted  an  atmosphere  of  cultivation  to  the 
family  life. 

Chopin  at  first  showed  an  aversion  to  the  piano.  After  a  time, 
however,  he  took  lessons  under  a  Bohemian  teacher  named  Z3rwny. 
These  lessons  must  have  been  excellent,  for  they  cured  him  of  his 
distaste,  and  enabled  him  to  appear  in  public  when  nine  years  old. 
Poland  idolized  him,  and  Warsaw  called  him  "the  new  Mozart." 
Catalani  heard  his  playing  when  he  was  ten,  and  gave  him  a  watch; 
while  the  Czar  of  Russia  supplemented  this  gift  with  a  diamond  ring. 

Entering  the  Lyceum,  where  he  became  known  for  high  spirits 
and  dramatic  talent,  he  studied  composition  with  Joseph  Eisner,  and 
profited  greatly  by  the  lessons.  In  1826  he  issued  his  first  published 
work,  which  he  had  preceded  by  several  dances  in  manuscript.  In 
the  next  year  he  finished  his  studies,  and  entered  an  active  musical 
career. 

At  this  time  he  was  a  great  admirer  of  the  beautiful  Warsaw 
soprano  named  Constantia  Gladkowska.  He  dedicated  some  of  his 
works  to  her,  and  stated  that  she  had  inspired  the  adagio  of  his  F 
minor  concerto.  But  in  spite  of  his  feelmgs,  the  couple  parted  quietly 
enough,  with  conventional  phrases,  when  he  set  off  to  strange  lands. 


152  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

He  had  played  in  Vienna  with  some  success;  and  in  1830,  after  three 
great  farewell  concerts  at  Warsaw,  he  started  on  a  longer  tour.  He 
spoke  of  this  trip  as  "going  to  the  United  States  via  Paris."  But 
when  we  consider  how  primitive  the  American  conditions  were  at 
that  time,  it  was  no  doubt  fortunate  for  the  composer  that  he  never 
got  beyond  the  French  capital.  He  travelled  slowly  through  various 
German  cities.  At  Stuttgart  he  learned  that  the  rebellion  of  his 
countrymen  had  failed,  and  Warsaw  had  been  taken  by  the  Rus- 
sians. 

At  Paris  his  artistic  gifts  and  aristocratic  ways  soon  brought  him 
into  contact  with  the  best  circles.  He  was  welcomed  by  all  the  great 
musicians,  from  the  aged  Cherubini  to  the  young  Liszt.  He  became 
very  fashionable  as  a  teacher,  and  charged  high  prices  for  his  lessons. 
As  he  met  with  some  rivalry  on  the  part  of  Kalkbrenner,  he  decided 
to  smooth  it  over  by  taking  some  lessons  of  the  latter  artist.  But 
when  he  gave  a  concert,  early  in  1832,  Mendelssohn  said  of  him, 
"Chopin  is  worth  twenty  Kalkbrenners."  But  he  did  not  continue 
his  public  appearances  for  long.  In  a  few  years  his  growing  weakness 
interfered  with  them;  and  the  cool  reception  accorded  to  his  second 
concerto  made  him  take  a  dislike  to  the  concert  room. 

As  a  pianist,  Chopin  showed  all  the  delicacy  that  one  would  have 
expected  from  a  man  of  his  temperament.  His  fortissimos  were  far 
less  powerful  than  those  of  the  average  player,  to  say  nothing  of 
Liszt.  His  gradations  of  power  were  thus  "kept  in  a  fairly  limited 
range.  He  was  not  entirely  successful  as  an  interpreter  of  other  men's 
works.  But  when  it  came  to  playing  his  own,  he  was  unrivalled.  His 
delicate  nuances  of  expression  gave  to  his  performances  the  utmost 
charm.  He  was  an  absolute  master  of  rubato,  —  the  giving  of  char- 
acter to  a  melody  by  prolonging  some  notes  at  the  expense  of  others, 
without  disturbing  the  rhythm  as  a  whole.  Sometimes,  for  amuse- 
ment, Chopin  would  sit  down  at  the  keyboard  and  rattle  off  a  piece 
mechanically,  as  a  sort  of  burlesque;  but  this  procedure  was  reserved 
for  his  intimates. 

Late  in  1836  Chopin  met  the  authoress  George  Sand  (Madame 
Dudevant),  with  whom  he  lived  in  close  connection  for  over  ten 
years.  Two  years  after  their  meeting  they  passed  a  winter  at 
Majorca,  described  in  one  of  Madame  Dudevant's  books.  After 
that  they  stayed  either  at  Paris  or  at  Nohant.  In  Majorca  Chopin 


■t-^^ 


l!fev 


^ 


CHOPIN 


CHOPIN  15S 

fell  ill,  and  laid  the  foundations  of  the  consumption  that  carried  him 
off  in  after  years.  Madame  Dudevant  was  rather  arbitrary,  while  he 
was  sensitive  and  irritable;  so  it  is  a  wonder  that  their  intimacy 
lasted  for  so  long.  When  it  was  finally  ended  by  her,  in  1847,  she 
put  him  into  one  of  her  novels,  "Lucrezia  Floriani,"  where  he  figures 
as  Prince  Karol. 

Chopin  returned  alone  to  his  Paris  quarters.  Back  in  his  old  rooms, 
he  began  to  improvise  at  the  piano.  The  excitement  and  frenzy  to 
which  he  was  a  prey  led  him  to  think  that  he  saw  visions.  The  nobil- 
ity of  his  native  Poland  seemed  to  march  before  him  in  review,  as  if 
going  into  battle.  He  grew  so  afraid  of  his  own  mental  state  that 
he  rushed  from  the  room,  and  was  found  later  wandering  about  the 
Paris  streets.  But  the  themes  that  echoed  his  vision  remained  in 
his  mind.  It  is  said  that  they  were  shaped  by  him  into  the  great 
A-fiat  Polonaise;  but  probably  it  was  the  A-major  Polonaise. 

The  revolution  of  1848  found  him  in  England,  where  he  made 
several  private  appearances.  Returning  to  Paris,  he  died  there  in 
1849.  He  was  given  an  impressive  funeral  at  the  Madeleine.  Follow- 
ing the  Polish  military  custom  of  being  buried  in  uniform,  he  was 
interred  in  his  concert  clothes. 

Chopin's  music  is  mostly  for  piano.  Unlike  the  other  great  mas- 
ters, he  confined  his  efforts  almost  wholly  to  this  single  branch  of 
music.  His  concertos  and  dances  with  orchestra  are  practically 
piano  works  with  an  instrumental  accompaniment.  His  piano  trio 
and  'cello  sonata  are  not  among  his  best  works.  His  songs  are  some- 
times lightly  joyous,  like  "Were  I  a  birdling,"  but  in  some  instances 
they  are  tinged  with  wild  power.  Anjrthing  connected  with  his 
native  land  moved  Chopin  to  the  depths  of  his  heart.  An  example  is 
found  in  the  song  "Poland's  Dirge,"  which  is  a  gloomy  threnody  of 
the  strongest  intensity. 

In  his  piano  works  as  a  whole,  Chopin  introduced  the  idea  of 
embellishments  and  refinements,  not  in  their  seventeenth-century 
forms,  but  as  episodes  or  connecting  links  in  the  melodic  structure. 
Little  runs,  or  passages  of  several  grace-notes  together,  take  their 
place  in  the  design  of  the  piece,  and  give  it  an  exquisite  charm.  With 
Chopin  everything  must  be  made  poetic  and  full  of  feeling.  This 
result  is  attained  in  part  by  the  proper  use  of  rubato  and  pedals,  and 
for  the  rest  by  interpreting  and  expressing  the  sentiment  that  glows 


154  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

in  the  music  itself.  Chopin  has  been  called  with  justice  "  the  poet  of 
the  piano." 

With  Chopin,  music  was  a  matter  of  emotion  almost  wholly.  He 
did  not  devote  himself  to  the  learned  elaboration  of  figures  or  balanc- 
ing of  the  stricter  forms.  With  him  music  was  always  to  be  free, 
plastic,  and  expressive.  Emotion  was  the  chief  thing  with  him, 
whether  it  proved  to  be  dreamy  and  languorous  or  fiery  and  heroic. 
Field,  noting  this  excess  of  emotion,  spoke  of  Chopin  as  "a  talent 
for  the  sick-room."  But  Chopin  is  not  usually  morbid.  His  senti- 
ment is  not  sentimentality,  his  feminine  qualities  not  effeminate. 
His  pathos  and  intensity  are  Polish,  his  ethereal  delicacy  French  in 
style. 

Perhaps  the  most  splendid  of  Chopin's  works  is  the  great  A-flat 
Polonaise.  The  title  marks  it  as  one  of  the  stately  dances  of 
Poland,  originating  when  the  nobles  paraded  before  John  Sobieski 
after  his  victory  over  the  Turks.  Chopin's  work,  which  is  his  Op.  53, 
is  known  as  the  "  Heroic  Polonaise,"  and  demands  a  pianist  of  the 
first  rank  for  its  interpretation.  The  work  is  both  impassioned  and 
majestic,  and  its  broad  sweeps  of  expressive  power  make  the  mu- 
sical auditor  lose  himself  in  admiration.  Of  the  dozen  or  more 
polonaises  by  Chopin,  that  in  F-sharp  minor.  Op.  44,  is  another  great 
work;  while  the  "Military  Polonaise,"  in  A,  is  shorter,  but  impet- 
uously enthusiastic. 

Comparable  with  the  polonaise  for  excellence  is  the  sonata,  Op. 
35,  in  B-flat  minor.  The  work  consists  of  four  movements,  —  an 
opening  allegro,  a  scherzo,  the  well-known  funeral  march,  and  a 
short  but  rapid  finale.  In  the  true  sense  of  the  word  the  work  is  not 
a  good  sonata;  it  does  not  aim  to  employ  figure  treatment  and  de- 
velopment as  its  chief  resource.  But  it  is  wonderfully  beautiful. 
The  melodic  and  expressive  themes  of  the  first  two  movements  form 
an  admirable  foil  to  the  sombre  gloom  of  the  funeral  march.  The 
latter  is  even  more  widely  known  than  the  sonata  as  a  whole;  though 
the  prim  and  formal  Mendelssohn  said  of  the  march,  "I  abhor  it." 
The  unrest  of  the  finale  is  a  fitting  close  for  the  work. 

In  point  of  numbers,  the  mazurka  seems  to  have  been  Chopin's 
favorite  form.  He  wrote  over  fifty  of  these  dances.  The  mazurka, 
or  masurek,  is  a  popular  Polish  dance,  which  Chopin  must  have  seen 
often  in  the  country.  It  was  in  |  time,  and  was  often  accented  by  a 


CHOPIN  155 

little  kick  on  the  second  beat  of  the  measure.  Chopin  brought  to  the 
form  an  infinite  variety  of  expression.  So  full  of  nuance  and  suggest- 
iveness  were  his  mazurkas  that  he  himself,  it  is  said,  never  played 
them  twice  alike.  These  were  the  works  that  he  would  sometimes 
parody  by  giving  them  with  exaggerated  mechanical  exactness. 

Chopin's  nineteen  nocturnes  are  for  the  most  part  musical  gems 
of  the  first  water.  He  did  not  invent  the  form,  but  he  perfected  it, 
and  brought  to  it  an  intensity  of  passionate  feeling  that  remains  un- 
equalled. There  is  a  sadness  about  them  that  is  sometimes  morbid; 
but  often  there  is  also  the  rarest  beauty.  In  the  nocturnes  the  fem- 
inine note  of  Chopin's  nature  is  sometimes  over-emphasized;  but 
usually  it  lies  with  the  performer  to  prevent  them  from  becoming  too 
sentimental.  Probably  the  most  popular  of  them  all  is  the  one  in 
G-major,  Op.  37,  no.  2.  The  melodic  character  of  this  work  is  so  rich 
as  to  be  almost  too  sensuous. 

Highly  varied  and  very  expressive  also  are  Chopin's  twenty-five 
preludes,  which  form  a  set  except  for  the  last  one.  These  are  nearly 
all  of  the  smallest  dimensions;  but  their  contents  are  pregnant  with 
meaning. 

The  two  dozen  or  more  etudes  are  another  mine  of  tonal  richness. 
They  are  more  than  their  title  implies;  for  they  are  not  only  techni- 
cal works,  but  studies  in  expression  as  well.  Huneker  calls  them  a 
"series  of  palpitating  music-pictures";  while  Kullak  says  that  in 
these  pieces  Chopin  "pours  forth  the  entire  fulness  of  his  transport- 
ing poesy." 

With  the  ballades,  four  in  number,  we  come  again  to  a  larger  and 
freer  form.  The  one  dedicated  to  Schumann  is  especially  melodious, 
and  full  of  strong  contrasts. 

Chopin,  like  Kullak,  made  the  scherzo  a  separate  piano  form. 
Chopin  wrote  four  works  of  this  sort. 

Among  Chopin's  other  compositions  the  beautiful  "Berceuse" 
deserves  high  rank.  He  composed  also  impromptus,  fantasies,  and 
a  barcarolle.  His  fifteen  valses  are  full  of  the  most  captivating  grace. 
Avoiding  conventionality,  they  are  too  expressively  varied  to  be 
suitable  for  actual  dancing. 

Associated  with  Chopin  for  a  time  was  Stephen  Heller  (1815- 
88),  who  was  known  for  many  years  as  a  pianist.  Like  Chopin,  he 
had  a  very  sensitive  temperament,  that  made  concert  appearances 


156  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

something  of  a  trial  for  him.  He  wrote  several  hundred  short  piano 
pieces  of  various  sorts,  —  ballades,  nocturnes,  etudes,  and  so  on. 

John  Field,  who  sneered  at  Chopin,  did  not  differ  so  greatly  in 
style  from  the  Polish  master.  He  wrote  several  concertos,  and  a 
number  of  solo  pieces,  but  is  best  known  now  by  his  nocturnes  for 
piano.  These  are  full  of  delicate  sentiment,  and  seemed  to  fore- 
shadow the  more  passionate  outpourings  of  Chopin. 

Kalkbrenner's  use  of  a  guide  bar  to  support  the  wrist  is  men- 
tioned in  the  chapter  on  "  Famous  Pianists,"  in  this  volume.  His 
conceit  was  somewhat  excessive,  and  Chopin's  taking  lessons  of  him 
resulted  from  his  rather  brazen  offer  to  teach  the  Polish  performer. 
Kalkbrenner  wrote  fluent  concertos,  sonatas,  and  other  works,  and 
played  with  smoothness.  These  men,  with  Czerny,  Moscheles, 
Tomaschek,  and  other  masters  of  still  earlier  date,  brought  piano 
playing  to  a  high  level.  But  the  works  of  Chopin  were  the  first  that 
showed  the  full  capabilities  of  the  instrument  in  emotional  expres- 
sion. 

The  pianists  who  flourished  in  the  middle  of  last  century  (see 
chapter  on  "Famous  Pianists")  included  such  famous  names  as 
Henselt,  Herz,  Thalberg,  and  Dreyschock.  Henselt  practised  for 
large  stretches,  and  devised  exercises  for  that  purpose.  He  com- 
posed a  concerto,  a  number  of  Etudes,  and  other  solos.  Thalberg 
had  great  technique,  but  devoted  himself  largely  to  salon  music. 
Dreyschock  played  his  own  pieces  for  the  most  part,  and  they  were 
showy  rather  than  deep.  Herz,  too,  wrote  and  played  works  that 
were  brilliant,  but  shallow. 

The  term  salon  music,  in  its  strict  sense,  implies  music  suited  for 
the  drawing-room.  It  signifies  also  music  that  is  not  of  the  highest 
type,  requiring  serious  attention,  but  is  aimed  merely  to  please  in 
a  more  or  less  superficial  manner.  This  is  not  equivalent  to  saying 
that  salon  music  is  necessarily  trashy.  It  does,  however,  lack  the 
depth  and  earnestness  of  the  master  works.  Salon  pieces  are  not 
necessarily  easy  to  compose;  and  in  many  cases  they  show  much 
skill  and  dexterity,  or  real  expressive  power.  A  number  of  salon 
music  composers  are  now  mentioned. 

Albeniz,  who  died  in  1855,  was  active  at  Madrid  for  many  years. 
Leybach,  who  was  an  organist  at  Toulouse,  became  known  by  his 
nocturnes,  of  which  the  fifth  is  still  widely  popular.  Litolff ,  the  well- 


CHOPIN  157 

known  publisher,  wrote  some  salon  music,  but  attempted  also  con- 
certos and  other  large  forms.  Bovy,  sometim.es  writing  as  Lysberg, 
became  famous  at  Geneva.  Alkan  (Morhanges)  became  known  at 
Paris  by  his  etudes  and  other  works.  Jacques  Blumenthal  was  pian- 
ist to  Queen  Victoria.  Gobbaerts  composed  many  light,  short  pieces 
at  Brussels.  Eugene  Ketterer  became  known  by  his  popular  dances. 

In  our  own  country,  Louis  Moreau  Gottschalk  deserves  mention. 
Bom  at  New  Orleans  in  1829,  he  probably  inherited  musical  taste 
from  his  Creole  mother.  Stud5dng  in  Paris  and  elsewhere,  he  soon 
became  known  as  a  pianist.  But  his  fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  com- 
positions, which  are  light  in  a  way,  but  very  characteristic  and  effec- 
tive in  suggesting  their  titles.  His  "  Bamboula"  reproduces  the  tur- 
moil of  that  Negro  dance.  His  "Bananier"  and  "Savane"  have  an 
inimitable  southern  flavor.  His  "Banjo"  echoes  the  sounds  of  the 
plantation  darkies  very  daintily.  "  Ojos  Creolas  "  displays  a  roman- 
tic style.  "The  Last  Hope"  is  a  pathetic  picture  inspired  by  a 
mother's  death  just  before  the  desired  return  of  an  absent  son. 
"Ossian"  consists  of  two  richly  poetic  bits  of  bardic  utterance. 
These  may  well  serve  as  a  type  of  salon  music.  There  is  here  none  of 
the  development  of  the  sonata,  or  the  studied  intricacy  of  the  fugue. 
Instead,  there  are  light,  but  pleasing  melodies,  and  harp-like  sweeps 
of  rich  harmony. 

On  the  whole,  however,  salon  music  covers  a  multitude  of  sins. 
While  it  may  include  works  of  interest  and  value,  it  offers  room  also 
to  the  tawdry  effects  of  many  commonplace  pieces,  or  the  conven- 
tional triviality  of  popular  dances.  Strictly  speaking,  many  of  the 
great  composers  have  written  salon  pieces.  The  shorter  bits  of  Bee- 
thoven, such  as  the  "Six  Bagatelles,"  or  the  "Traumerei"  of  Schu- 
mann, or  some  of  the  melodic  bits  of  Schubert,  show  the  simplicity 
of  style  and  the  popular  appeal  that  is  a  characteristic  of  salon  music. 
Yet  if  a  composer  uses  nothing  higher  than  that  style,  he  can  hardly 
be  reckoned  as  a  master. 


XVIII 

ITALIAN  OPERA 

While  Germany  had  added  to  the  earlier  names  of  Bach  and 
Handel  the  more  recent  ones  of  Haydn,  Mozart,  Beethoven,  Schu- 
bert, and  Weber,  Italy  produced  no  genius  of  the  first  rank.  A  cer- 
tain decadence  had  begun  to  show  itself  in  Italian  music.  The  works 
of  the  Scarlattis,  Lotti,  or  even  Cimarosa,  no  longer  appealed  to  the 
people  of  Italy,  and  public  taste  in  that  country  began  to  be  satisfied 
with  something  far  simpler  in  style.  It  was  this  decadence  of  Italian 
taste  that  led  Von  Biilow  to  remark,  "  Italy  was  the  cradle  of  music, 
—  and  remained  the  cradle."  Instead  of  keeping  abreast  of  Ger- 
man classical  development,  Italy  shut  her  ears  to  the  geniuses  of  the 
north,  and  turned  her  attention  to  a  school  of  bright  but  rather 
trivial  melody.  This  musical  isolation  lasted  imtil  within  a  few 
decades. 

Gioachino  Antonio  Rossini,  who  led  the  movement  toward  this 
popular  style  of  opera,  was  bom  at  Pesaro  in  1792.  His  father  was 
town  trumpeter,  and  his  mother  a  baker's  daughter.  He  studied 
singing  and  horn-playing  at  home.  Entering  the  conservatory  at 
15,  he  took  up  counterpoint  under  Mattel;  but  he  had  no  patience 
with  such  serious  work,  and  gave  it  up  as  soon  as  he  had  developed 
his  facility  in  the  lighter  vein.  He  studied  the  music  of  Haydn  and 
Mozart  until  he  was  nicknamed  "the  little  German";  but  he  imi- 
tated their  orchestration  and  fluency  rather  than  the  worth  of  their 
style. 

Rossini  wrote  his  first  stage  work  for  Venice,  in  1810.  This  was 
followed  by  an  opera  huffa  at  Bologna,  and  an  opera  seria  at  Rome. 
His  career  was  now  a  busy  one.  For  the  next  ten  years  he  brought 
out  no  less  than  thirty  operas,  in  such  diverse  cities  as  Rome,  Venice, 
Naples,  Milan,  and  Lisbon.  His  first  work  of  any  value  was  "Tan- 
credi,"  given  in  1813.  During  this  period  he  composed  also  his 
"Barber  of  Seville,"  brought  out  at  Rome,  in  1815.  This  bright 
comedy,  which  has  done  more  than  any  other  opera  to  keep  his  name 


ITALIAN  OPERA  159 

alive,  was  disliked  at  first,  partly  because  it  treated  a  subject  already 
used  by  Paisiello.  "Otello,"  produced  in  1816,  marks  the  transition 
from  an  older  recitative  style  to  a  smoother  and  more  melodic  vein. 
His  "Cenerentola"  proved  itself  another  admirable  comedy,  while 
"Mose  in  Egitto"  was  afterwards  changed  into  oratorio  form. 

Rossini's  facility  in  composition  is  shown  by  a  joke  that  he  played 
upon  a  Venetian  manager.  When  the  latter  gratified  an  old  grudge 
by  forcing  the  composer  to  set  the  poor  libretto  of  "  I  due  Bruschini," 
Rossini  retaliated  by  putting  all  kinds  of  tricks  into  the  score.  Thus 
the  second  violins  began  each  measure  in  the  overture  by  tapping  on 
their  lamp-shades;  the  bass  was  given  high  passages,  and  the  soprano 
forced  as  low  as  possible;  a  comical  scene  was  suddenly  interrupted 
by  a  funeral  march;  and  the  words  were  so  arranged  in  the  choruses 
that  a  ludicrous  jumble  of  syllables  resulted.  This  opera  was  natu- 
rally retired  after  one  night. 

A  revolution  at  Naples  in  1820  started  Rossini  on  a  trip  to  Vienna. 
There,  at  Prince  Mettemich's  request,  he  wrote  some  bright  can- 
tatas, and  in  1823  produced  "Semiramide." 

After  a  short  journey  to  London,  he  became  director  of  the 
Theatre  Italien,  in  Paris.  There  he  revived  his  old  works,  and 
brought  out  "II  Viaggio  a  Reims."  In  1826  he  was  named  royal 
composer,  with  a  salary.  At  Paris  Rossini  was  influenced  by  the  ex- 
cellent standards  in  vogue,  and  he  even  began  to  study  seriously  the 
works  of  Beethoven.  The  result  is  shown  in  his  "William  Tell" 
(1829)  which  is  written  in  a  far  more  lofty  style  than  his  earlier  and 
more  conventional  works.  It  was  a  worthy  member  of  the  series  of 
operas  composed  by  Cherubini,  Spontini,  and  in  later  days  Meyer- 
beer. 

Rossini  made  a  contract  to  bring  out  more  operas,  one  every  two 
years  at  least.  But  his  plans  for  developing  himself  in  his  better 
style  were  brought  to  naught  by  the  revolution  of  1830,  after  which 
his  contract  and  royal  post  were  abrogated.  Then  he  heard  a  Meyer- 
beer work  in  1836,  and  decided  not  to  compete  with  the  new  leader. 
The  result  was  seen  in  the  fact  that  he  composed  nothing  more  for 
the  stage,  though  he  lived  until  1868. 

Rossini  is  a  clear  example  of  the  bad  influence  of  popular  taste 
on  a  really  capable  composer.  Had  he  lived  in  Germany,  he  would 
pretty  surely  have  striven  to  reach  the  German  standards  of  classi- 


160  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

cism.  But  in  a  country  where  the  public  applauded  only  a  tawdry 
and  conventional  style  of  melody,  there  was  no  incentive  for  the  com- 
poser to  develop  himseK  beyond  that  level.  The  improvement  that 
Rossini  made  in  Paris  shows  very  definitely  that  he  was  capable  of 
higher  things  than  the  conventional  singing-concerts  which  form 
most  of  his  stage  works. 

Rossini,  like  Handel,  was  not  above  adapting  themes  from  others. 
Like  Handel  in  another  respect,  he  transferred  many  pieces  from  his 
own  early  works.  In  a  conversation  about  his  mass,  Rossini  once 
began  to  explain  where  its  numbers  had  been  borrowed ;  and  the  list 
ranged  all  the  way  from  "Aureliano"  to  "Semiramide." 

The  opera  seria,  or  tragic  opera,  was  the  most  conventional  affair 
imaginable.  The  inanities  of  this  school  gave  rise  to  the  remark, 
"Whatever  is  too  silly  to  be  spoken  may  be  sung."  In  opera  seria  no 
attention  was  paid  to  the  principles  of  dramatic  fitness,  which  Gluck 
had  evolved.  While  the  form  was  not  so  rigid  as  in  the  days  of 
Handel,  it  was  still  a  matter  of  certain  conventional  solos  and  ensem- 
bles, and  a  great  deal  of  bravura  display.  The  soprano  had  to  have 
her  scena,  often  a  mad  scene,  in  which  she  was  allowed  to  indulge  in 
all  kinds  of  trills,  runs,  and  vocal  display.  She  was  almost  always 
in  love  with  the  tenor,  and  pursued  by  the  bass.  For  some  reason 
the  bass  singer  was  usually  cast  as  a  villain,  who  wished  to  win  the 
soprano's  regard,  but  could  think  of  no  better  method  than  persecut- 
ing her.  Wagner  broke  through  this  stereot>T)ed  custom,  and  gave 
the  hero's  part  to  a  basso  in  his  "Flying  Dutchman." 

In  comedy,  a  more  natural  tone  prevailed.  The  opera  huffa,  for 
some  reason,  was  unhampered  by  traditions,  and  grew  into  sponta- 
neous excellence.  Its  dramatic  structure  was  admirable,  its  music 
suitable. 

Vincenzo  Bellini  (1801-35)  was  the  son  of  an  organist  at  Catania, 
from  whom  the  boy  took  his  first  lessons.  When  he  reached  the  age 
of  eighteen,  a  patron  sent  him  to  Naples,  where  he  studied  for  several 
years.  He  wrote  a  number  of  student  works,  including  a  symphony 
and  his  first  opera.  He  paid  attention  to  both  German  and  Italian 
models,  and  was  especially  interested  in  Pergolesi.  The  opera 
manager  Barbaja  saw  that  the  young  man  was  really  gifted,  and 
at  length  began  to  order  operas  from  him.  "II  Pirata"  (1827)  was 
a  great  success,  though  the  favorable  result  was  probably  due  to 


ITALIAN  OPERA  161 

Rubini's  singing  in  the  chief  part.  At  present,  an  opera  is  regarded 
as  an  art-work  in  which  the  composer  must  do  something  worth 
while,  so  that  a  single  singer  could  not  now  make  a  poor  work  suc- 
ceed. But  the  Italians  of  a  century  ago  cared  for  little  beyond 
smooth  melodies  well  sung. 

Of  Bellini's  dozen  or  so  of  operas,  three  became  far  better  known 
than  the  rest.  These  three  were  "Norma,"  "I  Puritani,"  and  "La 
Somnambula."  The  first  is  based  on  a  Druidic  subject,  and  has  a 
sufficiently  dramatic  libretto.  Its  music  is  fluent,  and  not  lacking  in 
effects  of  real  breadth.  Most  famous  among  its  numbers  is  Norma's 
great  solo  of  prayer  and  renunciation,  "Casta  Diva."  " I  Puritani" 
deals  with  Cromwell's  times,  although  its  conventional  story  of  love 
and  jealousy  is  hardly  Puritanical.  This  work  allowed  a  tremendous 
success  to  be  made  by  the  so-called  "Puritani"  quartet  of  singers,  — 
Grisi,  Rubini,  Tamburini,  and  Lablache.  For  many  years  they  kept 
the  work  before  the  public  at  Paris.  "La  Somnambula"  treats  a 
Scribe  libretto,  dealing  with  complications  that  result  from  the  sleep- 
walking of  its  heroine,  Amina.  Her  final  outburst  of  joy,  "Ah,  non 
giunge,"  is  another  great  favorite  with  soloists. 

Bellini  did  not  enter  the  field  of  comic  opera,  and  in  his  tragedies 
he  did  not  show  the  versatility  of  Rossini.  But  if  he  lacked  some  of 
the  brilliance  of  his  rival,  he  atoned  for  it  by  breadth  of  effect.  His 
melodies  are  often  tenderly  pathetic  in  style,  with  much  sincerity, 
and  occasionally  broad  sweeps  of  feeling.  When  the  standards  of  the 
day  are  kept  in  mind,  it  will  be  seen  that  Bellini's  operas  showed 
considerable  tragic  solemnity. 

Gaetano  Donizetti  (1797-1848)  was  bom  at  Bergamo.  He  re- 
ceived early  training  from  Mayr  and  Mattel.  For  a  time  he  entered 
the  army,  to  avoid  being  forced  into  the  law.  But  he  soon  began  to 
compose  operas,  and  in  1822  his  "Zoraide  de  Granada"  procured 
him  an  honorable  discharge. 

The  first  ten  or  twelve  years  of  his  work  were  devoted  to  rather 
frank  imitations  of  Rossini,  without  much  individuality.  By  1830 
Donizetti  had  composed  about  thirty  operas,  though  none  of  them 
showed  great  merit.  But  with  "Anna  Bolena"  (1832)  his  more 
distinctive  period  began. 

The  works  by  which  Donizetti  is  best  known  are  three  tragedies 
and  thi*ee  comedies.  The  former  are  "Lucrezia  Borgia,"  "Lucia  di 


162  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Lammermoor,"  and  "Linda  di  Chamounix,"  while  the  latter  con- 
sist of  "La  Fille  du  Regiment/'  "Don  Pasquale,"  and  "L'  Ettsir 
d'  Amore." 

The  tragedies  have  all  the  faults  of  their  school.  While  their  bril- 
liant solos  captivated  the  audiences  of  their  day,  their  music  is  now 
seen  to  have  no  especial  dramatic  meaning.  These  tragedies,  like 
those  of  Rossini's  earlier  styles,  show  not  the  faintest  approach  to 
the  real  dramatic  possibilities  of  opera,  as  exploited  by  Gluck.  They 
are  merely  groups  of  singable  melodies,  with  little  or  no  connection 
between  them  and  the  dramatic  situation  or  the  sense  of  the  words. 
Their  rather  disconnected  niunbers  have  been  likened  to  a  string  of 
separate  pearls;  but  even  the  single  gems  were  not  of  the  first  water 
when  compared  with  those  made  in  Germany. 

In  the  comedies,  far  better  conditions  prevail.  The  music  is  not 
only  tuneful,  but  brightly  humorous  in  character,  and  well  suited  to 
the  needs  of  the  different  situations.  "La  Fille  du  Regiment"  has 
for  its  hero  a  Tyrolese  peasant,  named  Tonio,  who  enters  the  regi- 
ment to  win  the  love  of  its  pretty  vivandUre,  Marie.  Adopted  by  the 
regiment  when  a  foundling,  Marie  finds  that  she  is  the  daughter  of  a 
marquise,  who  carries  her  home;  but  Tonio,  becoming  colonel,  traces 
Marie,  and  finally  wins  her.  "  Don  Pasquale"  deals  with  an  old  man 
of  that  name  who  wishes  to  cut  off  his  nephew's  expectations  by 
making  a  second  marriage.  The  nephew,  Ernest,  persuades  his 
sweetheart  Norina  to  try  to  captivate  the  elderly  wooer.  She  charms 
him  at  first,  but  after  a  mock  marriage  she  pretends  to  turn  shrew- 
ish and  extravagant.  Don  Pasquale  is  made  to  hate  the  idea  of  mar- 
riage before  he  is  told  that  the  wedding  was  not  real.  "L'  Elisir 
d'  Amore"  treats  the  story  of  a  love  potion  bought  from  a  conjuror 
by  the  villager  Nemorino.  With  the  aid  of  this,  and  various  events, 
he  succeeds  in  winning  his  sweetheart,  in  spite  of  the  fascinations  of 
a  visiting  sergeant. 

The  vivacity  and  charm  of  the  music  in  these  comedies  wins  high 
praise  even  now.  No  allowance  need  be  made  in  their  favor  because 
of  changing  standards;  they  hold  their  own  to-day  with  scarcely  less 
vigor  than  when  they  were  first  produced.  While  the  tragedies  of 
the  Italian  school  seem  thin  and  inartistic,  the  comedies  are  still 
models  in  their  particular  line. 

A  nimiber  of  composers  were  active  at  the  beginning  of  Rossini's 


ITALIAN  OPERA  163 

career.  While  none  of  them  were  geniuses,  they  often  scored  great 
local  successes  in  various  Italian  cities. 

Giuseppe  Mosca  brought  out  his  first  opera  at  Rome  in  1791.  He 
is  said  to  have  invented  an  effective  method  of  handling  crescendos, 
which  Rossini  afterward  borrowed.  His  brother  Luigi  was  another 
opera  composer. 

Vittorio  Trento  won  considerable  attention  in  London,  between 
1797  and  1804.  His  greatest  success  was  "The  Assassins." 

Vincenzo  Federici  was  active  at  Milan  and  Turin.  He  followed 
the  style  of  Cimarosa. 

Vincenzo  Lavigna  wrote  several  successful  operas  for  Milan,  and 
taught  Verdi  during  the  latter's  youth. 

Stefano  Pavesi  won  success  with  "I  Baccanali,"  "Ser  Marc* 
Antonio,"  and  "La  Donna  Bianca." 

Giovanni  Tadolini  divided  his  time  between  Italy  and  Paris, 
composing  operas,  songs,  and  romances. 

Pietro  Generali,  a  pupil  of  Durante,  devoted  himself  to  comic 
operas  at  Rome.  He  is  classed  as  the  forerunner  of  Rossini. 

Less  directly  in  line  with  the  Rossini  school  were  Paer  and  Mayr, 
mentioned  elsewhere. 

Fi'ancesco  Morlacchi,  composer  of  sacred  works  as  well  as  operas, 
adopted  a  more  Germanic  style  while  choirmaster  at  Dresden.  He 
too  wrote  a  "Barber  of  Seville." 

Italian  composers  seem  to  find  opera  their  most  congenial  method 
of  expression.  Proceeding  onward  through  the  nineteenth  century, 
their  number  increases  to  large  proportions.  A  partial  list  includes 
Carlo  Conti  ("L'  Olympiade"),  Antonio  Coppola  ("Nina"),  Lauro 
Rossi  ("II  Domino  Nero"),  Errico  Petrella,  Alberto  Mazzucato, 
Teodulo  Mabellini  ("Rolla"),  Alessandro  Nini,  Achille  Peri,  and 
Carlo  Pedrotti,  who  won  success  with  comedies. 

Saverio  Mercadante  survived  the  Rossini  group  by  many  years, 
but  did  not  rise  beyond  the  limits  of  its  style  in  tragedy.  His  suc- 
cesses began  with  "Elisa  e  Claudio,"  in  1821,  and  included  his  mag- 
num opus,  "  II  Giuramento,"  in  1837.  He  lived  until  1870,  and  com- 
posed funeral  music  for  nearly  all  of  his  earlier  contemporaries. 

Giovanni  Pacini  was  a  Sicilian  by  birth.  He  entered  the  operatic 
field  in  1813.  His  best  work  was  "Saffo,"  produced  at  Naples  in 
1840;  but  he  wrote  more  than  three  dozen  operas  after  that. 


164  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Those  who  began  activity  toward  the  middle  of  the  century  in- 
cluded Francesco  Chiaromonte,  Antonio  Cagnoni,  the  double-bass 
virtuoso  Bottesini,  Francesco  Schira,  Giorgio  Miceli,  Carlotta 
Ferrari,  and  the  still  later  Pietro  Platania  and  Filippo  Marchetti. 
Greece  was  represented  by  Spiro  Samara  and  his  successor  Theo- 
philus  Sakellarines. 

The  two  brothers  Luigi  and  Federico  Ricci  wrote  together  at 
times,  and  made  a  great  success  with  their  joint  work  "Crispino 
e  la  Comare,"  given  at  Venice  in  1850. 

Antonio  Carlos  Gomez,  the  Brazilian,  was  a  member  of  this 
school,  though  coming  a  little  after  it  in  point  of  time.  From  1870 
on  he  won  attention  with  his  *'I1  Guarany,"  "Salvator  Rosa,"  and 
"Maria  Tudor." 

Contemporary  with  Gomez  was  Amilcare  Ponchielli,  who  studied 
and  composed  at  Milan.  His  best  work  is  "La  Gioconda,"  a  tale  of 
the  love  and  self-sacrifice  of  a  poor  street  singer.  This  holds  its  place 
in  the  repertoire  to-day. 

Arrigo  Boito,  bom  in  1842,  has  won  fame  as  an  admirable  libret- 
tist for  Verdi.  In  1868  Boito  finished  his  own  excellent  opera, 
"Mefistofele."  Coming  after  Gounod's  "Faust,"  it  differs  from 
that  work  in  treating  both  parts  of  Goethe's  great  poem.  The  first 
scene  shows  the  Prologue  in  Heaven,  with  Mephistopheles  gaining 
the  Lord's  permission  to  tempt  Faust.  Then  comes  the  first  act,  on 
a  square  in  Frankfort,  and  in  Faust's  laboratory.  The  second  act 
includes  the  garden  scene  and  the  Witches'  Sabbath  on  the  Brocken. 
The  third  act  consists  of  the  prison  scene,  with  Faust  returning  to 
find  his  Marguerite  dying.  The  fourth  act  shows  the  Classical  Sab- 
bath, on  the  banks  of  the  Peneus.  An  epilogue  shows  Faust  in  his 
laboratory,  and  brings  in  his  ultimate  salvation  through  the  happi- 
ness he  found  in  working  for  others. 

The  music  to  this  great  work  places  it  in  a  more  modern  category 
than  the  date  of  its  completion  would  indicate.  While  the  majority 
of  Italian  composers  still  followed  Rossini  or  the  early  Verdi,  Boito 
blazed  a  new  path  for  himself,  and  based  his  work  on  the  true  princi- 
ples of  modem  opera.  When  given  with  adequate  forces,  "Mefisto- 
fele" is  tremendously  effective.  The  choruses  of  the  Cherubim,  and 
the  voice  of  the  Lord  from  behind  the  clouds,  give  the  prologue  a 
surprising  majesty.  The  first  act  includes  Mephisto's  great  solo  "Son 


ITALIAN  OPERA  165 

lo  spirito."  The  garden  scene  is  pleasing  enough,  the  witches'  revel 
wildly  effective,  and  the  prison  duet  really  beautiful.  In  the  fourth 
act  Helen  of  Troy  has  a  powerful  and  dramatic  solo;  while  the  epi- 
logue, with  its  struggle  between  the  powers  of  good  and  evil,  sustains 
the  dramatic  interest  well.  Boito  has  not  yet  produced  a  successor 
to  this  work,  though  his  "Nero"  has  been  announced  many  times. 

The  real  Italian  leader,  however,  was  Giuseppe  Verdi.  He  was 
bom  at  Le  Roncole,  on  October  10,  1813,  the  same  year  that  saw 
Wagner's  birth.  Verdi's  love  for  music  was  displayed  at  an  early  age. 
When  a  seven-year-old  choir-boy,  he  became  so  absorbed  in  listening 
to  the  organ  that  he  forgot  to  hand  the  holy  water  to  the  priest.  A 
kindly  musician,  Cavaletti,  repaired  an  old  spinet,  which  he  gave 
to  Verdi's  father  because  the  youngster  played  so  well. 

After  studying  with  the  local  organist,  Verdi  went  to  the  town  of 
Busseto,  where  other  friends  helped  him.  He  was  aided  especially 
by  the  rich  merchant  Barezzi,  who  enabled  him  to  study  with  Provesi 
and  afterward  sent  the  young  man  to  the  Milan  Conservatory. 

There  a  surprise  was  in  store;  for  Verdi  was  rejected  by  the  Milan 
teacher,  Basily.  There  are  several  anecdotes  telling  how  he  revenged 
himself  afterward  by  outdoing  the  conservatory  students  in  fugal 
and  canonic  writing.  These,  however,  are  probably  false;  for  even  in 
his  great  "  Manzoni  Requiem,"  Verdi  rather  avoided  counterpoint. 
Verdi  studied  with  Lavigna,  and  was  certainly  earnest  and  diligent 
enough;  for  we  soon  find  the  merchant-patron  allowing  his  daughter 
to  marry  the  young  composer,  before  the  latter  had  made  a  name  for 
himself. 

Verdi's  first  opera,  "Oberto  di  San  Bonifacio,"  was  produced  at 
Milan  in  1839.  This  succeeded  so  well  that  the  manager,  Merelli, 
gave  Verdi  a  contract  for  three  more  operas.  The  first  of  these  was 
the  comedy  "Un  Giomo  di  Regno."  While  he  was  at  work  upon  it, 
his  wife  and  his  two  children  died.  Under  these  circumstances  he 
was  hardly  in  the  mood  for  comedy;  and  it  is  not  surprising  to  read 
that  the  work  failed.  Verdi  was  so  utterly  cast  down  that  he  thought 
of  giving  up  composition;  but  Merelli  finally  persuaded  him  to 
continue. 

The  composer's  next  work  was  "Nabucco,"  another  success.  The 
soprano  who  had  the  chief  part,  Giuseppina  Strepponi,  afterward 
became  Verdi's  second  wife,  and  lived  imtil  1898. 


166  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Other  works  which  Verdi  composed  at  this  period  include  "  I  Lom- 
bardi,"  "Emani,"  "I  Due  Foscari,"  "Giovanna  d'  Arco,"  "Mac- 
beth," "  I  Masnadieri,"  "  Luisa  Miller,"  and  several  more.  "  Emani " 
has  lasted  better  than  the  others.  Based  on  Victor  Hugo's  play,  it 
treats  a  story  of  romantic  power  with  sufficiently  popular  music. 
At  this  time  Verdi  understood  nothing  higher  than  the  style  of 
melodic  tragedy  introduced  by  Rossini ;  but  his  melodies,  even  though 
not  aimed  to  echo  the  sense  of  the  words,  were  much  stronger  than 
those  of  Rossini. 

"Un  Ballo  in  Maschera,"  which  belongs  to  a  later  period,  shows 
how  lightly  the  libretto  of  an  opera  was  regarded.  Verdi's  early 
librettists,  Solera  and  Piave,  were  veritable  slaves,  at  the  beck  of 
composer  or  manager.  In  their  hands  "Macbeth"  became  so  com- 
monplace that  Shakespeare  would  hardly  have  recognized  it.  But 
in  the  "Ballo  in  Maschera"  (Masked  Ball)  the  incongruities  in- 
creased at  every  turn.  The  libretto  dealt  with  the  assassination  of  a 
king  at  the  masquerade.  When  the  authorities  forbade  this  as  too 
revolutionary,  Verdi  made  the  scribe  change  the  king  into  the  Duke 
of  Mantua.  This  was  not  enough  to  satisfy  the  police;  so  Verdi  next 
made  a  radical  change  by  altering  the  victim  into  the  "  Governor  of 
Boston."  One  hardly  imagines  the  old  Boston  Puritans  giving 
masked  balls.  When  the  tenor  Mario  found  the  costume  of  the  ruler 
too  plain,  he  altered  it  into  that  of  a  Spanish  cavalier. 

Verdi  at  one  time  attained  a  peculiar  political  significance,  because 
of  the  letters  of  his  name.  They  stood  for  "Vittorio  Emanuele,  Re 
d'  Italia";  and  the  young  patriots  who  shouted  "Viva  Verdi"  were 
in  reality  cheering  the  idea  of  a  united  Italy. 

In  1849  Verdi  entered  upon  a  new  period  in  his  growth.  To  this 
belong  "Rigoletto,"  "II  Trovatore,"  and  "La  Traviata." 

"Rigoletto,"  the  first  of  the  three,  has  a  plot  dealing  with  the 
intrigues  of  the  Duke  of  Mantua.  His  court  jester,  Rigoletto,  has 
aided  him  in  an  amorous  adventure,  and  the  friends  of  the  victim 
revenge  themselves  by  bringing  Rigoletto's  daughter  Gilda  to  the 
duke.  The  jester  then  hires  an  assassin,  who  lures  the  duke  to  a 
lonely  house.  But  the  assassin's  sister,  falling  m  love  with  the  duke, 
persuades  her  brother  to  substitute  another  victim  in  order  to  earn 
Rigoletto's  money.  To  cure  Gilda  of  her  love  for  the  duke,  Rigoletto 
brings  her  to  see  that  ruler's  attentions  to  Maddalena.  Gilda,  fear- 


ITALIAN  OPERA  167 

ing  for  the  duke's  life,  rushes  in  to  save  him.  The  assassin  then  stabs 
her,  and  sews  the  body  in  a  sack,  which  he  gives  to  her  father.  The 
latter  opens  the  sack  just  in  time  to  receive  Gilda's  dying  blessing. 

While  the  music  to  this  gory  tragedy  is  largely  in  the  old  style  of 
Rossini  and  the  early  Verdi,  it  shows  traces  of  growing  strength. 
Rigoletto's  fury  when  the  courtiers  steal  his  daughter,  and  Gilda's 
love  for  the  duke,  are  portrayed  with  the  beginnings  of  real  dramatic 
ability  and  musical  fitness.  The  opera  contains  a  great  quartet, 
which  combines  the  most  diverse  emotions  into  a  powerful  ensemble. 
But  in  its  day  its  most  popular  number  was  the  light  love-song  "La 
donna  e  mobile."  This  will  show  that  Verdi's  growth  was  not  evoked 
by  Italian  taste. 

"  II  Trovatore,"  produced  at  Rome  in  1853,  is  another  sanguinary 
affair.  The  wicked  Count  di  Luna  loves  Leonora,  but  she  is  in  love 
with  the  Troubadour  Manrico.  The  count  besieges  the  lovers  in 
their  castle,  and  imprisons  Manrico  with  his  supposed  mother,  the 
gypsy  Azucena.  The  count  threatens  to  kill  his  prisoners  if  Leonora 
does  not  agree  to  marry  him.  To  save  their  lives,  she  apparently 
consents.  She  tells  Manrico  of  her  bargain,  but  he  declines  liberty 
at  such  a  price.  She  has  poisoned  herself  in  the  mean  time.  When 
Manrico  is  executed,  Azucena  tells  the  count  that  Manrico  was  really 
his  long-lost  brother,  whom  she  had  stolen  in  revenge  for  persecu- 
tion. She  is  then  condemned  to  be  burned. 

The  music  to  this  sad  affair  is  fluent,  and  in  some  places  even 
tawdry;  but  as  a  whole,  the  score  shows  a  wonderful  power  over 
melodic  expression.  Most  popular  is  the  well-known  "Miserere," 
sung  by  Leonora,  some  hidden  monks,  and  Manrico  in  his  cell.  The 
"Anvil  Chorus"  of  the  gypsies  is  another  famous  number.  Man- 
rico's  duet  with  Azucena  is  another  favorite.  There  are  many 
effective  solo  songs,  such  as  the  count's  aria  "II  balen,"  and  Man- 
rico's  "  Di  quella  pira."  The  latter  shows  that  the  melodic  school  of 
opera  is  not  without  its  expressive  power.  On  the  printed  page,  this 
song  seems  at  first  sight  little  better  than  the  conventional  melodies 
of  Rossini.  But  its  character  is  such  that  the  singer  can  put  a  tre- 
mendous amount  of  expression  into  it.  This  is  true  in  a  lesser 
degree  of  the  entire  opera.  Verdi  was  at  last  awake  to  dramatic 
possibilities,  though  in  this  work  he  still  clung  to  the  old  melodic 
idiom  in  expressing  them. 


168  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

"La  Traviata"  was  founded  on  Dumas'  "Camille,"  with  the  hero- 
ine named  Violetta  and  her  lover  Alfredo.  She  leaves  him  because 
his  father  says  she  will  injure  his  prospects;  and  he  thinks  her  false. 
After  a  meeting  at  a  Paris  ball,  he  learns  the  truth,  but  only  in  time 
to  find  her  dying.  The  most  famous  selections  from  the  score  of 
this  work  are  Violetta's  expressive  "Ah,  fors  e  lui,"  and  the  father's 
description  of  home  in  "Di  Provenza  il  mar."  At  the  first  perform- 
ance, the  size  of  the  soprano  made  the  opera  a  failure;  for  when  the 
three-hundred-pound  singer  Donatelli  stated  that  she  was  dying  of 
consumption,  the  audience  burst  into  laughter. 

Meanwhile  Wagner's  doctrines  had  been  gradually  becoming 
known,  even  in  Italy.  Verdi  always  disclaimed  being  influenced  by 
Wagner,  but  this  assertion,  though  true  in  the  letter,  is  not  true 
in  the  spirit.  Verdi  may  not  have  tried  to  imitate  Wagner's  style, 
but  the  German  master  led  him  to  write  operas  that  were  far  more 
like  the  German  music-dramas  than  his  earlier  works. 

"Don  Carlos"  and  "La  Forza  del  Destino"  showed  Verdi's  new 
tendency;  but  it  reached  a  much  greater  perfection  with  "Aida," 
given  at  Cairo  in  1871. 

"Aida,"  on  a  plot  provided  by  the  Egyptian  Khedive,  who  or- 
dered the  work,  deals  with  a  story  laid  in  ancient  Egypt.  At  the 
court,  Aida,  a  beautiful  Ethiopian  hostage,  falls  in  love  with  the  offi- 
cer Rhadames,  who  returns  her  love.  Rhadames  is  appointed  leader 
of  the  force  that  is  to  fight  the  Ethiopian  king,  whose  daughter  is 
Aida,  though  her  captors  do  not  know  of  the  relationship.  The 
Princess  Amneris,  who  herself  loves  Rhadames,  discovers  Aida's 
feelings  by  questioning  her.  Rhadames  brings  back  the  Ethiopian 
king,  Amonasro,  as  a  captive;  and  he  warns  Aida  not  to  betray  his 
identity.  On  the  island  of  Philae,  Aida,  forced  by  her  father,  learns 
from  Rhadames  the  route  of  the  next  expedition.  Amonasro  then 
discloses  himself,  and  tries  to  persuade  Rhadames  to  flee  with  him 
and  Aida.  While  Rhadames  is  hesitating,  the  high  priest  of  a  near-by 
temple,  brought  by  Amneris,  discovers  the  trio.  Amonasro  escapes, 
but  Rhadames  is  held  for  judgment.  Amneris  offers  him  freedom  in 
exchange  for  love,  but  he  refuses.  He  is  sealed  up  in  a  subterranean 
vault,  into  which  Aida  has  made  her  way  to  die  with  him. 

The  music  of  "Aida"  is  so  fresh,  varied,  and  forceful  that  the 
opera  is  still  one  of  the  best  drawing  cards  in  the  entire  repertoire. 


ITALIAN  OPERA  169 

In  this  work  Verdi  deserted  the  simplicity  of  Italian  tunes,  and  pro- 
duced a  work  whose  rich  harmonies  and  really  expressive  melodies 
were  far  above  anything  he  had  done  before.  To  catalogue  the  musi- 
cal excellences  of  this  opera  would  almost  mean  giving  a  description 
of  the  entire  score;  but  a  few  of  the  chief  numbers  may  be  men- 
tioned. In  the  first  act,  Rhadames'  aria  "Celeste  Aida,"  the  chorus 
of  acclamation  when  he  is  made  leader,  Alda's  tragic  "Ritoma  vin- 
citor,"  when  her  lover  goes  to  fight  her  father,  and  the  consecration 
service  in  the  temple,  are  all  admirable.  The  temple  scene  is  based 
on  a  real  Egyptian  melody.  In  the  second  act  come  the  dance  of  the 
slave-boys  before  Amneris,  her  dialogue  with  Aida,  and  in  a  separate 
scene  the  return  of  the  victorious  army,  the  last  being  one  of  the 
most  stately  scenes  in  the  realm  of  opera.  The  third  act  includes 
Aida's  foreboding  lament,  her  duet  with  Rhadames,  and  the  climax 
of  their  discovery  with  Amonasro.  The  fourth  act  contains  some 
impressive  priests'  music,  well  contrasted  with  the  agitation  of 
Anmeris,  and  in  the  death  scene  some  fervid  snatches  of  duet,  in 
admirable  contrast  with  the  temple  service  going  on  above  the 
doomed  lovers'  heads. 

For  sixteen  years  Verdi  rested  upon  his  well-earned  laurels.  Then 
he  produced  the  tragedy  "Otello."  Boito  wrote  the  libretto,  and 
added  to  it  a  chain  of  choruses  sung  by  the  Cyprus  fishermen  bear- 
ing gifts  to  Desdemona,  and  a  sardonic  "Credo"  of  lago  that  even 
Shakespearians  admire.  While  this  is  not  so  popular  as  "Aida,"  its 
music  is  intensely  powerful,  and  shaped  with  an  eye  for  tragic  effects. 
Verdi  set  his  own  music  to  the  song  "Willow,"  mentioned  by  Des- 
demona; but  the  old  English  tune,  which  still  exists,  would  have  been 
more  directly  expressive. 

Six  years  later,  in  1893,  Verdi  brought  out  his  last  opera,  "Fal- 
staff,"  at  Milan.  Again  Boito  was  the  librettist.  This  time  the  play 
was  altered  only  by  the  introduction  of  Falstaff's  dissertation  on 
honor,  taken  from  "  Henry  IV."  The  libretto  as  a  whole  comes  from 
"  The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor."  Falstaff  is  made  to  meet  his  mis- 
adventures, both  at  Ford's  house  and  at  Heme's  Oak,  in  a  vein  of 
light  sarcasm  set  to  the  most  delightfully  chattering  music.  As  in 
the  play,  all  ends  happily,  with  Fenton's  betrothal  to  "  Sweet  Anne 
Page." 


XIX 

CHERUBINI  AND  FRENCH  OPERA 

LuiGi  Carlo  Zenobio  Salvatore  Maria  Cherubini,  whose 
name  became  as  famous  as  it  was  extensive,  was  born  at  Florence  in 
1760.  He  was  at  first  trained  by  his  father,  a  harpsichord  player  at 
a  local  theatre;  and  afterwards  he  took  a  thorough  course  with  Sarti. 
His  life  divides  itself  naturally  into  three  periods,  —  first,  a  short 
career  in  the  conventional  Italian  style;  second,  the  leadership  of 
opera  composition  at  Paris;  and  last,  a  number  of  years  as  composer 
of  sacred  music  and  director  of  the  Paris  Conservatoire.  His  lofty 
style  gave  point  to  the  saying  that  he  was  an  Italian  who  composed 
German  music  in  France. 

In  his  first  period,  Cherubini  mastered  counterpoint,  and  became 
familiar  with  the  style  and  spirit  of  the  old  Italian  church  music. 

After  a  sojourn  in  London,  the  young  composer  made  Paris  his 
home,  and  soon  came  under  the  classic  spell  of  Gluck's  later  operas. 
Cherubini  himself  composed  an  "Ifigenie  in  Aulide,"  which  was 
given  at  Turin  in  1788  with  much  success. 

His  first  Parisian  triumph,  "Demophon,"  proved  that  he  had 
definitely  discarded  the  light  Italian  style,  and  adopted  something 
more  strongly  dramatic.  Like  Rossini,  he  was  inspired  by  the  tradi- 
tions of  the  Parisian  stage;  but  he  soon  rose  to  greater  heights  than 
Rossini  ever  reached. 

His  next  French  success,  "Lodoiska,"  was  brought  out  in  1791. 
This  work  gained  for  its  composer  an  international  reputation.  It 
also  cast  into  the  shade  the  light  melodious  trifles  that  were  begin- 
ning to  appear  in  Paris.  In  later  years,  the  more  superficial  works 
of  Boieldieu  and  Auber  became  typical  of  Parisian  taste.  It  is  on 
record  that  when  the  former  had  won  plaudits  with  his  "Caliph  of 
Bagdad,"  Cherubini  said  to  him,  "Are  you  not  ashamed  to  enjoy 
such  an  undeserved  success?"  Boieldieu  then  studied  with  Cheru- 
bini with  good  results.  In  all  his  career  Cherubini  was  a  rather 
caustic  and  captious  individual,  more  feared  than  loved;  but  he  used 


CHERUBINI  AND  FRENCH  OPERA  171 

his  critical  tongue  in  defense  of  a  high  standard  of  artistic  principle. 
The  libretto  of  "Lodo'iska"  was  rather  weak.  It  dealt  with  the 
efforts  of  the  heroine's  lover  to  rescue  her  from  a  powerful  rival's 
castle,  and  ended  with  an  attack  by  Tartars  that  brought  about  the 
desired  result. 

Three  years  later  came  "Elisa";  but  a  far  more  important  work 
appeared  after  another  three  years,  in  the  shape  of  "Medee."  Its 
dignity  and  classic  power  rendered  it  a  masterpiece.  It  was  not 
popular  at  first,  because  it  had  a  rather  poor  libretto,  which  placed 
the  interest  chiefly  with  the  title  role,  and  because  its  music  was 
rather  too  harmonic  to  suit  the  masses.  But  it  soon  grew  into  popu- 
larity. 

Cherubini's  best-known  opera  was  "  Les  Deux  Journees,"  given  in 
1800.  This  work  deals  with  the  fortunes  of  the  Deputy  Armand, 
who  has  incurred  the  hatred  of  Mazarin.  The  Paris  gates  are 
guarded,  but  Armand  escapes  in  a  cask  of  the  water-carrier  Mikeli, 
whose  son  he  had  helped  on  a  previous  occasion.  Once  outside,  Ar- 
mand is  captured  while  defending  his  wife;  but  a  pardon  from  the 
queen  makes  everything  end  happily.  This  opera  is  known  in  Ger- 
many as  "The  Water-Carrier." 

The  style  of  the  music  to  this  work,  as  was  true  of  most  of  Cheru- 
bini's French  productions,  united  a  lofty  dignity  with  rare  charm  of 
melody  and  expression.  His  works,  with  those  of  Gluck  and  others, 
are  often  referred  to  as  "classical"  opera;  but  an  equally  good  term, 
in  Cherubini's  case  at  least,  would  be  "symphonic"  opera.  His 
scores  show  the  worthiness  in  material  and  the  skill  in  its  handling 
that  we  associate  with  the  great  orchestral  masters  of  Germany. 
Cherubini's  overtures,  by  which  he  is  still  known  on  concert  pro- 
grammes, have  all  the  dignity  and  power  that  we  expect  from  the 
symphonic  writers.  Especially  excellent  are  the  overtures  to  "Les 
Deux  Journees"  and  to  "Anacreon,"  which  followed  the  earlier 
success  in  three  years. 

Cherubini  was  often  at  odds  with  Napoleon,  who  perhaps  did  not 
appreciate  his  music,  and  in  any  case  did  not  approve  of  his  inde- 
pendent and  arbitrary  ways.  Cherubini  finally  found  it  wise  to  leave 
Paris  for  a  time.  He  went  to  Vienna,  and  in  1806  brought  out  at  that 
capital  his  last  great  operatic  success,  "Faniska."  This  took  Ger- 
many by  storm;  and  Beethoven  and  Haydn  praised  the  work  highly. 


172  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

It  is  probable  that  Cherubini  served  as  a  model  for  Beethoven,  and 
helped  the  German  master  to  develop  the  strength  of  expression 
that  he  showed  in  the  later  part  of  his  second  period.  But  soon  Na- 
poleon came  thundering  at  the  gates  of  Vienna,  and  Cherubini  had 
to  move  again. 

When  the  Bourbons  returned  to  power,  Cherubini  was  once  more 
in  favor  at  Paris.  But  his  operatic  career  was  over.  As  Royal  Choir- 
master and  head  of  the  Conservatoire,  he  devoted  himself  to  sacred 
music.  His  works  in  this  field  include  many  admirable  short  com- 
positions; but  his  fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  larger  productions, 
consisting  of  eleven  masses  and  two  superb  requiems.  He  could 
compose  in  the  pure  manner  of  the  Palestrina  school,  and  also  show 
a  command  of  later  harmonic  expression  and  dramatic  instru- 
mentation. He  blended  the  old  with  the  new  in  most  admirable 
fashion. 

As  director  of  the  Conservatoire,  he  remained  active  for  many 
years,  —  in  fact,  almost  down  to  his  death,  in  1842.  He  ruled  with 
a  strong  hand.  His  arbitrary  decisions  led  him  into  several  mis- 
takes; for  he  rejected  Liszt  and  Rubinstein,  and  sneered  at  Berlioz. 
But  these  were  radicals,  while  he  was  a  conservative.  He  showed  a 
mastery  of  his  own  field  by  writing  an  admirable  treatise  on  counter- 
point. 

Ritter  wrote  of  Cherubini 's  operas,  "They  will  remain  for  the 
earnest  student  a  classic  source  of  exquisite  artistic  enjoyment,  and 
serve  as  models  of  a  perfect  mastery  over  the  deepest  resources  and 
means  that  the  rich  field  of  musical  art  presents."  F^tis  said  of  "  Les 
deux  Joum^s,"  "There  is  a  copiousness  of  melody  .  .  .  but  such  is 
the  richness  of  the  accompanying  harmony,  and  the  brilliant  color- 
ing of  the  instrumentation  .  .  .  that  the  merit  of  the  melody  was  not 
appreciated  at  its  just  value."  Mendelssohn  wrote  of  "Les  Aben- 
cerrages,"  one  of  the  operas,  that  he  could  not  sufficiently  praise 
"the  sparkling  fire,  the  clever,  original  phrasing,  and  the  unusual 
delicacy  and  refinement  of  the  work." 

Etienne  Nicholas  Mehul  (1763-1817)  was  of  French  birth,  and 
came  under  Gluck's  influence.  He  played  the  organ  when  ten  years 
old,  and  took  up  sacred  composition  soon  after.  Later  on  he  went  to 
Paris.  In  spite  of  the  disturbed  state  of  the  Revolutionary  politics, 
he  soon  began  to  make  headway  as  an  opera  composer,  starting  in 


CHERUBINI  AND  FRENCH  OPERA  173 

1791.  He  produced  nearly  three  dozen  operas,  of  which  "Strato- 
nice,"  "Adrien,"  "Uthal,"  and  "Joseph"  were  the  best.  "Uthal" 
was  the  work  that  dispensed  with  violins,  and  gave  the  violas  prom- 
inence to  emphasize  the  sombre  nature  of  its  Ossianic  subject. 
Mehul's  effects  were  often  broadly  impressive.  He  had  not  the  com- 
manding genius  of  a  Cherubini,  but  he  showed  much  of  Gluck's 
loftiness  of  style. 

Jean  Frangois  LeSueur  (1760-1837)  was  at  first  a  choir-boy  at 
Amiens.  For  many  years  he  devoted  his  attention  to  church  music, 
into  which  he  planned  to  introduce  dramatic  effects.  His  first  opera 
was  given  at  Paris  in  1793.  Less  advanced  than  Mehul  or  Cherubini, 
he  still  sought  diligently  for  new  effects.  The  best  of  his  operas  were 
"Les  Bardes"  and  "La  Caveme."  His  innovations  foreshadowed  in 
some  degree  those  of  Berlioz,  who  studied  with  him. 

Jadin,  Solie,  and  Gaveaux  were  other  opera  composers  of  this 
period. 

Cherubini's  successor  in  opera  was  Gasparo  Spontini  (1774-1851). 
Spontini  was  another  Italian  who  made  his  career  in  Paris.  But  he, 
too,  preceded  his  Parisian  period  by  Italian  works  of  less  importance. 
He  was  not  rated  highly  when  he  first  came  to  Paris;  but  his  one-act 
opera  "Milton"  made  the  critics  concede  that  it  showed  beauty  and 
feeling.  In  1807  came  "  La  Vestale,"  which  scored  a  tremendous  suc- 
cess, and  won  the  special  prize  offered  by  Napoleon.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  "Fernando  Cortez,"  produced  in  1809  and  remodelled 
later.  Both  works  showed  a  broad  style  and  much  sympathetic 
expression.  Spontini  was  active  as  a  conductor,  and  introduced  into 
Paris  Mozart's  "Don  Giovanni,"  Haydn's  sjrmphonies,  and  other 
German  masterpieces.  He  became  court  composer  to  Louis  XVIII, 
writing  many  "occasional"  stage  works  for  his  royal  master.  In 
1819  he  produced  another  opera,  "Olympie."  He  regarded  this  as 
his  best  work,  but  it  made  its  way  rather  slowly.  In  later  years 
Spontini  was  called  to  Berlin;  but  the  German  romanticism  soon 
drew  attention  away  from  him.  He  tried  to  regain  popularity  with 
"Nurmahal"  and  "Alcidor,"  but  the  librettos  of  these  works  were 
poor.  He  showed  a  flash  of  his  earlier  grandeur  in  "Agnes  von 
Hohenstauf en " ;  but  after  that  he  relapsed  into  obscurity.  His 
genius  was  lofty,  but  he  lacked  variety  of  style  and  lightness  of 
touch. 


174  'THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

As  already  recorded,  Rossini's  "William  Tell"  belongs  to  the 
school  of  Parisian  grand  opera. 

Another  composer  who  participated  in  grand  opera  by  a  single 
work  was  Daniel  Frangois  Esprit  Auber  (1784-1871).  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Cherubini,  whose  influence  is  shown  in  Auber's  early  masses 
and  operas.  By  1820  Auber  became  known  in  connection  with  opera 
comique,  which  was  really  his  life-work.  He  associated  himself  with 
Eugene  Scribe,  and  set  the  latter's  bright  librettos  during  a  period 
of  forty  years.  But  in  1828  he  made  a  successful  entry  into  the 
Spontini  field  of  historical  grand  opera,  by  the  production  of 
"Masaniello,"  sometimes  known  as  "La  Muette  de  Portici."  The 
heroine,  Fenella,  is  dumb.  She  has  been  betrayed  by  Duke  Alphonso; 
but  when  her  brother  Masaniello  leads  a  successful  rising,  she  gener- 
ously causes  him  to  spare  the  duke  and  his  betrothed,  Elvira.  Mean- 
while the  defeated  party  assemble  fresh  forces,  and  overcome  the 
people;  whereupon  Masaniello,  after  a  fit  of  madness,  is  killed  by 
his  own  comrades,  and  Fenella  kills  herself  on  Vesuvius.  The  music 
to  this  opera  has  many  bold  and  original  effects,  in  spite  of  some 
conventional  passages.  Auber's  light  operas  include  "Le  Magon," 
"Fra  Diavolo,"  "Le  Cheval  de  Bronze,"  and  "Les  Diamants  de  la 
Couronne." 

Francois  Adrien  Boieldieu  (1775-1834)  preceded  Auber,  and  was 
a  pioneer  in  his  style  of  light  opera.  Boieldieu  secured  Parisian 
recognition  as  early  as  1795.  In  1800  be  became  a  piano  teacher  at 
the  Conservatoire.  He  learned  much  from  Cherubini  and  Mehul, 
his  advance  showing  in  "Ma  Tante  Aurore,"  produced  in  1803.  His 
best  works  include  "Jean  de  Paris"  (1812),  "Le  Petit  Chaperon 
Rouge"  (1818),  and  his  masterpiece  "La  Dame  Blanche"  (1825). 
The  last-named  opera  is  based  on  scenes  from  Scott's  "Monastery" 
and  "  Guy  Mannering." 

Henri  Montan  Berton  composed  nearly  fifty  operas,  and  taught 
composition  at  the  Conservatoire.  His  best  works  were  "  Le  Delire," 
"Aline,"  and  "Franjoise  de  Foix."  He  was  a  bitter  opponent  of 
Rossini. 

Nicolo  Isouard,  popularly  known  as  Nicolo,  was  equally  active  in 
opera.  His  most  popular  works  were  "Cendrillon,"  "  Joconde,"  and 
"  Jeannot  et  Colin."  His  little  melodies  were  simple  enough,  but  not 
without  artless  pathos;  and  concert  singers  still  delve  into  his  works 


CHERUBINI  AND  FRENCH  OPERA  175 

for  unfamiliar  but  graceful  selections.  He  was  rather  less  careful 
than  Boieldieu;  and  jealousy  of  the  latter  may  have  been  an  incen- 
tive to  the  dissipation  that  ended  his  career. 

Luc  de  Persuis  secured  a  hearing  for  his  operas  and  ballets  partly 
because  he  was  a  friend  of  LeSueur. 

Rodolphe  Kreutzer,  the  violinist,  produced  operas  of  a  somewhat 
earlier  date,  bringing  out  a  "Lodoiska"  in  1791. 

Charles  Simon  Catel  displayed  much  elegance  of  style,  but  his 
music  was  considered  too  learned  for  opera. 

Giuseppe  Blangini  and  Giuseppe  Catrufo  were  Italians  who 
worked  at  Paris.  The  latter's  "Felicie"  won  some  attention. 

Michele  Carafa  was  another  transplanted  Italian.  He  composed 
"  Le  Solitaire,"  and  a  setting  of  "  Masaniello  "  that  preceded  Auber's. 

Contemporary  with  this  school  of  opera  were  the  Portuguese 
Marcos  Antonio  Portogallo,  composer  of  "Fernando  in  Messico," 
and  the  Spaniard  Ramon  Camicer,  whose  best  work  was  "  Colombo." 

Louis  Joseph  Ferdinand  Herold  (1791-1833)  is  best  known  by 
"Marie"  (1826),  "Zampa"  (1831),  and  "LePreauxClercs"  (1832). 
He  showed  some  richness  of  inspiration,  and  gave  to  the  French 
ballet  its  vivid  warmth  of  expression.  His  last  two  great  works  won 
him  almost  as  much  renown  as  Weber  attained.  In  "Zampa,"  a 
pirate  of  that  name  captures  a  Sicilian  merchant,  falls  in  love  with 
the  prisoner's  daughter,  gives  him  freedom  at  the  price  of  her  hand, 
and  displaces  her  lover;  but  at  the  wedding  feast  the  statue  of  a 
young  girl  whom  he  had  betrayed  claims  Zampa,  and  drags  him  off 
to  the  infernal  regions.  "Le  Pre  aux  Clercs"  has  its  scene  laid  in 
Navarre,  and  is  full  of  intrigues  and  conspiracies. 

Adolphe  Adam  (1803-56)  represented  light  opera  in  a  later  gener- 
ation. He  was  best  known  by  "Le  Postilion  de  Longjumeau."  His 
style  marks  a  decline  toward  triviality,  though  he  made  some  con- 
scientious efforts  to  enter  the  field  of  grand  opera. 

Albert  Grisar  was  of  Belgian  origin.  His  works  were  poetic  in  a 
way,  but  very  light. 

Florimond  Ronger,  Alexandre  Lecocq,  fimile  Jonas,  and  Jacques 
Offenbach  brought  the  school  to  a  still  lighter,  though  brighter,  level. 
By  their  time  opera  comique  had  retraced  its  steps  and  become  almost 
like  grand  opera.  In  fact,  even  its  name  was  changed,  and  it  became 
known  as  the  "drame  lyrique."  Offenbach's  fantastic  opera  "The 


176  THE   BOOK  OF   MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Tales  of  Hoffmann  "  was  of  a  higher  type  than  his  other  works.  It 
makes  the  bizarre  German  writer  Hoffmann  the  hero  of  some  of  his 
own  stories,  each  of  which  is  presented  in  an  act.  Hoffmann  is  pur- 
sued by  an  evil  principle  that  always  makes  his  love  end  unfortu- 
nately. Finally  the  muse  offers  to  console  him  with  fame;  but  he  has 
been  drinking,  and  is  too  comatose  to  accept. 

Felicien  David,  also  of  a  later  generation,  became  known  by  "La 
Perle  du  Bresil,"  "Herculaneum,"  and  "Lalla  Rookh."  But  he 
achieved  most  fame  by  his  symphonic  ode  "Le  Desert,"  which  was  a 
pioneer  work  in  using  a  real  Oriental  style  and  suggestion. 

Grand  opera  was  continued  in  the  preceding  generation  by  Jacques 
Fromental  Halevy  (1799-1862).  A  pupil  of  Berton  and  Cherubini, 
he  followed  Herold  at  first,  but  soon  worked  on  original  lines.  His 
greatest  operatic  success  came  in  1835,  with  the  tragedy  "  La  Juive  " 
and  the  comedy  "L'ficlair."  In  "La  Juive,"  the  disguised  Prince 
Leopold  pays  attentions  to  Rachel,  supposed  daughter  of  the  rich 
Jew  Eleazar.  She  penetrates  the  disguise;  and  as  the  prince  is  mar- 
ried, she  denounces  him.  The  cardinal  at  the  court  then  excommuni- 
cates Leopold,  and  he,  with  Rachel  and  Eleazar,  is  thrown  into 
prison.  The  wronged  princess  touches  Rachel's  heart,  so  that  to 
save  the  prince  she  retracts  her  accusation.  Then  she  is  thrown  into 
a  vat  of  boiling  oil;  and  Eleazar  explains  that  Rachel  was  the  cardi- 
nal's own  daughter,  saved  from  a  fire  during  infancy. 

The  last  of  the  foreigners  to  dominate  French  grand  opera  was 
Giacomo  Meyerbeer,  whose  name  was  originally  Jakob  Beer.  He 
was  bom  of  Jewish  parents  at  Berlin,  in  1791,  and  soon  became  a 
child  prodigy.  After  studying  with  Abt  Vogler,  who  gave  him  long- 
winded  dissertations  on  the  fugue,  Meyerbeer  started  his  operatic 
career  with  "Jephthah's  Vow,"  almost  an  oratorio,  and  "Abime- 
lech."  Then  the  young  man  set  out  for  Italy,  where  he  won  atten- 
tion in  spite  of  Rossini's  fame.  His  "Crociato  in  Egitto,"  written 
for  Venice  in  1824,  was  a  premonition  of  future  triumphs.  Soon 
Meyerbeer  made  Paris  his  home,  and  did  not  disdain  to  take  a  thor- 
ough course  o(  study  with  French  masters. 

In  1831,  "  Robert  le  Diable,"  his  first  great  success,  aroused  tre- 
mendous enthusiasm.  In  this  work  Meyerbeer  first  displayed  his 
mastery  of  instrumental  effects,  and  his  dramatic  power.  The  scene 
is  laid  in  Sicily,  to  which  the  daredevil  Robert  of  Normandy  has 


CHERUBINI  AND  FRENCH  OPERA  177 

come  in  order  to  compete  for  the  hand  of  the  duke's  daughter 
Isabella.  Robert's  foster-sister  Alice  tries  to  keep  him  in  proper 
paths,  but  an  evil  spirit,  personified  as  Bertram,  constantly  leads 
him  astray.  Bertram  is  really  Robert's  demon  father.  Bertram 
causes  Robert  to  lose  everything  at  the  gaming-table,  and  then  in- 
cites him  to  gain  magic  power  by  plucking  a  cypress  branch  near  his 
mother's  tomb  at  midnight.  He  does  this,  among  orgies  of  the  spirits 
of  faithless  nuns.  Robert's  power  now  enables  him  to  enter  Isabella's 
room,  with  the  purpose  of  carrying  her  off;  but  her  pleading  makes 
him  change  his  evil  purpose.  Bertram  has  only  a  certain  time  to 
gain  control  of  Robert;  and  Alice  thwarts  him.  The  clock  strikes 
midnight;  Bertram  descends  to  the  infernal  regions;  while  Alice, 
Isabella,  and  Robert  sing  a  trio  of  deliverance. 

"Les  Huguenots,"  produced  in  1836,  has  a  much  more  sensible 
libretto.  In  this  work.  Marguerite  de  Valois  tries  to  reconcile  the 
warring  sects  by  betrothing  the  Huguenot  Raoul  de  Nangis  and  the 
Catholic  Valentine,  daughter  of  Count  St.  Bris.  Valentine  goes  to 
the  house  of  De  Nevers  to  break  off  her  former  engagement  to  him; 
but  Raoul,  seeing  her,  places  a  wrong  construction  on  the  visit.  He 
breaks  his  troth,  and  challenges  St.  Bris,  who  in  revenge  plots 
Raoul's  death.  Valentine  warns  Raoul's  servant.  Marcel,  and  Raoul 
learns  that  he  owes  her  his  life.  But  the  news  comes  too  late,  as 
Valentine  has  been  given  again  to  De  Nevers.  Raoul  and  Valen- 
tine, during  a  final  farewell,  overhear  the  plans  of  the  St.  Bartholo- 
mew massacre.  In  modem  versions,  the  work  ends  here,  with  Raoul 
rushing  to  the  fray.  In  the  complete  opera,  Valentine  comes  to 
Raoul  after  De  Nevers  is  killed  in  the  fighting;  the  lovers  are  united 
by  the  faithful  servant-minister  of  Raoul;  and  the  trio  are  shot  down. 

In  this  work  Meyerbeer's  successful  qualities  show  at  their  best. 
Marcel's  powerful  battle-song, "  Piflf  paff ,"  is  a  favorite  number;  while 
the  "Rataplan"  of  the  soldiers,  the  "Benediction  of  the  Poignards," 
and  Raoul's  intensely  dramatic  fourth-act  duet  with  Valentine,  are 
scenes  of  tremendous  power.  Meyerbeer  was  theatrical  in  the  ex- 
treme; but  he  had  no  high  ideals,  and  instead  of  trying  to  reach  a 
certain  standard,  he  wrote  down  to  his  public. 

"Le  Prophete"  (1843)  deals  with  John  of  Leyden,  who  is  forced 
to  give  up  his  sweetheart  to  a  rival.  John  turns  Anabaptist,  and  is 
proclaimed  a  new  Messiah;  but  his  sweetheart's  suicide  and  his 


178  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

betrayal  by  friends  lead  him  to  end  all  by  blowing  up  the  palace 
where  he  resides.  This  work  is  rather  confused  in  its  libretto,  but 
the  music  contains  some  scenes  of  gorgeous  pageantry.  Most  effec- 
tive is  the  lofty  "  Coronation  March." 

The  overture  and  incidental  music  to  "Struensee"  came  in  1846. 

"L'Africaine,"  Meyerbeer's  last  grand  opera,  was  delayed  in  pro- 
duction until  after  the  composer's  death,  in  1864.  It  deals  with  Vasco 
de  Gama,  his  sweetheart  Inez,  a  rival  official  named  Don  Pedro  who 
tries  to  steal  Vasco's  new  discoveries,  a  treacherous  slave  Nelusko, 
who  wrecks  the  explorers,  and  a  generous  African  queen,  Selika, 
who  loves  Vasco,  but  returns  him  to  his  own  sweetheart.  The  music 
to  this  work  is  less  grandiose  than  that  of  the  preceding  operas.  Its 
suavity  is  in  some  degree  a  reaction  toward  Rossini's  methods. 

Meyerbeer  made  two  trials  of  opera  comique.  "  L'fitoile  du  Nord  " 
is  a  story  of  Peter  the  Great  and  his  companion  Catherine,  after- 
wards Empress  of  Russia.  "  Dinorah,"  or  "  The  Pardon  at  Ploermel," 
deals  with  the  fortunes  of  two  Breton  peasants,  Hoel  and  Dinorah, 
whose  adventures  centre  about  buried  treasure.  Neither  work  was 
a  great  success. 

It  has  become  the  fashion  to  abuse  Meyerbeer  because  of  his 
theatrical  superficiality.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  he 
existed  before  the  Wagnerian  standards  made  grand  opera  a  real 
art-work.  In  spite  of  excesses  and  concessions  to  public  taste, 
Meyerbeer  showed  a  breadth  of  conception,  a  dramatic  power,  and 
a  mastery  of  scoring,  that  kept  some  of  his  works  on  the  operatic 
stage  until  within  a  very  few  years  of  the  present.  Schumann 
accused  him  of  "going  over  to  the  circus,"  but  if  he  did  so,  he  carried 
out  his  action  successfully. 


XX 

BERLIOZ  AND  OTHER  FRENCHMEN 

French  composers  have  made  their  reputation  in  opera,  for  the 
most  part.  But  Berlioz  was  an  exception  to  this  rule;  and  he  won  his 
way  into  the  ranks  of  the  leaders  by  his  great  orchestral  works. 

Hector  Berlioz  was  bom  at  Cote-Saint-Andre,  near  Lyons,  in 
1803.  His  father  was  a  doctor,  and  expected  the  son  to  follow  in  his 
footsteps.  By  1822  the  boy  was  sent  to  a  medical  school  in  Paris; 
but  he  soon  began  devoting  his  time  to  the  study  of  scores,  particu- 
larly those  of  Gluck  and  Beethoven.  In  a  short  time  there  came  a 
definite  breach  between  father  and  son,  the  young  man  clinging  to 
music.  As  a  result,  he  was  thrown  upon  his  own  resources;  and  he 
sang  in  a  theatre  chorus  to  gain  a  livelihood. 

His  conservatory  studies  were  pursued  under  LeSueur,  who  was 
almost  the  only  teacher  not  antagonistic  to  him.  Berlioz  began  to 
show  his  radical  tendencies  at  the  start;  and  Cherubini,  on  looking 
at  some  of  the  pupil's  work,  dismissed  it  with  an  equivalent  of  the 
slang  phrase  "  Nix  verstay."  He  was  called  unfit  to  compete  for 
the  Prix  de  Rome,  though  after  many  attempts  he  reached  that  goal 
with  his  cantata  "Sardanapale."  His  "Messe  Solennelle,"  the  over- 
tures "Waverley"  and  "Les  Francs  Juges,"  and  an  opera  were 
among  his  previous  attempts  at  fame. 

In  the  mean  while  he  had  seen  a  beautiful  Irish  actress,  named 
Harriet  Smithson,  and  fallen  deeply  in  love  with  her.  As  a  token  of 
his  feelings,  he  produced  the  "Symphonic  Fantastique."  This  not- 
able work  consists  of  five  movements,  picturing  episodes  in  the  life 
of  an  artist.  In  the  first  movement  he  sees  his  ideal,  and  falls  in  love 
with  her;  and  the  fair  one  is  typified  by  a  definite  theme.  But  his 
love  is  unrequited,  and  he  seeks  various  scenes  to  help  him  forget  her. 
The  second  movement  is  a  ballroom  picture,  with  fragments  of  dance 
music  suggesting  themselves,  and  being  woven  about  the  theme  of 
the  loved  one.  The  third  movement,  "In  the  Fields,"  is  a  pleasing 
rustic  scene,  with  a  dialogue  between  a  shepherd  and  a  shepherdess 


180  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

portrayed  by  English  horn  and  oboe.  A  thunderstorm  arises;  and 
after  it  passes,  a  tragedy  is  suggested  when  the  inquiring  strains  of 
the  shepherd  meet  with  no  response  except  distant  thunder.  Mean- 
while the  artist,  in  jealousy,  kills  his  sweetheart;  and  the  fourth 
movement  depicts  his  march  to  execution.  Most  composers  would 
have  ended  the  work  here;  but  Berlioz,  always  fond  of  morbid  sub- 
jects, added  a  fifth  movement  showing  the  murderer's  reception  in 
the  infernal  regions.  There  the  Dies  Irae  is  parodied,  and  the  theme 
of  the  loved  one  turned  into  a  ribald  waltz. 

Another  outcome  of  the  composer's  feelings  may  be  seen  in  the 
"Romeo  and  Juliet"  sjrmphony,  which  is  built  on  a  similar  large 
plan,  and  carried  out  in  the  programme  style. 

Tne  composer's  devotion  finally  proved  acceptable  to  Miss  Smith- 
son;  but  unfortunately  it  could  not  be  said  that  they  lived  happily 
ever  after.  An  accident  compelled  her  to  leave  the  stage.  Matters 
grew  more  and  more  strained  in  the  household,  until  a  dispute  about 
the  composer's  tours  caused  a  separation.  He  supported  her,  however, 
until  her  death.  A  second  marriage,  with  Mile.  Recio,  was  quieter 
in  its  results;  but  disagreements  came  even  here.  She  was  a  singer, 
and  kept  demanding  prominent  parts  in  her  husband's  works, 
even  when  she  must  have  known  that  the  roles  were  beyond  her 
powers.  After  her  death,  her  mother  helped  Berlioz  considerably. 

At  one  time  Berlioz  took  up  writing  as  a  stop-gap.  He  has  left 
many  criticisms  and  memoirs,  which  are  marked  by  an  excellent 
literary  style. 

Other  great  works  by  Berlioz  include  the  monodrama  "Lelio," 
and  the  overtures  "King  Lear,"  "Rob  Roy,"  and  "The  Corsair." 
These  were  followed  by  another  important  programme  symphony, 
"Harold  in  Italy,"  based  on  parts  of  Byron's  "Childe  Harold."  By 
this  time  the  composer's  financial  condition  began  to  mend.  A  Re- 
quiem brought  him  four  thousand  francs  from  the  Government. 
Paganini,  hearing  one  of  his  symphonies,  presented  him  with  twenty 
thousand  francs.  Beside  these  amounts,  he  got  ten  thousand  more 
for  his  "Symphonie  Funebre  et  Triomphale."  His  foreign  trips,  in 
Germany,  Austria,  and  Russia,  were  continuous  triumphs.  Even 
Mendelssohn,  the  conservative,  gave  his  works  a  full  chance  to  be 
heard;  though  Berlioz  said  afterward  that  Mendelssohn's  musical 
judgment  was  "an  abyss  of  superficiality." 


BERLIOZ  AND  OTEER  FRENCHMEN  181 

Berlioz  used  Hungarian  gypsy  effects  to  some  extent  in  his  great 
cantata  "Le  Damnation  de  Faust." 

In  opera,  his  "Beatrice  et  Benedict,"  a  setting  of  "Much  Ado 
about  Nothing,"  won  a  favorable  reception  at  Baden.  An  earlier 
opera,  "Benvenuto  Cellini,"  was  also  a  fair  success.  But  his  last 
and  most  important  stage  work,  "The  Trojans,"  consisting  of  "The 
Taking  of  Troy"  and  "The  Trojans  at  Carthage,"  received  little 
appreciation,  and  had  only  a  short  run  in  Paris.  Toward  its  end,  the 
composer's  friends  endeavored  to  cheer  him  up  by  saying,  "  See  the 
people  come!"  He  replied,  gloomily,  "That's  all  very  well,  but  I'm 
going,  myself." 

Berlioz  was  often  attacked  for  his  radical  tendencies;  but  the  au- 
thors of  these  attacks  were  often  too  abusive,  and  too  slow  in  recog- 
nizing the  composer's  greatness.  He  turned  the  tables  on  them  very 
neatly,  however,  by  producing  "L'Enfance  du  Christ,"  which  he 
pretended  he  had  discovered  among  old  manuscripts.  In  this  can- 
tata he  wrote  in  a  simple,  melodious  style.  The  critics  at  once  began 
to  praise  it;  and  some  said  it  was  a  pity  that  Berlioz  could  not  model 
his  works  on  such  a  style.  Then  he  disclosed  his  authorship  of  the 
work,  and  discomfited  his  enemies. 

Berlioz  died  in  1869,  after  a  life  of  varied  activities. 

The  chief  point  of  novelty  in  his  compositions  was  theu*  tremen- 
dous largeness  of  effect.  Wagner  said  of  him,  "He  ciphers  with 
notes  ";  and  there  is  a  certain  calculating  quality  in  his  works.  But 
in  spite  of  this,  they  are  often  grandly  powerful.  If  their  dramatic 
effects  are  often  highly  sensational,  their  style  will  be  found  to  fit 
their  subjects.  His  harmonies  were  sometimes  commonplace;  but 
his  orchestration  was  always  strong,  and  often  strikingly  original. 
His  symphonies  are  not  classical  works,  like  those  of  Beethoven. 
Instead  of  following  old  lines,  they  blazed  a  path  toward  new  meth- 
ods. Berlioz  was  the  first  of  several  composers  to  lay  the  founda- 
tions for  the  modem  programme  school. 

Charles  Francois  Gounod  (1818-93)  was  led  into  music  by  three 
events,  —  a  French  performance  of  "Der  Freischiitz,"  the  singing 
of  Malibran,  and  a  hearing  of  "  Don  Giovanni."  His  first  teacher 
was  his  mother.  At  the  conservatory  he  came  under  Paer,  LeSueur, 
and  Halevy.  When  twenty-one,  he  gained  the  Grarid  Prix  by  his 
cantata  "Fernand."    His  Roman  stay  was  marked  by  the  com- 


182  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

position  of  masses.  On  his  return  he  spent  some  years  in  theological 
study,  but  finally  reverted  to  a  musical  career. 

His  "Messe  Solennelle,"  the  "Redemption,"  the  "Mors  et  Vita," 
and  other  sacred  works  evidently  reflect  the  atmosphere  of  his  stud- 
ies. He  tried  the  symphonic  field  also,  though  with  little  success. 

His  operatic  career  began  with  "Sapho,"  which  showed  some 
musical  richness,  but  was  undramatic.  Next  came  "Ulysse,"  in 
which  an  attempt  at  an  antique  style  caused  some  monotony.  "La 
Nonne  Sanglante"  was  based  on  a  story  by  Lewis  entitled  "The 
Monk."  This  was  followed  by  a  setting  of  "Le  Medecin  malgre 
lui,"  which  was  effective  enough  in  a  way,  but  without  any  real 
comic  spirit. 

"Faust,"  brought  out  in  1859,  has  been  the  com.poser's  greatest 
success,  and  one  of  the  most  constant  triumphs  in  the  annals  of 
opera.  It  deals  with  the  first  part  of  Goethe's  tragedy,  and  the  Ger- 
mans sometimes  call  it  "Margarethe."  In  its  first  act,  Faust's 
thoughts  of  suicide  are  interrupted  by  charming  choruses  from  out- 
side; and  when  Mephistopheles  rises  at  his  spell,  he  agrees  to  sell  his 
soul  for  pleasure,  after  being  shown  a  vision  of  Marguerite.  The 
next  act  shows  a  kermesse  in  a  public  place.  Here  Faust  meets  Mar- 
guerite, and  Mephisto  entertains  the  crowd,  until  his  drawing  flames 
from  a  spigot  along  with  wine  makes  them  look  askance  at  him.  The 
next  scene  shows  Marguerite's  garden,  with  Mephisto  placing  jewels 
by  the  flowers  of  her  boyish  admirer  Siebel,  and  keeping  the  duenna 
Martha  out  of  the  way  while  Faust  makes  successful  love  to  Mar- 
guerite. In  the  fourth  act,  soldiers  return,  including  Marguerite's 
brother  Valentine.  A  mocking  serenade  arouses  Valentine's  ire,  and 
in  a  duel  Faust  is  treacherously  aided  by  Mephistopheles,  who  kills 
Valentine  and  takes  Faust  away  in  flight.  A  church  scene  shows  the 
now  desperate  Marguerite  unable  to  escape  from  remorse,  personi- 
fied by  Mephistopheles.  In  the  last  act  she  is  shown  in  prison,  hav- 
ing become  insane  and  killed  the  child  of  her  betrayal.  Faust  re- 
turns to  save  her,  but  she  dies,  and  in  spite  of  Mephisto's  attempt 
to  claim  her  soul,  it  is  shown  in  a  vision  ascending  to  heaven. 

The  music  of  "  Faust"  still  charms  thousands  at  each  hearing.  It 
has  a  beautiful  overture,  which  modern  composers  would  do  well  to 
equal  if  they  could.  The  first  act  contains  charming  choruses.  In 
the  second  act,  Mephisto's  "Golden  Calf"  song,  the  waltz,  and  the 


BERLIOZ  AND  OTHER  FRENCHMEN  183 

popular  exorcism  of  the  evil  spirit,  are  all  highly  interesting  in  differ- 
ent ways.  Siebel's  "Le  parlate  d'amor,"  "The  King  of  Thule/'  the 
"Jewel  Song,"  and  the  love  duets  are  effective  parts  of  the  charming 
garden  scene,  which  was  held  to  be  a  weak  spot  in  the  work  before  its 
success  proved  the  falsity  of  this  assumption.  The  "Soldiers' 
Chorus,"  if  frankly  popular,  is  also  strongly  effective,  and  warms  the 
most  hypercritical  aloofness  into  real  enthusiasm.  The  church  music 
is  full  of  power  and  dignity.  The  final  act  is  short,  but  its  grand  trio 
forms  an  effective  vocal  climax. 

"La  Reine  de  Saba"  did  not  fulfill  expectations;  but  "Mireille" 
was  successful  in  a  new  direction.  The  story  is  a  Provengal  idyl 
based  on  a  work  of  the  poet  Mistral.  Mireille  loves  Vincent,  but  her 
rich  father  objects  to  him,  preferring  the  herdsman  Ourrias.  On  a 
pilgrimage  to  a  church  at  Crau,  Mireille  suffers  from  a  sunstroke. 
Her  father  then  tries  to  propitiate  her  by  withdrawing  his  opposition 
to  Vincent;  whereupon  she  speedily  recovers.  The  music  to  this 
pastoral  story  has  a  charming  warmth  of  expression  and  coloring,  the 
shepherd's  song  in  the  third  act  being  especially  suggestive  of  fra- 
grant meadow  flowers. 

"Philemon  et  Baucis"  is  another  pleasing  work,  in  two  acts. 

"La  Colombe"  was  not  a  great  success,  while  the  later  "Cinq 
Mars"  proved  hasty,  and  "Polyeucte"  mediocre.  But  "Romeo  et 
Juliette"  was  another  triumph  for  the  composer.  Its  music  has  not 
the  manifold  beauties  of  the  "Faust"  score;  but  it  contains  many 
popular  numbers,  such  as  the  waltz  song,  Mercutio's  "Queen  Mab" 
song,  and  the  impressive  measures  of  Friar  Laurence. 

Georges  Bizet  (1838-75)  was  one  of  the  many  great  composers 
who  were  cut  off  in  their  fourth  decade.  The  manifold  beauties  of 
his  "Carmen"  and  the  "Arlesienne"  music  show  that  he  had  a  great 
career  before  him  when  his  untimely  death  overtook  him. 

He  won  the  Prix  de  Rome,  and  in  his  sojourn  there  he  brought 
forth  the  overture  "La  Chasse  d'Ossian"  and  the  stage  works 
"Don  Procopio"  and  "La  Guzla  de  I'Emir."  Another  early  work 
was  "Docteur  Miracle."  "Vasco  de  Gama,"  which  followed,  was 
more  ambitious.  "Les  Pgcheurs  de  Perles"  and  "Djamileh"  were 
attractive  examples  of  Oriental  coloring,  somewhat  in  the  style  of 
David's  "Le  Desert."  These  operas,  and  "La  Jolie  Fille  de  Perth," 
met  with  some  success,  but  were  not  markedly  popular. 


184  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

The  music  to  Daudet's  "L'Arlesienne"  has  met  with  a  better  fate. 
In  this,  Bizet  showed  all  the  warmth  of  expression  found  in  Gounod's 
"Mireille,"  combined  with  a  remarkable  vigor  and  directness  of  ex- 
pression. The  many  contrasted  numbers  have  been  made  into  two 
remarkably  attractive  suites,  which  contain  some  beautiful  saxo- 
phone passages,  a  charming  adagietto,  a  broad  intermezzo,  two 
dainty  minuets,  a  rollicking  farandole,  and  other  numbers. 

The  opera  "Carmen,"  Bizet's  greatest  success,  is  founded  on 
Merim^e's  story  of  that  name,  altered  and  made  spicy  for  stage  pur- 
poses. Carmen  is  a  captivating  but  wild  gypsy,  who  stabs  a  com- 
panion and  is  arrested  by  the  soldiers.  She  beguiles  one  of  them, 
Don  Jose,  to  loosen  her  bonds  so  that  she  can  escape.  In  return,  she 
dances  for  him  and  entertains  him  at  Lillas  Pastia's  inn.  She  keeps 
him  beyond  his  trumpet  recall,  saves  him  from  the  officers  who  wish 
to  seize  him  as  a  deserter,  and  takes  him  to  the  retreat  of  her  smug- 
gler friends.  There  she  grows  tired  of  Don  Jose,  for  whom  her  feeling 
must  have  been  only  a  passing  fancy;  and  she  finds  that  she  really 
loves  Escamillo,  the  Toreador  who  swaggered  so  impressively  at  the 
inn.  Meanwhile  Micaela,  who  loved  Don  Jose  in  his  native  village, 
comes  to  take  him  away  to  his  mother's  death-bed.  He  returns  to 
find  Carmen  approaching  the  Seville  bull-ring,  where  Escamillo  is  to 
fight;  and  when  he  finds  that  she  has  cast  him  off,  he  stabs  her  to 
death. 

The  music  to  "Carmen"  is  one  long  succession  of  attractive  num- 
bers. The  overture,  consisting  in  part  of  the  march  to  the  bull-fight, 
is  brilliant  and  spirited.  The  first  act  contains  Carmen's  sensuously 
beautiful  "Habanera,"  her  graceful  "Seguedilla,"  some  charming 
phrases  in  connection  with  Micaela,  a  pleasing  soldiers'  chorus,  a 
burlesque  by  whistling  street  gamins,  and  a  humorous  scene  of  con- 
fusion when  the  girls  all  try  to  give  the  captain  their  version  of  Cai'- 
men's  deed.  The  second  act  contains  some  spirited  dance  music, 
Escamillo's  famous  "Toreador"  song.  Carmen's  graceful  dance  for 
Don  Jose  (interwoven  with  the  trumpet  recall),  and  a  dainty  smug- 
glers' quintet.  The  third  act  has  a  fortune-telling  scene,  some  bright 
smugglers'  music,  and  a  smoothly  melodious  scena  for  Micaela; 
while  the  fourth  act  gives  a  strong  contrast  between  the  glamour  of 
the  mai'ch  and  the  tragedy  of  Carmen's  death.  In  all  these  numbers 
there  is  a  most  satisfying  directness  of  expression,  and  every  theme 


BERLIOZ  AND  OTHER  FRENCHMEN  185 

seems  pregnant  with  its  proper  significance.  In  this  opera  Bizet 
used  a  guiding  motive  in  a  somewhat  Wagnerian  manner.  There  is  a 
phrase  of  portentous  significance  that  is  heard  when  Carmen  throws 
a  rose  at  Don  Jose;  and  the  phrase  recurs  later  to  t3T)ify  evil  or 
tragedy.  Because  of  this  use  of  a  motive,  Bizet  has  been  called  "the 
halfway-house  between  Offenbach  and  Wagner."  At  first  this  was 
meant  as  a  reproach,  since  Wagner  was  then  unpopular  in  Paris;  but 
now  it  would  be  a  compliment.  "Carmen,"  like  " Faust,"  has  been 
a  perennial  success;  yet  the  critics  attacked  it  at  first.  Their  malig- 
nity did  much  to  bring  about  Bizet's  untimely  death.  Bizet  wrote 
some  beautiful  songs,  an  overture  to  Sardou's  "Patrie,"  the  suites 
"  Roma  "  and  "  Jeux  d'Enfants."  The  last  is  well  liked,  but  his  fame 
rests  chiefly  on  "Carmen"  and  the  "Arlesienne"  music. 

Charles  Ambroise  Thomas  (1811-96)  had  a  long  career  in  opera, 
but  did  not  equal  either  Gounod  or  Bizet.  He  produced  his  first 
work,  "La  Double  fichelle,"  in  1837,  competing  with  Auber  and 
Herold  in  the  days  when  Meyerbeer's  career  was  scarcely  more  than 
begun.  Thomas  composed  a  number  of  such  works,  and  several 
ballets.  More  romantic  in  style  was  a  later  group  of  operas,  includ- 
ing "Le  Songe  d'une  Nuit  d'fite,"  "  Raymond,"  and  "  Psyche."  But 
his  greatest  success  came  with  "Mignon,"  produced  in  1866.  Later 
operas  included  "Hamlet"  and  "Frangoise  de  Rimini,"  along  with  a 
ballet,  "The  Tempest." 

"Mignon"  is  based  on  Goethe's  "  Wilhelm  Meister."  The  heroine, 
Mignon,  has  been  stolen  by  gypsies,  and  is  sought  by  her  father,  Lo- 
thario. She  is  rescued  and  protected  by  Wilhelm  Meister,  with 
whom  she  falls  in  love.  But  Wilhelm  is  captivated  by  the  actress 
Filina,  whom  he  meets  at  a  castle  fete.  Mignon  is  about  to  drown 
herself,  but  Lothario  saves  her.  Sympathizing  with  her  in  his  half- 
crazed  way,  he  sets  fire  to  the  castle.  Mignon  is  saved  from  the  fibre 
by  Wilhelm.  He  then  takes  her  to  Italy,  and  at  Lothario's  castle  her 
identity  is  discovered,  and  her  love  returned. 

The  music  of  this  work  is  graceful  rather  than  powerful;  but  it  is 
fresh  and  natm-al.  Mignon's  song  "Kennst  du  das  Land,"  her  Sty- 
rienne,  Filina's  dashing  polonaise,  and  a  dainty  gavotte  are  the  most 
popular  numbers  in  the  score. 

Antoine  Clapisson,  Georges  Bousquet,  Louis  Maillart,  Jean  Gau- 
tier,  Fi-angois  Bazin,  Henri  Reber,  Victor  Masse,  Aristide  Hignard, 


186  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

and  Ferdinand  Poise  were  among  those  who  worked  in  French  opera 
at  or  after  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  Friedrich  von  Flotow,  who 
lived  at  Paris,  is  best  known  by  his  comedy  "Martha,"  which  con- 
tains some  sentimentality,  but  much  liveliness  and  charm  also. 

Felicien  David's  operas  have  been  mentioned  already.  His  suc- 
cessor in  the  Academy,  Louis  Ernest  Reyer,  showed  a  similar  fond- 
ness for  Oriental  coloring.  Reyer's  "Sigurd"  treated  the  same 
subject  as  Wagner's  "Siegfried,"  while  his  "Salammbo"  was  based 
on  Flaubert's  story  of  old  Carthaginian  times.  Gaston  Salvayre, 
another  opera  composer,  is  usually  classed  with  Reyer. 

Leon  Gastinel  and  Louis  Deff^s  composed  operas,  but  became 
known  in  the  orchestral  field  also.  Victorin  de  Joncieres  did  the  same 
at  a  later  date.  Edmond  Membree  and  Auguste  Morel  kept  more 
strictly  to  opera. 

Leo  Delibes  (1836-91)  became  well  known  through  his  ballets, 
such  as  "La  Source,"  "Coppelia,"  and  "Sylvia."  The  music  to 
these  pantomines  is  varied  and  effective,  showing  a  warm  richness 
well  suited  to  the  demands  of  the  form.  In  opera,  his  most  noted 
work  is  "Lakme."  In  that  composition,  Lakme,  daughter  of  a  Hin- 
du priest,  is  loved  by  an  English  officer,  Gerald.  Her  father  dis- 
covers the  affair,  and  finds  out  who  Gerald  is  by  making  Lakme  sing 
in  the  market-place  until  he  betrays  himself.  The  priest  then  stabs 
Gerald;  but  Lakme  saves  him,  and  nurses  him  back  to  health  in  a 
forest  retreat.  In  the  end  he  returns  to  his  people;  while  Lakme,  de- 
serted, poisons  herself.  The  music  is  full  of  the  charm  of  delicacy. 
Lakme's  duet  with  her  slave,  her  "Bell"  song  in  the  market-place, 
the  Oriental  ballet  music,  and  her  slumber  song  over  the  sleeping 
Grerald  are  among  the  best  passages  in  the  score.  This  work  wins 
success  by  its  grace,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  does  not  strive  for  the 
wildly  dramatic  scoring  of  recent  decades.  Another  excellent  De- 
libes opera  is  "Le  Roi  I'a  dit." 

With  Delibes  may  be  classed  Ernest  Guiraud,  whose  "Picco- 
lino"  is  a  dainty  comedy. 

Benjamin  Godard  was  a  devotee  of  Schumann.  He  composed 
several  symphonies,  and  a  number  of  operas,  of  which  "La  Vivan- 
didre  "  was  the  most  successful.  He  wrote  also  many  chamber  works, 
and  a  number  of  songs  and  piano  pieces,  of  which  "Florian's  Song" 
and  the  piano  solo  "Au  Matin"  are  widely  known. 


BERLIOZ  AND  OTHER  FRENCHMEN  187 

fidouard  Lalo  entered  the  operatic  field  with  the  strong  but  som- 
bre "Roi  d'Ys."  He  is  better  known  by  his  instrumental  works, 
which  include  a  Spanish  symphony,  a  Spanish  rhapsodie  for  violin 
and  orchestra,  and  the  suite  "Namouna." 

Johann  Greorg  Kastner  was  a  friend  of  Berlioz,  and  aided  the  lat- 
ter in  instrumental  research.  He  composed  symphonies,  overtures, 
operas,  and  smaller  works.  Reber  and  David  continued  the  French 
orchestral  school,  with  Louis  Lacombe,  who  composed  the  dramatic 
symphonies  "Manfred"  and  "Arva." 

The  French  organists  deserve  especial  mention  for  building  up  a 
high  type  of  organ  music.  Many  of  them  worked  in  the  orchestral 
field  also.  Thus  Alexandre  Guilmant  composed  a  number  of  sym- 
phonies for  organ  and  orchestra,  besides  writing  organ  sonatas  and 
other  works.  He  and  his  school  have  done  much  to  keep  alive 
the  spirit  of  counterpoint.  With  Guilmant  may  be  classed  Charles 
Widor,  Antoine  Batiste,  M.  P.  Hamel,  the  Belgian  Mailly,  Leon 
Boellmann,  and  the  somewhat  earlier  Lefebure-Wely. 

Theodore  Dubois  was  an  organist  who  worked  along  many  lines. 
He  composed  various  oratorios,  such  as  "  Les  Sept  Paroles  de  Christ," 
and  "Paradise  Lost."  Beside  these  he  wrote  several  cantatas,  a  few 
operas,  some  orchestral  works,  and  a  number  of  smaller  pieces.  His 
style  is  solid,  but  rather  too  conservative  to  admit  of  any  marked 
success. 


XXI 

LISZT  AND   HIS  CIRCLE 

Franz  Liszt  was  born  in  1811,  at  the  small  Hungarian  town  of 
Raiding.  His  father,  a  steward  on  one  of  the  Esterhazy  estates,  was 
a  gifted  musical  amateur,  and  trained  the  child  so  well  that  the  latter 
was  able  to  perform  in  public  when  nine  years  old.  His  precocity 
aroused  the  interest  of  a  group  of  noblemen,  who  subscribed  a  liberal 
sum  for  his  education.  The  story  goes  that  Beethoven  heard  the 
young  Liszt,  and  exclaimed, "  He  will  make  my  music  understood  by 
posterity."  Liszt  studied  under  Czerny  and  others  at  Vienna,  with 
later  lessons  at  Paris.  His  early  ambition  lay  in  the  direction  of 
opera,  and  his  operetta  "Don  Sanche"  was  produced  in  1825. 

On  the  death  of  his  father  he  began  to  make  a  living  by  means  of 
piano  playing,  and  soon  grew  famous  in  this  field.  He  became  a  well- 
known  member  of  the  Parisian  clique  that  included  Hugo,  Lamar- 
tine,  George  Sand,  Chopin,  Berlioz,  and  other  celebrities.  In  1834 
he  met  the  Countess  d'Agoult  (known  in  literature  as  Daniel  Stern), 
with  whom  he  became  intimately  connected.  In  1836  came  an  old- 
fashioned  piano  contest  with  Thalberg,  in  which  Liszt  was  plainly 
the  victor. 

In  1839,  Liszt  began  his  long  piano  tours,  in  which  he  spoke  of  a 
single  concert  as  "piano  recitals."  He  fully  realized  his  ambition  to 
become  the  Paganini  of  the  piano;  and  his  tremendous  technique 
has  remained  unequalled.  His  profits  increased  greatly;  and  he  was 
once  able  to  give  substantial  relief  to  flood-sufferers  in  Pesth,  as  well 
as  adding  $10,000  to  a  Beethoven  monument  fund.  In  the  mean 
time  he  revived  his  childish  memories  of  Hungarian  music,  and 
echoed  it  in  his  piano  rhapsodies. 

Liszt  was  one  of  the  first  to  assert  the  dignity  of  the  musician's 
position.  Beethoven  had  shown  independence,  but  it  was  the  excep- 
tion in  the  epoch  when  such  masters  as  Mozart  and  Haydn  had  to 
put  up  with  various  slights.  The  occasion  arose  when  one  of  Liszt's 
princess  friends  asked  if  he  had  done  good  business  on  his  last  trip. 


LISZT  AND  HIS  CIRCLE  189 

Liszt  replied,  "Madame,  I  am  in  music,  not  business."  Perhaps  this 
was  straining  a  point;  but  Liszt's  later  career  certainly  added  new 
lustre  to  the  occupation  of  the  musician. 

Liszt's  piano  pieces  contain  a  large  number  of  transcriptions. 
These  show  the  utmost  variety,  ranging  from  old  vocal  works  of 
Arcadelt  to  the  art-songs  of  Schubert  and  the  operas  of  Rossini,  or 
from  the  organ  fugues  of  Bach  to  the  symphonies  of  Beethoven  and 
the  glowing  orchestral  scores  of  Wagner.  His  original  piano  compo- 
sitions include  the  rhapsodies  and  other  national  music;  but  beside 
these  they  comprise  many  piano  works  of  tremendous  breadth  and 
striking  power,  such  as  the  great  single-movement  sonata.  Liszt 
developed  a  style  that  has  been  called  the  orchestration  of  the  piano. 
In  his  larger  keyboard  compositions,  and  in  the  transcriptions  also, 
one  may  find  broad  sweeps  of  tone;  melodies  supported  by  the  rich- 
est and  most  complicated  harmonies;  or  striking  antiphonal  effects, 
like  those  one  might  hear  when  parts  of  an  orchestra  respond  to  one 
another.  Such  works  as  the  "Sermon  to  the  Birds,"  or  "St.  Francis 
walking  on  the  Water,"  bring  out  keyboard  possibilities  that  were 
utterly  unsuspected  by  Liszt's  predecessors.  A  nimiber  of  his  pieces 
are  grouped  together  in  the  sets  entitled  "Annees  de  Pelerinage." 

In  1849,  Liszt  was  offered  a  court  post  at  Weimar,  which  he  ac- 
cepted. In  that  city  began  the  most  famous  period  of  his  career. 
His  teaching  gathered  around  him  a  circle  of  the  greatest  pianists  in 
the  world,  who  looked  up  to  him  as  disciples  do  to  a  master.  Not 
every  one  who  was  recommended  found  himself  able  to  enter  the 
charmed  circle.  Many  an  overpraised  young  maiden,  sent  to  play 
for  him,  was  met  by  the  scarcely  veiled  rebuff,  "  Marry  soon,  dear 
child."  Once  a  poorly  equipped  male  student  heard  him  mutter, 
"This  before  me,  who  have  so  often  heard  Tausig!"  But  if  the  stu- 
dent proved  able  enough  to  be  accepted,  he  entered  into  a  veritable 
fairyland  of  art.  Often  the  lessons  terminated  in  social  gatherings, 
where  the  leaders  performed,  or  discussed  new  works.  Frequently 
Liszt  himself  would  play,  ostensibly  to  show  how  certain  passages 
were  to  be  taken.  Liszt  was  not  absolutely  infallible,  and  once  he 
struck  a  wrong  note  in  some  cross-hand  work;  but  he  atoned  for  this 
by  dazzling  his  hearers  with  a  series  of  the  most  brilliant  pieces.  He 
was  able  to  read  at  sight  with  remarkable  facility,  and  would  even 
play  a  piano  version  of  new  scores  set  before  him. 


190  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Liszt  used  his  position  as  orchestral  leader  to  bring  out  many  new 
works.  Raff,  Schubert,  Schumann,  Lassen,  Cornelius,  Rubinstein, 
and  Wagner  were  among  those  whom  Liszt  helped  into  publicity. 

Liszt's  larger  compositions  date  mostly  from  his  Weimar  stay. 
They  include  his  great  Faust  symphony,  two  famous  piano  concertos, 
and  about  a  dozen  important  symphonic  poems.  Liszt  really  devel- 
oped the  latter  form;  and  such  examples  as  "  Les  Preludes,"  "  Tasso," 
"Die  Ideale,"  "Mazeppa,"  and  others  of  the  group,  prove  that  ex- 
cept for  Richard  Strauss  his  work  in  this  field  remains  unequalled. 
Liszt's  symphonic  poems  show  a  most  strongly  expressive  style,  a 
massive  handling  of  the  orchestral  forces,  and  a  great  amount  of  real 
musical  beauty.  They  made  their  way  very  slowly,  and  only  in  the 
most  recent  years  has  Liszt's  greatness  as  an  orchestral  composer 
been  fairly  recognized.  Wagner,  who  was  Liszt's  son-in-law,  once 
called  attention  to  a  passage  he  had  borrowed  from  Liszt,  by  saying, 
at  a  rehearsal,  "  Now,  papa,  here  comes  one  of  your  themes."  "  Very 
good,"  replied  Liszt.  "The  public  will  hear  it  now,  at  any  rate." 

Disagreements  over  Liszt's  progressive  policy  caused  him  to  give 
up  his  Weimar  post;  and  he  settled  in  Rome.  There,  after  a  broken 
engagement  to  marry  the  Princess  of  Sayn- Wittgenstein,  he  began 
to  study  for  the  Church,  and  gained  the  title  of  Abbe.  He  had 
already  produced  the  "Graner  Mass"  and  three  psalm  settings;  but 
in  Rome  he  devoted  himself  still  more  to  religious  music.  His  later 
works  include  the  oratorios  "St.  Elizabeth,"  "Christus,"  and  the 
unfinished  "Stanislaus,"  as  well  as  the  "Hungarian  Coronation 
Mass  "  and  a  requiem.  An  organ  mass  was  of  later  date.  Other  works 
by  Liszt  included  the  symphonic  poem  "From  the  Cradle  to  the 
Grave,"  and  the  cantatas  "Die  Glocken,"  "St.  Cecilia,"  and  "Die 
Kreuzesstationen."  Liszt  divided  his  time  in  later  years  between 
Rome,  Weimar,  and  Pesth.  His  influence  as  teacher  and  leader  was 
still  kept  up,  and  he  devoted  many  efforts  to  the  furthering  of  Wag- 
ner's cause.  He  died  in  1886,  at  a  Bayreuth  festival. 

While  Wagner  brought  opera  to  a  new  orchestral  standard,  Liszt 
did  the  same  with  concert  works.  His  symphonic  poems  are  very 
definitely  written  for  modem  instead  of  classical  orchestra.  These 
two  men,  with  Berlioz,  who  modernized  the  programme  symphony, 
brought  the  large  orchestra  into  existence,  and  illustrated  its 
possibilities. 


LISZT  AND  HIS  CIRCLE  191 

Karl  Goldmark,  bom  at  Keszthely,  Hungary,  in  1830,  was  not  a 
Liszt  pupil,  but  belongs,  nevertheless,  to  the  school  of  modem 
romanticism.  For  a  time  Goldmark  supported  himself  as  a  violinist 
in  theatre  orchestras;  and  in  1855  he  made  composition  his  life- 
work. 

His  first  decided  success  was  the  "  Sakuntala  "  Overture,  —  a  richly 
colored  work,  based  on  the  East  Indian  story  of  a  nymph  who  is 
woced  by  a  king,  forgotten,  because  of  magic  spells,  and  finally 
remembered  once  more.  Similarly  rich  in  color  are  the  overtures 
"Penthesilea"  and  "In  the  Spring";  while  the  one  to  "Prometheus 
Bound"  is  more  severe  and  classic  in  style.  Goldmark's  other 
orchestral  works  include  various  concertos;  but  he  was  best  known 
on  the  programmes  of  three  decades  ago  by  his  "Rustic  Wedding" 
Symphony.  This  composition,  which  some  consider  a  suite,  consists 
of  a  wedding  march  with  variations,  a  bridal  song,  a  serenade  and 
garden  scene,  and  a  dance-like  finale.  Like  the  concertos,  it  is  rather 
simply  orchestrated  in  comparison  with  the  works  of  Richard 
Strauss,  or  even  of  Liszt.  A  second  symphony,  an  orchestral  scherzo, 
and  chamber  music  are  other  compositions  by  the  same  composer. 

Goldmark  achieved  his  greatest  reputation  in  opera.  His  first 
success,  "The  Queen  of  Sheba,"  carried  its  audiences  by  storm. 
Once,  while  the  composer  was  travelling  to  take  charge  of  a  perform- 
ance of  the  work,  he  was  drawn  into  a  conversation  with  a  lady. 
Thinking  to  please  her,  he  introduced  himself  as  "the  composer  of 
the '  Queen  of  Sheba.' "  "  Oh,  indeed,"  replied  the  lady.  "  I  hope  the 
queen  pays  you  well."  The  work  certainly  did  pay;  and  the  anecdote 
gave  Goldmark  the  nickname  of  "Court  Composer  to  the  Queen  of 
Sheba."  The  story  of  the  work  is  based  on  the  weakness  of  Assad, 
who  is  so  bewitched  by  the  queen,  at  Solomon's  court,  that  he  deserts 
his  betrothed,  Sulamith.  The  music  shows  a  richness  that  is  well 
suited  to  gorgeous  Oriental  effects. 

"Merlin"  is  another  opera  of  rich  coloring  and  sumptuous  effects. 
It  deals  with  Viviane's  attempts  to  entrap  Merlin;  but  finally,  when 
she  succeeds  in  getting  him  into  the  power  of  her  demon-master,  she 
finds  that  she  loves  him,  and  sacrifices  herself  to  save  him. 

"Heimchen  am  Herd"  is  a  setting  of  Dickens's  "Cricket  on  the 
Hearth."  It  is  based  on  the  simple  but  refreshingly  melodious  style 
introduced  by  Humperdinck  in  his  "Hansel  und  Gretel." 


192  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

"Die  Kriegsgefangene"  treats  an  episode  of  the  Trojan  War,  and 
brings  in  Achilles'  victory  over  Hector  and  his  love  for  Briseis. 

"Gotz  von  Berlichingen,"  "Der  Fremdling,"  and  "The  Winter's 
Tale"  are  still  later  operas  by  Goldmark;  while  he  recently  summed 
up  his  memories  in  the  overture  "Aus  meiner  Jugendzeit."  His 
career,  reaching  practically  to  the  present,  has  been  full  of  honor 
and  crowned  by  many  successes.  He  died  in  1915. 

Joseph  Joachim  Raff  was  bom  at  Wiirttemburg  in  1822.  He  was 
at  first  a  school-teacher,  but  studied  music  privately.  When  he  was 
twenty-one,  Mendelssohn  helped  him  to  publish  some  piano  pieces 
and  begin  a  musical  career.  Two  years  later,  Liszt  took  the  young 
man  along  on  a  tour.  Raff  then  settled  in  Cologne,  as  critic  and  com- 
poser. He  aimed  to  take  free  lessons  from  Mendelssohn,  to  get  com- 
missions from  a  Vienna  publisher,  and  to  have  his  opera  "King 
Alfred"  given  at  Stuttgart.  But  Mendelssohn  died;  the  publisher 
Mechetti  died  just  before  making  an  agreement  with  Raff;  and  the 
Stuttgart  manager  declined  the  opera.  Von  Biilow  then  helped  him 
to  put  other  works  before  the  public.  In  1851  he  became  Liszt's 
assistant  at  Weimar,  and  heard  his  opera  performed  at  last. 

Raff  was  very  poor  in  his  younger  days.  He  could  not  afford  a 
good  metronome;  and  the  broken-down  one  that  he  used  caused  his 
works  to  seem  too  rapid  when  played  with  more  accurate  metro- 
nomes. He  wrote  a  great  deal,  and  often  published  rather  mediocre 
pieces  in  an  effort  to  keep  the  wolf  from  the  door.  Once  he  was 
arrested  for  debt;  but  Liszt  and  Dr.  William  Mason  saw  to  it  that 
he  was  comfortable.  With  the  pens,  ink,  and  music-paper  that  they 
provided,  and  the  good  food  that  they  insisted  upon,  he  was  really 
more  comfortable  than  in  his  own  frugal  quarters. 

In  1856,  Raff  moved  to  Wiesbaden;  and  soon  after  this  he  married. 
In  1863  his  first  symphony,  ''The  Fatherland,"  won  the  prize  in  a 
Vienna  competition.  Another  opera,  "Dame  Kobold,"  was  per- 
formed at  Weimar.  Raff  soon  became  famous  through  other  sym- 
phonies, such  as  "Im  Walde"  and  "Lenore."  During  his  last  years 
he  was  director  of  a  conservatory  in  Frankfurt,  and  taught  a  number 
of  Americans,  including  MacDowell.  He  died  in  1882. 

His  works  include  eleven  symphonies,  four  suites,  nine  overtures, 
an  effective  piano  concerto,  a  violin  concerto,  an  oratorio,  several 
cantatas,  some  chamber  music,  and  many  smaller  pieces.  They  are 


LISZT  AND  HIS  CIRCLE  193 

almost  all  remarkably  melodious.  Raff  resembles  Schubert  rather 
than  his  benefactor  Liszt,  and  shows  little  leaning  toward  modem- 
ism.  In  many  cases  Raff's  melodies  are  ineffably  sweet  and  charm- 
ing, and  their  harmonies  delightful.  There  has  been  considerable 
dispute  over  Raff's  position.  Many  hold  that  the  too  melodious 
character  of  his  works  places  him  far  down  among  the  second-raters, 
But  one  may  remember  the  couplet, 

"And  if  his  art  as  artifice  you  score, 
Where  have  you  seen  such  artifice  before?" 

Admitting  that  Raff's  works  are  extremely  melodic  in  character,  we 
cannot  gainsay  the  fact  that  their  melody  is  of  the  best.  His  well- 
known  cavatina  is  but  one  of  many  instances  that  will  prove  the 
point. 

Peter  Cornelius  (1824-74)  was  bom  at  Mainz.  After  some  years 
of  youthful  training,  he  joined  the  Weimar  circle,  and  heard  his 
"Barber  of  Bagdad"  given.  That  opera  has  for  hero  Noureddin, 
who  loves  the  daughter  of  the  Cadi,  and  visits  her.  He  takes  with 
him  the  loquacious  and  irresponsible  barber,  Abu  Hassan,  who  re- 
mains outside.  Hearing  a  chance  outcry,  Hassan  at  once  imagines 
Noureddin  is  being  attacked;  and  he  gathers  a  band  to  invade  the 
place.  To  escape  from  the  Cadi's  anger,  Noureddin  hides  in  a  chest. 
Finally  the  disturbance  brings  the  Caliph  on  the  scene;  and  Noured- 
din, rescued  in  a  half-smothered  state,  is  presented  with  the  hand 
of  his  adored  Margiana.  The  music  of  this  rather  mixed  work  shows 
decided  power,  and  not  a  little  skill  in  humorous  orchestration.  The 
interlude  of  the  muezzin  call,  and  the  hurly-burly  of  the  last  scene, 
will  stand  comparison  with  the  later  Wagner.  In  fact,  this  rollick- 
ing work  had  a  direct  influence  upon  Wagner's  "Meistersinger." 
Cornelius  composed  also  "Der  Cid"  and  "Gunlod." 

Eduard  Lassen  (1830-1904)  was  bom  at  Copenhagen,  and  studied 
atBmssels.  Liszt  brought  out  one  of  his  operas,  "Landgraf  Ludwigs 
Brautfahrt,"  in  1858.  When  Liszt  gave  up  the  control  at  Weimar, 
Lassen  succeeded  him.  Lassen  composed  two  other  operas  — 
"Frauenlob"  and  "Le  Captif."  He  wrote  also  symphonies,  over- 
tures, cantatas,  much  incidental  music,  and  very  beautiful  songs, 
such  as  "It  was  a  dream." 

Hans  von  Bronsart,  bora  at  Berlin  in  1830,  was  a  Liszt  piano  pupil. 
He  composed  a  symphony,  the  choral  symphony  "In  the  Alps,"  and 


194  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

other  orchestral  works.  His  wife,  Ingeborg  (Stark)  von  Bronsart, 
was  another  piano  pupil  of  Liszt.  She  composed  several  operas  and 
many  piano  works. 

To  the  Weimar  circle  belongs  also  Alexander  Ritter  (1833-96). 
He  composed  two  comic  operas  and  several  symphonic  poems,  but 
is  better  known  because  it  was  his  influence  that  made  Richard 
Strauss  adopt  the  programme  style  of  composition. 

Leopold  Damrosch  (1832-85)  was  a  famous  violinist,  who  com- 
posed violin  concertos,  a  symphony,  various  cantatas,  and  other 
works.  Before  his  death  he  exerted  considerable  influence  upon 
music  in  America. 

Felix  Draeseke,  bom  at  Coburg  in  1835,  became  known  through 
overtures,  symphonies,  operas,  and  chamber  music.  In  his  later  life 
he  became  unusually  conservative. 

Hans  Guido  von  Biilow  (1830-94)  came  under  Liszt's  influence 
at  Weimar  and  Wagner's  at  Zurich.  He  married  Liszt's  daughter 
Cosima,  who  was  afterwards  divorced  and  married  to  Wagner.  Von 
Biilow  was  a  famous  pianist,  and  a  thorough  conductor.  It  was  his 
orchestra,  at  Meiningen,  that  once  started  a  programme  without 
any  conductor  when  he  was  unavoidably  late.  He  toured  America 
twice.  His  programmes  were  always  chosen  with  a  view  to  improving 
popular  taste.  His  own  compositions  include  a  few  orchestral  works, 
some  concert  pieces  for  piano,  and  many  transcriptions.  He  had  a 
very  caustic  wit,  and  some  of  his  remarks  are  quoted  elsewhere  in 
this  volume.  Once  a  chance  acquaintance  from  some  previous  meet- 
ing stopped  him  on  the  street,  and  said,  "  I  '11  bet  you  don't  remember 
me."  Von  Biilow  instantly  retorted,  "You've  won  your  bet,"  and 
passed  on.  Again,  in  rehearsing  his  orchestra,  he  once  said  to  the 
trumpeter,  "That  passage  is  forte.''  The  trumpeter  then  blew  his 
hardest;  whereupon  the  leader  repeated,  "I  said  jorte."  Then  the 
trumpeter  made  a  mighty  effort,  and  nearly  blew  his  head  off;  where- 
upon the  leader  explained,  "  I  said  forte,  and  you  have  been  blowing 
fortissimo  all  the  time." 

Klindworth  and  Tausig  were  other  pupils  of  Liszt  who  became 
better  known  by  their  arrangements  than  by  their  compositions. 

Leschetizky,  the  great  piano  teacher,  was  known  also  as  a  piano 
composer,  in  a  brilliant  but  rather  showy  style.  Once  Brahms,  pass- 
ing him  as  he  worked  at  his  desk,  thought  to  tease  him,  and  said, 


LISZT  AND  HIS  CIRCLE  195 

"Little  things!"  "That  may  be,"  answered  Leschetizky,  "but  they 
are  ten  times  more  popular  than  yours."  Time  has  reversed  this 
verdict,  for  Leschetizky's  works  seldom  figure  on  contemporary 
programmes. 

Among  the  violin  virtuosos  of  this  time,  Ferdinand  David  (1810- 
73)  has  been  mentioned  as  an  early  leader.  His  compositions  include 
two  symphonies,  five  concertos,  an  opera,  much  chamber  music,  and 
many  smaller  pieces,  especially  for  his  instrument. 

Joseph  Joachim  (1831-1907)  was  David's  successor  for  a  time. 
He  also  played  for  five  years  under  Liszt,  at  Weimar.  Afterwards  he 
became  prominent  as  a  teacher  in  Berlin.  He  composed  little,  being 
better  known  as  a  performer. 

In  France,  Delphin  Alard  exerted  a  great  influence  on  violin  play- 
ing. He  combined  Paganini's  brilliance  with  the  German  solidity. 
He  composed  many  original  works,  and  arranged  much. 

In  Belgium,  De  Beriot  was  the  pioneer  of  a  national  violin  school, 
composing  concertos,  trios,  variations,  etudes,  etc. 

Henri  Vieuxtemps  (1820-81)  took  the  leadership  in  the  next  gen- 
eration. He  composed  concertos,  fantasias,  a  suite,  and  other  works. 

Among  other  violinist-composers,  Ole  Bull,  Eduard  Remenyi,  and 
Henri  Wieniawski  deserve  especial  mention.  Bull  was  rather  given 
to  the  display  of  a  trick  violinist.  Remenyi  showed  his  Hungarian 
blood  in  some  spirited  works,  while  Wieniawski,  a  Pole,  composed 
a  number  of  interesting  and  brilliant  pieces,  besides  touring  America 
with  Rubinstein. 

Among  composers  for  the  'cello,  Georg  Goltermann  and  David 
Popper  deserve  mention,  along  with  Servais,  the  great  virtuoso 
performer. 

Contrabass  music  is  represented  by  some  of  the  works  of  Bottesini 
and  Dragonetti;  but  it  seems  more  like  a  curiosity  than  an  actual 
concert  or  solo  repertoire. 


XXII 

FROM  GLINKA  TO  TSCHAIKOVSKY 

Music  in  Russia  has  been  a  popular  affair  from  time  immemorial. 
In  the  old  pagan  days,  minstrels  of  all  sorts  were  common.  When 
the  land  came  under  Byzantine  influence,  the  native  music  met  with 
official  opposition,  but  was  never  entu-ely  rooted  out.  When  Russia 
became  an  empire  under  the  Romanoffs,  its  folk-music  flourished 
again.  Poets  shaped  into  literary  form  the  epics  of  its  old  legendary 
cycles,  and  created  innumerable  subjects  suitable  for  musical  set- 
tings. In  the  eighteenth  century,  foreign  composers,  and  some  na- 
tive musicians,  began  to  give  some  attention  to  these;  while  in  the 
nineteenth,  an  important  Russian  school  came  into  existence. 

Francesco  Araja  (1700-67)  was  the  first  foreigner  to  bring  Russian 
opera  into  being;  and  during  his  stay  at  St.  Petersburg,  he  set  several 
native  subjects.  Galuppi,  Sarti,  Paisiello,  Cimarosa,  and  the  Vene- 
tian Cavos  were  other  prominent  foreigners.  Cavos  treated  the  sub- 
ject of  Ivan  Susanina,  which  Glinka  used  later  for  his  great  popular 
success.  Early  native  musicians  included  Fomin,  Matinsky,  Pas- 
kievitch,  Beresovsky,  Bortniansky,  Verstovsky,  Alabiev,  and  the 
Titov  brothers.  Verstovsky  won  some  success  with  "Askold's 
Tomb,"  but  none  of  these  men  was  gifted  enough  to  found  a  national 
school.  Bortniansky,  famous  for  his  Russian  church  music,  confined 
his  operatic  ventures  to  Italian  and  French  texts. 

Michael  Ivanovitch  Glinka  (1804-57)  was  bom  of  a  noble  family 
at  St.  Petersburg.  Brought  up  in  pleasant  social  surroundings,  he 
showed  an  intense  devotion  to  music,  but  at  first  was  little  more  than 
an  amateur.  He  began  to  compose  short  songs  and  pieces  for  a  lady 
friend.  His  family  gave  him  a  musical  training,  but  thought  his  gifts 
merely  a  social  asset.  It  took  a  foreign  trip  to  develop  his  latent 
powers.  He  enjoyed  Italian  opera  at  Milan,  but  soon  found  that  its 
idiom  was  not  suited  to  express  his  Russian  nationalism.  It  was  in 
Berlin  that  he  obtained  real  benefit,  in  studying  with  Siegfried  Dehn. 
That  teacher,  seeing  that  Glinka  was  both  gifted  and  impatient  of 


FROM  GLINKA  TO  TSCHAIKOVSKY  197 

drudgery,  wisely  condensed  his  instruction  into  five  months,  and 
gave  the  pupil  the  chief  points  of  harmony,  counterpoint,  fugue,  and 
orchestration.  This  was  so  beneficial  that  Stassov  said,  "  Glinka  left 
us  a  dilettante,  and  returned  a  maestro."  He  would  have  continued 
his  studies,  but  the  death  of  his  father  recalled  him  to  Russia. 

Glinka  wrote  some  instrumental  pieces  and  a  number  of  smaller 
works,  but  is  best  known  by  his  two  operas,  "Life  for  the  Czar"  and 
"Russian  and  Ludmilla."  The  former  work,  brought  out  in  1836,  is 
considered  the  foundation  of  the  Russian  national  school.  It  did  for 
Russia  what  Weber's  "Der  Freischiitz"  did  for  Germany,  by  ideal- 
izing the  native  folk-music  into  an  artistic  composition.  Where 
earlier  Russians  had  merely  incorporated  folk-songs,  sometimes 
leaving  the  simple  accompaniments  unaltered,  Glinka  brought  the 
resources  of  the  trained  composer  into  action,  and  gave  the  music 
real  strength  without  injuring  its  characteristic  flavor.  His  use  of  a 
melody  that  he  had  heard  on  the  lips  of  a  cab-driver  caused  his 
opera  to  be  called  "Musique  des  cochers,"  but  the  reproach  is  un- 
just. 

The  plot  of  this  work  is  laid  in  the  seventeenth  century,  when 
Russia  was  largely  in  the  hands  of  the  Poles.  The  conquerors  decide 
to  seize  the  newly  elected  czar,  Michael  Romanoff.  On  their  march 
they  order  the  peasant  Ivan  Susanina  to  guide  them.  But  the  latter, 
too  loyal  to  betray  his  ruler,  secretly  sends  his  son  to  warn  the  czar, 
and  leads  the  Poles  astray,  though  he  knows  he  is  thus  meeting 
death.  The  music  is  full  of  Russian  touches,  even  including  church 
modes. 

Glinka's  incidental  music  to  "Prince  Kholomsky"  was  followed 
by  his  second  opera.  This  work,  "Russian  and  Ludmilla,"  is  based 
on  a  legend,  in  which  Russian,  the  favored  one  of  three  suitors,  is  to 
wed  Ludmilla,  daughter  of  Prince  Svietozar.  Meanwhile  the  wicked 
wizard  Chemomor,  seeing  Ludmilla,  falls  in  love  with  her,  and  car- 
ries her  off  from  the  wedding  feast.  The  three  suitors  are  sent  to 
rescue  her,  and  naturally  Russian  succeeds.  One  of  his  rivals  tries 
to  gain  the  credit,  by  throwing  the  pair  into  a  magic  slumber;  but 
Russian  awakes  in  time  to  unmask  the  pretender.  The  music  to  this 
opera  is  of  more  solid  and  learned  style  than  Glinka's  earlier  work. 
It  caused  much  discussion,  Stassov  praising  it  while  Serov  called  it  a 
retrogression. 


198  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Alexander  Sergeivitch  Dargomiszky  (1813-69)  gained  some  in- 
struction from  the  exercise-books  that  Glinka  had  filled  when  undei 
Dehn's  tuition,  though  he  was  already  proficient  in  orchestration. 
His  first  opera,  "Esmeralda,"  was  rather  light  and  trivial  in  style, 
though  it  pleased  the  public.  "The  Triumph  of  Bacchus"  was  re- 
jected, and  remained  unknown  for  many  years.  "The  Roussalka" 
(1856)  met  with  a  better  fate,  though  at  first  it  was  too  advanced  to 
find  much  favor  with  a  public  that  still  craved  Italian  opera.  The 
Roussalki,  or  water-nymphs  who  lie  in  wait  for  the  traveller,  are 
maidens  who  have  been  betrayed  and  have  drowned  themselves.  In 
the  story  (written  by  Pushkin)  a  young  prince  falls  in  love  with  the 
miller's  daughter  Natasha.  She  accepts  his  devotion;  but  when  she 
learns  that  he  has  betrayed  her,  to  marry  in  his  own  rank,  she  drowns 
herself,  becoming  a  Roussalka.  The  prince  marries,  but  does  not  live 
happily.  Some  years  later  he  is  at  the  mill,  which  he  visits  out  of  re- 
morse. The  spirit  of  Natasha's  child  appears  to  him.  While  he  hesi- 
tates, the  miller,  now  crazed,  pushes  him  into  the  water.  The  music 
to  this  opera  is  national  in  spirit,  but  is  bright  or  dramatic  where 
Glinka's  scores  were  more  simply  lyrical. 

Dargomiszky 's  last  opera,  "The  Stone  Guest,"  is  based  on  the 
same  subject  as  "Don  Giovanni,"  though  using  Pushkin's  version. 
It  was  unfinished  at  the  composer's  death,  and  Rimsky- Korsakoff 
filled  in  the  orchestration.  In  this  work,  which  is  somewhat  de- 
clamatory, words  and  music  are  welded  in  close  union.  The  national 
Russians  admired  it  so  much  that  Balakirev  spoke  of  it  as  "The 
Gospel." 

Alexander  Nicholaievitch  Serov  (1820-71)  became  famous  in  crit- 
icism at  first,  defending  Spontini  and  the  historical  opera  in  a  way 
that  foreshadowed  Wagnerian  principles.  In  later  days  Serov  and 
Wagner  became  quite  intimate,  and  apparently  formed  a  "mutual 
admiration  society."  Serov  was  over  forty  before  he  tried  to  clinch 
his  hold  on  the  public  by  composing  an  opera;  and  he  had  to  learn 
many  of  the  technicalities  of  composition.  Under  the  circumstances, 
the  strength  of  his  work,  "Judith,"  is  remarkable.  It  is  not  subtle, 
but  handles  gorgeous  scenes  in  a  broad,  almost  Wagnerian  man- 
ner. 

Serov's  second  work,  "Rogneda,"  was  written  frankly  to  fit  the 
public  taste;  and  it  succeeded  in  its  object.   Its  sensational  stage 


FROM  GLINKA  TO  TSCHAIKOVSKY  199 

effects  still  hold  the  Russian  public.  A  third  work,  "  The  Power  of 
Evil,"  was  a  compromise  between  Wagner's  methods  and  Russian 
nationalism;  and  it  lacked  the  strength  of  either  school. 

Alexis  Lvoff  (1799-1871)  composed  a  youthful  opera,  and  three 
later  ones,  but  was  not  especially  a  pioneer.  He  wrote  violin  works 
also,  but  became  best  known  by  his  Russian  National  Hymn. 

Anton  Gregorovitch  Rubinstein  (1830-94)  was  bom  in  Bessarabia, 
but  was  brought  up  at  Moscow.  He  was  of  Jewish  descent,  though 
his  father  joined  the  Orthodox  Russian  Church.  He  studied  piano 
with  his  mother,  and  later  with  Villoing,  who  was  with  him  in  Paris 
when  he  was  refused  admission  to  the  Conservatoire.  Later  on  he 
and  his  brother  were  taken  to  Berlin,  where  he  studied  with  Dehn. 
In  1848  he  made  St.  Petersburg  his  home,  and  began  composing 
operas.  Within  a  few  years  he  made  a  European  tour  to  exploit  his 
works,  with  such  success  that  he  was  afterwards  created  court- 
musician  to  the  czar  and  head  of  the  Musical  Society.  In  1862  he 
started  the  great  St.  Petersburg  Conservatory,  which  he  directed  for 
many  years. 

Rubinstein's  fame  as  a  performer  is  mentioned  in  the  chapter 
"Some  Famous  Pianists,"  later  in  this  volume.  On  his  American 
tours,  he  kept  to  a  high  standard  of  art,  giving  the  best  of  pro- 
grammes. Once,  at  Buffalo,  where  he  was  billed  to  play  with  a  band, 
the  local  manager  placed  a  couple  of  cheap  waltzes  on  the  list  of 
pieces.  When  Rubinstein  saw  this,  he  refused  to  appear  until  the 
waltzes  had  been  crossed  off  every  programme.  Even  then  he  re- 
gretted that  he  was  not  independent  enough  to  show  the  manager 
what  he  thought  of  the  occasion.  He  proved  that  his  anger  was 
genuine  by  declining  a  later  offer  of  a  hundred  thousand  dollars 
for  another  American  tour. 

Rubinstein's  orchestral  works  include  six  symphonies,  three  over- 
tures, a  symphonic  poem,  three  character-pieces,  a  suite,  five  piano 
concertos,  and  some  fantasias  for  piano  and  orchestra.  Of  these,  the 
best  known  is  probably  the  "Ocean  Symphony,"  produced  in  1868. 
This  has  a  remarkably  effective  first  movement,  but  after  that  the 
interest  gradually  tapers  off.  Nevertheless,  Rubinstein  kept  adding 
to  the  work  until  he  had  brought  it  up  to  seven  movements,  —  pos- 
sibly t3T)ical  of  the  "seven  seas."  Another  successful  work  was  the 
"Di-amatic  SjTnphony,"  produced  seven  years  later.  The  concertos 


200  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

are  still  played  by  famous  pianists,  the  later  ones  rivalling  the  sym- 
phonies in  popularity. 

Rubinstein  composed  quite  a  large  amount  of  chamber  music. 
Most  pleasing  to  the  public  is  a  string  quartet  containing  the  so- 
called  "Music  of  the  Spheres,"  —  a  very  expressive  and  saccharine 
slow  movement. 

Rubinstein's  orchestral  and  chamber  music  shows  some  command 
of  orchestration,  and  a  richness  of  musical  effect  arising  in  many 
cases  from  his  use  of  Oriental  flavors.  His  works  are  often  grandiose, 
but  they  do  not  always  show  real  inspiration  or  sustained  power. 

Rubinstein's  songs  are  among  his  best  compositions.  In  these 
there  is  no  need  for  lengthy  expression,  and  in  their  brief  space  the 
composer  has  often  given  us  lyrics  of  unflagging  inspiration.  His 
dramatic  strength  is  shown  in  "The  Asra";  his  melodic  richness 
appears  in  "The  Dream";  while  "Golden  at  my  feet"  is  a  much- 
admired  example  of  Orientalism. 

The  piano  works  include  a  couple  of  sonatas;  but  the  shorter  pieces 
are  much  better  known.  Rubinstein  himself  made  many  of  these 
familiar  to  his  audiences;  but  they  have  held  their  place  after  his 
death.  The  well-known  "Melody  in  F"  verges  a  little  toward  the 
commonplace;  but  his  barcarolles,  romances,  and  other  works  of  the 
sort  are  still  in  evidence  on  concert  programmes. 

Rubinstein  devoted  much  attention  to  the  opera.  His  first  dra- 
matic effort,  "Dmitri  Donskoi,"  met  with  only  a  fair  reception; 
while  "Tom  the  Fool"  aroused  so  little  enthusiasm  that  the  com- 
poser withdrew  it.  Other  early  works  were  "Hadji-Abrek"  and 
"The  Siberian  Hunters,"  each  in  one  act.  As  Rubinstein  had  thus 
failed  in  Russian  opera,  he  devoted  his  attention  to  Germany. 
There  he  brought  out  his  "Kinder  der  Heide";  and  the  same  coun- 
try applauded  his  "Feramors."  His  next  efforts  were  in  the  field  of 
sacred  opera,  and  resulted  in  "The  Tower  of  Babel,"  "The  Macca- 
bees," and  "Paradise  Lost,"  some  of  which  resembled  cantatas. 
Returning  to  the  secular  field,  he  next  completed  his  best  opera, 
"The  Demon,"  which  was  brought  out  at  St.  Petersburg.  This 
work,  based  on  a  poem  by  Lermontov,  portrays  a  species  of  Russian 
"Faust."  Its  hero  is  a  mortal,  with  certain  demoniac  tendencies, 
who  wishes  to  find  consolation  in  love.  He  pursues  Tamara,  the 
object  of  his  affections,  even  into  the  convent  where  she  has  taken 


FROM  GLINKA  TO  TSCHAIKOVSKY  201 

refuge.  Defying  her  good  angel,  he  enters  her  cell;  but  after  this 
Tamara  is  called  to  death,  and  saved,  like  Marguerite. 

Rubinstein's  Biblical  operas  include  also  "  Artaxerxes,"  "Joseph," 
and  "The  Shulamite";  but  the  best  of  them  were  his  later  works  en- 
titled "Moses"  and  "Christus."  His  later  secular  operas  consisted 
of  "  Nero,"  a  spectacular  work  that  grew  popular  in  (Germany; "  The 
Merchant  Kalashnikov,"  dealing  with  a  brave  trader  whose  jeal- 
ousy of  his  wife  leads  him  to  defy  the  Imperial  body-guard,  the 
Opritchniki;  "Der  Papagei,"  a  comic  opera;  and  "  Gorioushka/' 
another  Russian  subject.  But  "The  Demon"  and  "Feramors"  re- 
main his  best  known  stage  works.  The  ballet-music  from  these  two 
operas  is  deservedly  popular. 

Rubinstein  was  eclectic  rather  than  national.  He  did  not  believe 
in  limiting  his  music  to  the  purely  Russian  appeal  of  native  folk- 
songs. But  on  the  other  hand  he  did  not  recognize  the  value  of  na- 
tionalism. He  was  greatly  opposed  to  Wagner,  and  feared  that  the 
latter's  influence  on  opera  would  be  totally  bad.  Rubinstein  summed 
up  his  own  position,  both  racially  and  musically,  by  saying,  "  The 
Christians  call  me  a  Jew,  the  Jews,  a  Christian;  the  Russians  called 
me  a  German,  the  Germans,  a  Russian." 

Nicholas  Rubinstein  (1835-81),  Anton's  younger  brother,  was  a 
good  musician  in  his  own  right.  He  was  an  excellent  pianist,  an  able 
conductor,  and  a  composer  of  concert  and  salon  music.  He  founded 
and  directed  the  Moscow  Conservatory. 

Peter  Ilyitch  Tschaikovsky  (1840-93)  became  Russia's  greatest 
composer.  His  father's  mining  business  took  the  family  to  distant 
places,  where  there  was  little  art;  but  a  music-box  brought  the  boy 
much  pleasure.  School  in  St.  Petersburg  was  a  harsh  contrast  to  the 
pleasant  family  life,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  composer's  ner- 
vous troubles.  Later  on  Peter  was  set  to  studying  law,  for  which  he 
felt  an  utter  distaste.  His  dislike  of  mathematics  was  shown  by  the 
fact  that  he  once  boasted  of  having  solved  a  problem  unaided;  but 
this  did  not  occur  until  his  fifth  year  of  legal  study.  This  quality 
showed  also  in  his  dislike  of  Bach  and  the  intellectual  side  of  music. 
His  own  works,  great  as  they  are,  lean  too  much  on  emotional  ef- 
fects, in  spite  of  the  strength  showed  by  the  fugue  in  his  first  suite. 

After  the  death  of  Tschaikovsky's  mother,  which  shocked  him 
greatly,  he  graduated  from  his  studies  and  became  an  official  in  the 


■TATS  TtA,   M^fJ:.    COl-LFat 
•ANTA   BARBARA.   CAi.iFOnNIA 


202  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Ministry  of  Justice.  He  never  worked  hard  at  this  post,  however. 
He  acquired  the  habit  of  chewing  paper  when  at  all  abstracted. 
Once,  while  taking  a  state  document  to  a  certain  office,  he  met  a 
friend  in  the  corridor;  and  that  friend's  conversation  proved  so  inter- 
esting that  Tschaikovsky  bit  up  most  of  the  document  before  re- 
membering his  errand.  Fortunately  he  was  able  to  make  another 
copy  from  memory. 

At  this  time  he  had  various  music  teachers,  but  none  of  them  sus- 
pected his  future  greatness.  He  received  no  valuable  instruction 
until  the  conservatory  stai'ted.  Then  he  was  thoroughly  grounded 
in  harmony  and  counterpoint,  and  studied  form  with  Zaremba  and 
orchestration  with  Anton  Rubinstein. 

Tschaikovsky's  tastes  were  very  variable.  At  that  period  he 
placed  Wagner  far  below  Serov,  and  said  that  piano  and  orchestra 
did  not  blend.  Now  Serov  is  known  as  a  "second-rater,"  while 
Wagner's  leadership  is  acknowledged;  and  Tschaikovsky's  own 
piano  concertos  are  among  the  very  best.  At  this  time,  too,  he 
showed  his  own  radical  tendencies  in  an  overture  entitled  "The 
Storm,"  which  caused  a  real  storm  when  the  conservatory  people 
saw  it. 

Tschaikovsky  fell  deeply  in  love  with  the  singer  Desiree  Artdt, 
but  did  not  marry  her  after  all,  perhaps  not  wishing  to  be  the  male 
attendant  of  a  travelling  star.  It  would  have  been  better  for  him  if 
he  had  made  this  imion;  for  his  own  marriage,  occurring  later,  was 
most  unfortunate.  A  lady  whom  he  had  met  during  girlhood  ad- 
dressed a  series  of  love-letters  to  him.  He  informed  the  lady  (An- 
tonina  Milyukova)  that  he  had  nothing  beyond  friendship  to  offer; 
but  she  was  persistent,  and  finally  the  composer  feared  he  might 
ruin  her  life  if  he  refused  her.  They  were  married  in  1877,  but  the 
union  soon  proved  unhappy.  Tschaikovsky,  who  was  very  nervous, 
would  probably  have  been  driven  into  a  premature  grave  if  an  early 
separation  had  not  taken  place. 

Another  woman  was  of  far  more  beneficial  influence  on  his  career. 
This  was  Nadeshda  Filaretovna  von  Meek,  the  wife  of  a  rich  engin- 
eer. Much  moved  by  Tschaikovsky's  music,  she  gave  him  the  gen- 
erous sum  of  six  thousand  roubles  annually,  to  allow  him  to  compose 
unhampered  by  financial  cares.  She  made  it  a  condition  that  they 
should  never  meet;  and  even  when  attending  the  same  concert,  they 


FROM  GLINKA  TO  TSCHAIKOVSKY  203 

passed  each  other  as  strangei's.  But  they  corresponded,  and  the 
composer  sent  her  frequent  accounts  of  his  musical  activity. 

A  stay  at  Clarens,  on  Lake  Geneva,  was  followed  by  a  trip  to  Italy 
and  various  other  places.  In  Vienna  he  found  Wagner's  "Ring" 
rather  tiresome,  and  came  to  dislike  the  works  of  Brahms.  The  lat- 
ter feeling  was  natural  enough,  for  the  intellectual  Brahms  and  the 
emotional  Tschaikovsky  were  certainly  opposites  in  music. 

Back  in  Russia,  Tschaikovsky  settled  at  Maidanovo,  where  the 
quiet  country  life  gave  him  rest.  Here  he  took  long  walks,  which 
often  brought  him  musical  inspiration.  The  last  few  years  of  his  life 
were  full  of  travel.  In  1891  he  even  made  an  American  tour,  receiv- 
ing much  appreciation,  but  meeting  many  annoyances  also  from  ill- 
bred  hotel  employees.  He  died  of  cholera,  brought  about  by  his 
drinking  a  glass  of  unfiltered  water  at  a  St.  Petersburg  restaurant. 

Tschaikovsky's  music  marks  him  as  a  leader  in  orchestration,  and 
in  the  best  effects  of  the  programme  school.  His  great  symphonic 
poems  show  a  most  powerful  mastery  over  the  instruments  and  their 
combinations. 

In  Russia,  Tschaikovsky  is  known  as  a  prolific  opera  composer. 
His  first  attempts,  however,  met  with  misfortune  that  was  not  unde- 
served. "The  Voyevode"  was  performed,  but  cut  up  afterwards 
into  separate  numbers.  "Undine"  was  rejected,  and  its  music  too 
was  dissected  for  use  in  later  works.  "Mandragora"  had  a  weak 
libretto.  The  composer's  first  success  was  "The  Opritchniki."  This 
received  fourteen  performances  in  a  year;  but  Cui  called  it  the  work 
of  a  schoolboy,  ignorant  of  the  needs  of  lyric  drama. 

"  Vakula  the  Smith,"  which  won  prizes  in  competition,  has  for  its 
hero  the  son  of  a  witch,  who  brings  for  his  sweetheart  the  shoes  of 
the  empress,  demanded  as  a  pledge  of  love,  by  tricking  and  using  the 
demon  who  is  smitten  with  his  mother.  The  subject  is  decidedly 
bizarre,  but  has  its  moments  of  humor  as  well  as  dramatic  power, 
and  is  set  to  good  music. 

"Eugene  Onyegin,"  Tschaikovsky's  best  opera,  treats  a  story  by 
Pushkin.  Eugene's  friend  Lensky,  loving  a  girl  named  Olga,  pre- 
sents him  to  her  family.  Her  sister  Tatiana  falls  in  love  with  the 
stranger,  but  he  sees  in  her  only  a  country  nobody,  and  ignores  her 
little  advances.  Later  in  life  he  finds  her  transformed  by  marriage 
into  the  brilliant  Princess  Gremin.    He  then  feels  her  spell,  and 


£04  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

pleads  his  love;  but  in  spite  of  her  early  longing  for  him  she  is  able 
to  refuse  his  advances  and  leave  him  in  despair.  The  music  shows 
much  beauty  of  feeling,  Tatiana's  scenes  being  especially  tender. 

"Joan  of  Arc"  was  a  weak  blend  of  Italian  and  Meyerbeer  effects. 
"Mazeppa"  prompted  Cui  to  say  that  Tschaikovsky  had  succeeded 
in  producing  something  worse  even  than  "Joan  of  Arc."  "The 
Sorceress"  was  undramatic,  the  composer  showing  a  tendency  to 
make  his  score  consist  of  complete  musical  forms.  The  later  one-act 
"lolanthe"  was  prolix,  though  occasionally  expressive.  But  "The 
Queen  of  Spades"  proved  another  success.  This  work  is  based  on  a 
Pushkin  story  of  a  young  gambler  who  is  told  of  three  successful 
cards  by  the  spirit  of  a  dead  countess.  He  wins  on  two  of  them,  but 
the  third  changes  to  the  queen  of  spades,  on  which  he  loses  every- 
thing. A  love  story  with  the  daughter  of  the  countess  is  added  in 
the  libretto. 

Tschaikovsky's  incidental  music  to  "The  Snow  Maiden"  is  very 
good,  —  much  better,  in  fact,  than  that  to  "  Hamlet." 

He  composed  three  ballets,  "The  Lake  of  Swans,"  "The  Sleeping 
Beauty,"  and  "  Casse-Noisette."  All  of  them  show  much  musical 
beauty.  In  the  last,  the  stage  manager  called  for  the  music  in  defi- 
nite amounts,  —  sixty-four  bars  of  soft  music,  eight  bars  of  tinkling 
music  as  a  Christmas-tree  lights  up,  twenty-four  bars  of  lively  music 
for  the  children's  entrance,  and  so  on;  but  this  did  not  seem  to  ham- 
per the  composer's  inspiration. 

Tschaikovsky's  orchestral  works  are  really  much  greater  than  his 
operas,  and  are  known  through  the  civilized  world.  Of  his  six  sym- 
phonies, the  first  is  called  "Winter  Dreams."  The  second  was 
national  enough  to  win  praise  from  Cui,  who  disliked  the  composer's 
cosmopolitan  ideas.  The  third  is  more  conventional,  being  based  on 
western  European  models.  The  fourth,  beginning  a  much  greater 
group,  depicts  man's  troubles  with  fate,  but  ends  in  popular  festivity. 
The  fifth,  coming  some  years  later,  is  a  strongly  effective  work,  with 
very  characteristic  national  themes  that  recur  in  the  different  move- 
ments. The  sixth,  the  "Symphonie  Pathetique,"  is  marked  by  the 
most  astonishing  expressive  power.  Its  first  movement  contrasts 
rugged  work  with  a  sad-sweet  theme  typical  of  tender  memories. 
Its  second  movement,  in  i  time,  shows  an  undertone  of  unrest.  The 
third  movement  culminates  in  a  stirring  march,  suggestive  of  glory; 


FROM  GLINKA  TO  TSCHAIKOVSKY  205 

but  the  fourth,  really  the  slow  movement,  brings  deep  gloom  for  the 
close,  suggesting  death. 

**  Manfred  "  is  practically  a  programme  symphony.  Its  first  move- 
ment shows  the  hero  in  the  Alps,  calling  upon  Astarte  in  vain,  and 
pleading  for  oblivion.  A  fantastic  scherzo  depicts  the  Spirit  of  the 
Alps  appearing  in  the  rainbow  of  a  waterfall.  An  adagio  tjrpifies 
the  Swiss  pastoral  life  and  scenes.  The  finale  is  wildly  infernal,  de- 
picting the  caves  of  Arimanes;  and  it  ends  by  suggesting  Manfred's 
death.  A  German  critic  stated  that  while  Schumann  portrayed 
Manfred's  passion,  Tschaikovsky  depicted  his  agony. 

The  first  of  the  symphonic  poems,  entitled  "Fate,"  was  not  suc- 
cessful. 

"Romeo  and  Juliet"  proved  more  effective.  It  has  an  opening 
theme  suggesting  Friar  Laurence,  and  two  main  parts,  typifying  the 
feud  and  the  lovers. 

"The  Tempest"  is  less  successful,  though  it  has  many  grand 
moments,  and  an  effective  storm. 

"Hamlet"  was  another  Shakespearian  affair,  condensed  to  form 
part  of  the  incidental  music. 

"The  Voyevode"  is  independent  of  the  opera,  but  resembles  it  in 
not  being  very  great. 

Best  of  the  symphonic  poems  is  "Francesca  da  Rimini."  In  this 
the  composer  rises  to  tremendous  power.  Its  central  section  por- 
trays FVancesca's  narrative,  while  the  first  and  last  part  depict  the 
inferno.  The  wandering  of  lost  souls  is  shown  by  an  andante  luguhre, 
which  is  followed  by  a  whirlwind  of  infernal  suggestion. 

Tschaikovsky's  overtures  are  good,  but  less  important.  The  first 
piano  concerto  is  grandly  effective,  even  though  Nicholas  Rubin- 
stein abused  it  once.  A  second  concerto  is  also  well  liked;  while  a 
third  is  made  of  posthumous  movements.  The  violin  concerto  is 
another  standard  work.  This  was  the  composition  that  aroused 
Hanslick's  ire  in  Germany,  and  made  that  conservative  critic 
remark  that  such  music  was  actually  malodorous  (in  fact,  he  used  a 
more  vulgar  word).  The  variations  for  'cello  and  orchestra  form 
still  another  well-known  work.  A  "Pezzo  Capriccioso"  and  a  "Fan- 
taisie  de  Concert"  also  exist.  Of  the  orchestral  suites,  his  first 
begins  with  the  fugue  already  mentioned. 

Tschaikovsky's  chamber  music  is  strongly  expressive.  It  consists 


206  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

of  three  string  quartets,  a  sextet,  and  a  piano  trio.    His  piano  works 
and  songs  are  also  attractive,  but  not  well  known  in  America. 

Tschaikovsky  ranks  with  the  foremost  masters.  His  handling  of 
the  modem  orchestra,  combined  with  the  strongly  emotional  char- 
acter of  his  themes,  make  his  work  as  important  in  its  way  as  that 
of  Liszt  or  Berlioz.  His  music  does  not  always  wear  well,  for  it 
lacks  the  underlying  intellect  of  Bach  or  Brahms;  but  its  glories 
are  most  marked,  in  spite  of  all  criticism. 


XXIII 

WAGNER  AND  HIS  REFORMS 

WiLHELM  Richard  Wagner  was  born  at  Leipsic  on  May  22, 
1813.  After  he  became  well-known,  he  omitted  the  "  Wilhelm  "  per- 
manently. His  mother,  widowed  before  his  birth,  married  the  actor 
and  artist  Ludwig  Geyer,  the  family  moving  soon  to  Dresden.  Some 
have  thought  that  Geyer  was  really  Wagner's  father,  though  the 
evidence  seems  against  the  idea.  The  little  Richard  was  a  spirited, 
warm-hearted  boy,  with  a  taste  for  reading  fairy  tales.  He  showed 
no  musical  aptitude  at  first.  Geyer,  on  hearing  him  pick  out  a  tune 
that  his  sister  had  played,  asked  himself,  "  Has  he,  perhaps,  a  talent 
for  music?"  But  Geyer  died  before  having  his  question  answered. 
It  was  not  until  1827  that  a  hearing  of  Beethoven's  symphonies  and 
Weber's  operas  aroused  Richard's  love  of  music.  His  studies  with 
Theodor  Weinlig,  at  Leipsic,  resulted  in  the  composition  of  sonatas, 
overtures,  and  even  a  symphony  in  C;  but  these  works  were  nearly 
all  pedantic  and  uninspired. 

Wagner's  first  libretto,  written  in  his  school  days,  consisted  of  a 
tragic  affair  in  which  all  the  characters  were  killed,  and  the  last  act 
carried  on  with  their  ghosts.  His  first  opera  was  "The  Fairies," 
which  he  finished  at  Wiirzburg  in  1834.  In  that  work  a  prince,  who 
has  married  a  fairy  and  lost  her,  goes  through  various  trials  in  order 
to  regain  her.  At  Magdeburg  he  completed  "Das  Liebesverbot,'* 
a  setting  of  "Measure  for  Measure"  in  the  Rossini  style.  A  further 
position  brought  him  to  Riga,  where  his  conducting  showed  him  the 
really  commonplace  nature  of  the  Italian  opera  of  that  epoch.  His 
next  work,  "  Rienzi,"  was  based  on  the  sumptuous  style  that  Meyer- 
beer used.  The  libretto  shows  at  first  the  Orsini-Colonna  brawls; 
Adrian  Colonna's  love  for  Rienzi's  sister  Irene;  and  the  popular 
revolt  under  Rienzi.  In  the  second  act  the  nobles  are  pardoned,  but 
try  to  kill  Rienzi  at  the  feast  of  reconciliation.  In  the  third  act  they 
rebel,  are  defeated  again,  and  several,  including  old  Colonna,  put  to 
death.   In  the  fourth  act  Adrian,  out  of  revenge  for  his  kinsman. 


«08  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

foments  popular  revolt;  Rienzi,  in  an  impassioned  speech,  regains 
the  people's  allegiance;  but  the  Pope's  messengers  excommunicate 
him,  whereupon  he  is  deserted.  In  the  fifth  act,  after  a  vain  attempt 
to  regain  his  influence,  Rienzi  retreats  to  the  palace;  Adrian  joins 
him,  out  of  love  for  Irene;  and  the  trio  perish  when  the  people  bum 
the  palace.  This  work  succeeded,  and  Wagner  could  have  become 
rich  and  famous  by  continuing  in  its  school;  but  his  artistic  ideal 
drove  him  to  seek  higher  things. 

Wagner  the  artist  and  Wagner  the  man  were  two  widely  different 
beings.  In  art  he  sought  for  the  noblest  standards;  but  in  life  he  was 
often  mean  and  petty.  He  made  the  financial  loans  of  his  friends 
minister  to  his  needs;  and  he  seemed  to  take  it  for  granted  that  he 
could  be  permitted  to  draw  inspiration  from  woman's  love,  no  matter 
where  he  found  it.  In  Magdeburg  he  married  Wilhelmina  (Minna) 
Planer.  She  was  a  young  actress  who  gave  up  her  career  for  him,  and 
helped  him  in  the  most  practical  ways,  and  by  the  most  patient 
drudgery.  This  was  especially  true  at  Paris,  where  the  pair  went  on 
leaving  Riga.  The  voyage  suggested  a  sea-subject  to  Wagner,  and 
in  Paris  we  find  him  beginning  "The  Flying  Dutchman,"  which  first 
showed  something  like  his  later  style.  Some  songs  and  other  works 
were  of  little  pecuniary  aid,  and  probably  Minna's  care  and  sacrifices 
were  all  that  saved  him  from  starvation.  Wagner  once  said  that  he 
could  not  be  a  "  Meister  Bach,"  doing  drudgery  in  a  small  post.  He 
recognized  his  own  genius;  but  he  made  this  an  excuse  for  sponging 
on  his  friends,  instead  of  working  until  he  earned  enough  to  let  him 
carry  out  his  ideas.  But  his  later  musical  plans  were  so  titanic  that 
they  could  not  have  materialized  without  the  help  of  some  wealthy 
patron. 

A  return  to  Dresden  as  Kapellmeister  brought  some  happy  years 
for  Wagner,  and  for  Minna  too.  She  wrote  afterward  that  his 
"Tannhauser"  and  "Lohengrin"  were  composed  in  her  presence, 
and  while  he  was  cherished  by  her  care.  She  has  been  accused  of  not 
understanding  Wagner's  real  greatness,  and  not  giving  him  the 
spiritual  companionship  that  was  necessary  for  the  development  of 
his  highest  ideas;  but  the  women  who  did  give  him  such  spiritual 
uplift  might  have  been  too  busy  to  do  so  if  they  had  been  obliged 
to  look  after  his  physical  needs  as  patiently  and  as  well  as  Minna 
did.  This  marriage,  and  the  subsequent  separation,  was  not  a  case 


WAGNER  AND  HIS  REFORMS  209 

of  the  man  outgrowing  the  woman  intellectually.  Something  of  that 
situation  was  present;  but  there  was  also  the  fact  that  Wagner  made 
inordinate  demands  on  other  women's  love,  and  expected  Minna  to 
shut  her  eyes  to  such  amatory  proceedings  and  keep  up  his  home. 

Wagner's  wandering  affection,  if  not  actual  infidelity,  was  plainly 
shown  in  his  relations  with  the  Wesendonck  couple.  He  had  become 
involved  in  the  Revolution  of  1848  (a  proceeding  to  which  the 
practical  Minna  naturally  objected),  and  was  forced  to  flee.  Making 
Zurich  his  home,  he  brought  Minna  there  also.  Mathilde  Wesen- 
donck and  Wagner  grew  so  interested  in  each  other  that  she  per- 
suaded her  husband.  Otto,  to  give  Wagner  a  house  next  door  to  her 
own.  Then  arose  a  most  fervid  love  intercourse  between  the  com- 
poser and  his  benefactor's  wife.  Mathilde  told  much  or  all  of  this 
to  her  husband,  who  no  doubt  disliked  the  situation,  but  forbore  to 
make  a  scandal.  Minna,  however,  was  kept  in  the  dark,  and  received 
an  unpleasant  surprise  when  she  foimd  one  of  her  husband's  love- 
letters  to  Mathilde.  In  an  artistic  way,  this  platonic  influence  (if, 
indeed,  it  was  nothing  more)  was  a  source  of  inspiration  to  Wagner 
in  composing  his  "Tristan  and  Isolde,"  —  in  which,  incidentally, 
a  passionate  love  and  a  forbearing  husband  are  portrayed.  But 
Minna  naturally  found  it  hard  to  accept  such  a  situation  while  living 
on  the  Wesendoncks'  bounty.  Yet  she  was  still  with  Wagner  when 
he  went  to  Paris  in  1860  and  witnessed  the  public  hostility  to  his 
"Tannhauser"  in  1861.  But  his  irritability  and  selfishness  soon 
caused  such  trouble  that  when  the  pair  returned  to  Germany  they 
separated.  They  remained  apart  except  for  a  short  time  at  Biebrich, 
and  Wagner  had  several  "affairs"  with  pretty  women  acquaintances 
whom  he  chose  as  housekeepers.  In  Wagner's  relations  with  women, 
however,  he  was  always  fondest  of  those  who  appreciated  the  real 
greatness  of  his  works.  He  was  much  influenced  by  external  condi- 
tions, desiring  physical  comfort  as  well  as  protecting  and  adoring 
love.  He  would  have  his  study  perfumed,  for  instance,  or  would  fur- 
nish it  in  keeping  with  the  atmosphere  of  the  work  upon  which  he 
was  busy.  As  a  man,  Wagner  was  indeed  no  devout "  Meister  Bach," 
nor  yet  a  humanity-loving  Beethoven.  The  greatness  of  his  work  is 
sufficient  excuse  for  many  meannesses,  if  they  were  really  necessary 
adjuncts  to  the  creation  of  such  work.  His  trust  in  the  financial  help 
of  his  friends  imdoubtedly  left  him  free  to  devote  his  efforts  to  art; 


210  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

but  one  cannot  help  feeling  that  a  better  treatment  of  Minna  would 
not  have  interfered  with  his  creative  ability.  She  died  in  1866. 
Except  for  a  Russian  trip,  Wagner  had  for  two  years  been  carrying 
on  an  affair  with  Cosima,  daughter  of  Liszt  and  wife  of  Von  Billow. 
After  Minna's  death,  he  settled  at  Triebschen,  near  Lucerne,  and 
Cosima  soon  joined  him  there.  Four  years  later.  Von  Biilow  divorced 
his  wife,  and  Wagner  married  her.  Wagner  died  in  1883,  and  she  has 
survived  him  for  several  decades,  being  alive  in  1915.  She  gave  him 
the  spiritual  companionship  that  he  desired. 

Meanwhile  Wagner  had  planned,  and  in  part  completed,  the  great 
works  that  were  to  make  his  name  famous.  His  two  subjects  "Bar- 
barossa"  and  "Wieland  the  Smith"  were  not  used.  But  "The 
Young  Siegfried,"  which  he  started  in  1851,  gradually  grew  into 
the  great  Trilogy  (with  prologue)  that  we  know  as  "  The  Ring  of  the 
Nibelungen."  The  text  was  printed  in  1853.  "The  Rheingold"  was 
finished  in  1854,  and  "The  Valkyrie"  by  the  end  of  the  same  year. 
The  latter  was  scored  by  April,  1856.  Then  "The  Ring"  was  laid 
aside  for  "Tristan,"  which  was  completed  in  1859.  "Die  Meister- 
singer"  was  planned  in  1862,  though  not  finished  until  1867.  "Sieg- 
fried" was  composed  in  1869,  and  scored  in  1871;  while  "Die 
Gotterdammerung"  was  composed  in  1870,  and  the  scoring  finished 
in  1874.  "Parsifal,"  the  "stage-consecration-play,"  was  composed 
in  1878-79,  and  scored  in  1882.  The  composer  died  at  Venice  on 
February  13,  1883. 

In  one  respect,  at  least,  that  of  the  criticisms  he  received,  Wagner 
was  fully  justified  in  complaining.  The  public  at  first  failed  to  appre- 
ciate the  greatness  of  his  music.  Even  composers  were  not  able  to 
do  it  full  justice.  It  was  called,  after  one  of  his  pamphlets,  "The 
Music  of  the  Future";  and  under  this  title  it  was  subjected  to  all 
kinds  of  ridicule  and  abuse.  Even  after  it  had  made  its  way  with  the 
public,  officials  often  intrigued  against  it.  Judith  Gautier,  in  "Wag- 
ner at  Home,"  describes  a  "Rheingold"  performance  at  Munich, 
in  which,  after  the  rehearsals  had  been  correct,  the  final  representa- 
tion was  spoiled  deliberately,  by  a  manipulation  of  lights  that  kept 
them  sedulously  away  from  the  rainbow  bridge  to  Walhalla,  and  by 
other  similar  tricks. 

In  the  last  four  decades  the  greatness  of  Wagner  has  been  recog- 
nized.   Even  those  who  most  disliked  the  man  were  reduced  to 


WAGNER  CARICATURED  AS  ATTACKING  THE  HUMAN  EAR 


-•.4? 


WAGNER  AND  HIS  REFORMS  211 

amazed  silence  by  the  revelation  of  his  music.  Its  titanic  strength, 
its  glowing  beauty,  and  its  marvellous  richness  of  orchestration 
almost  obliterate  the  older  schools  of  opera.  The  music  of  the  future 
has  become  the  music  of  the  present;  and  radicals  of  the  Satie- 
Schoenberg  type  are  even  trying  to  make  it  the  music  of  the  past. 
Yet  once  a  Ruskin  could  speak  of  the  glorious  score  of  "  Die  Meister- 
singer"  as  "rotten,  baboon-headed  stuff." 

When  Wagner  published  the  text  of  his  Trilogy,  he  outlined  a  plan 
for  its  production  similar  to  that  which  was  carried  out  later  at 
Bayreuth.  He  admitted  that  such  an  affair  would  demand  princely 
aid.  At  the  time  Wagner  despaired  of  ever  finding  such  aid;  but  it 
was  not  long  in  coming.  On  March  23, 1864,  Wagner  fled  to  Maria- 
feld  to  avoid  his  creditors.  On  May  3  of  the  same  year,  Ludwig  II, 
the  new  king  of  Bavaria,  sent  messengers  offering  his  patronage, 
to  the  hidden  composer.  By  the  aid  of  Ludwig,  many  of  Wagner's 
dreams  were  made  into  realities.  The  composer  lived  in  Munich 
for  a  while,  just  before  settling  in  Triebschen. 

Wagner  kept  working  for  the  foundation  of  a  national  theatre,  or 
opera  house,  where  his  own  compositions  and  other  good  operas 
could  be  given.  King  Ludwig  helped  somewhat,  but  the  sum  needed 
was  very  great.  Finally  Wagner's  persistent  efforts  made  the  plan 
possible;  and  in  1876  the  Wagnerian  opera  house  at  Bayreuth  was 
opened.  There  regular  Wagner  cycles  have  until  now  been  given. 
Wagner's  later  years  were  passed  in  the  Villa  Wahnfried,  which  he 
built  as  a  home  at  Bayreuth. 

In  person,  Wagner  was  energetic  and  brilliant.  His  conversation 
was  fascinating.  Henry  T.  Finck  quotes  Sir  Hubert  Herkomer,  who 
painted  Wagner's  portrait,  to  the  effect  that  "You  lose  your  identity 
when  in  his  [Wagner's]  presence;  you  are  sadly  inclined  to  forget 
that  there  is  something  else  in  the  world  beside  Wagner  and  his 
music.  You  are  under  an  influence  that  sets  every  nerve  at  its  high- 
est key.  He  has  been  able  to  make  people  frantic  with  enthusiasm." 

Taking  up  Wagner's  operas  in  about  their  order,  one  may  repeat 
that  "Rienzi,"  comparable  to  Meyerbeer's  works,  represents  no  theo- 
ries. The  germ  of  these  is  first  found  in  "The  Flying  Dutchman." 
That  opera  opens  in  a  rocky  cove,  where  the  skipper  Daland  and  the 
Fljing  Dutchman,  Vanderdecken,  take  refuge  from  a  storm.  Van- 
derdecken  is  the  sailor  who  boasted  that  he  would  finish  a  voyage 


212  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

in  spite  of  Heaven  itself,  for  which  blasphemy  he  was  doomed  to  sail 
forever.  Release  will  come  only  if  a  maiden  loves  him  enough  to 
sacrifice  herself;  and  once  in  seven  years  he  may  land  to  seek  her. 
Failure  has  made  him  gloomy;  but  by  showing  his  wealth  he  obtains 
Daland's  permission  to  woo  the  latter's  daughter  Senta.  The  second 
act  shows  Senta  among  a  merry  group  of  girls  busy  at  their  spinning- 
wheels.  But  she  stands  apart,  gazing  at  a  picture  of  Vanderdecken. 
When  teased  about  her  sadness,  she  tells  his  story,  and  says  she 
would  willingly  save  him.  Her  admirer  Erik  cannot  alter  this  mood. 
When  Daland  brings  in  the  real  Dutchman,  she  is  amazed;  but  soon 
she  plights  her  troth  to  him.  The  third  act  shows  the  seamen  making 
merry  by  the  harbor.  The  Dutchman's  sailors,  however,  do  not  join. 
When  challenged,  their  boat  glows  in  a  supernatural  light,  and  they 
sing  a  weird  song  taunting  their  captain  with  his  many  failures  in 
love.  Senta  appears  with  Erik.  The  latter  again  pleads  his  love. 
The  Dutchman,  hearing  this,  thinks  Senta  false  to  him  and  sets  sail 
to  depart.  She  tries  to  reach  his  ship.  He  tells  every  one  of  his  iden- 
tity, so  that  she  may  be  held  back;  but  she  plunges  into  the  sea  after 
him,  redeeming  him  by  her  sacrifice. 

The  music  shov/s  a  rugged  vigor  well  suited  to  its  subject.  This 
strength,  combined  with  a  rich  harmonic  and  melodic  beauty,  is 
characteristic  of  all  Wagner's  later  work.  Especially  attractive  are 
the  spinning  chorus,  Senta's  dramatic  ballad,  the  tender  theme  that 
portrays  her,  the  sombre  figure  typifying  the  Dutchman,  and  the 
rollicking  sailors'  music.  The  work  shows  a  tendency  toward  Melos, 
—  the  continuous  melodic  recitative  that  Wagner  afterwards  used, 
instead  of  single  numbers. 

"Tannhauser"  shows  the  minstrel  knight  of  that  name  revelling 
in  pleasure  in  the  Mount  of  Venus.  But  her  charms  pall,  and  he 
returns  to  the  upper  world.  In  a  pastoral  valley,  he  hears  the  chant 
of  passing  pilgrims.  Landgrave  Herrmann,  hunting,  finds  him,  and 
brings  him  to  the  tournament  of  song  at  his  castle.  There  Wolfram 
von  Eschenbach,  Walther  von  der  Vogelweide,  and  others  com- 
pete, as  they  did  in  actual  history.  Elisabeth  is  to  award  the  prize. 
In  his  song,  Tannhauser,  incited  by  memory,  sings  of  Venus,  and 
shocks  the  assemblage.  He  realizes  his  sin,  and  departs  to  obtain 
the  Pope's  forgiveness.  Elisabeth,  who  loves  him,  awaits  his  return, 
and  watches  the  passing  pilgrims  for  him.    Then  Wolfram  sings  of 


WAGNER  AND  HIS  REFORMS  213 

his  own  hopeless  love  for  her.  The  Pope  has  told  Tannhauser  that 
"sooner  should  his  dead  staff  put  forth  leaves  than  the  knight  be 
forgiven."  The  latter,  returning,  attempts  to  seek  Venus  again. 
A  funeral  procession  passes  with  the  body  of  Elisabeth,  who  has 
died  broken-hearted.  Tannhauser  sinks  in  death  by  her  bier,  while 
a  band  of  pilgrims  bring  the  Pope's  staff,  which  has  blossomed  in 
token  of  the  knight's  pardon. 

The  Pilgrims'  Chorus,  the  brilliant  Venusberg  music,  the  songs  in 
the  contest,  Elisabeth's  "  Greeting  to  the  Hall,"  the  knights'  march, 
and  Wolfram's  song  of  devotion  are  some  of  the  musical  gems  in  the 
score. 

In  "Lohengrin,"  Elsa  of  Brabant  is  charged  with  the  murder  of 
her  young  brother.  Prince  Gottfried,  who  has  really  been  bewitched 
by  the  sorceress  Ortrud.  The  latter's  husband  Telramund  is  ready 
to  appear  against  Elsa  in  ordeal  of  battle;  but  no  one  will  fight  for 
her.  While  the  herald  calls  for  her  defender,  Elsa  recites  a  dream  of 
a  knight  in  shining  armor  who  would  come  as  her  champion  in  a 
boat  drawn  by  a  swan.  Meanwhile  those  at  the  back  of  the  stage 
see  something  approaching.  It  is  really  Lohengrin,  on  the  river 
Scheldt,  and  Elsa's  dream  becomes  a  fact.  Lohengrin  wins  the  fight. 
He  begs  Elsa  to  be  his  bride,  but  tells  her  also  that  he  cannot  remain 
with  her  unless  she  will  refrain  from  asking  his  name.  The  next  act 
shows  the  outside  of  the  palace,  in  which  a  wedding  feast  is  taking 
place.  Ortrud  and  Telramund,  discredited,  are  hiding  outside.  Elsa 
appears  on  a  balcony,  and  Ortrud  wins  her  pity  by  pretended  humil- 
ity. Day  dawns,  and  the  bridal  procession  comes  to  the  church.  It  is 
startled  first  by  Telramund's  emerging  from  hiding,  and  again  by 
Ortrud's  claiming  precedence  over  Elsa  and  taunting  her  with  igno- 
rance of  the  bridegroom's  name.  In  the  third  act,  the  bridal  chorus 
greets  Elsa  and  Lohengrin  in  their  apartment.  When  left  alone,  the 
pah*  express  their  love;  but  Elsa's  suspicions  are  aroused,  and  she 
asks  Lohengrin's  name.  Telramund  breaks  in  to  kill  Lohengrin, 
but  drops  dead  at  sight  of  the  latter's  magic  sword.  The  scene  then 
changes  to  the  ground  by  the  river  Scheldt.  Lohengrin  explains  that 
he  is  a  Knight  of  the  Holy  Grail,  who  can  remain  on  earth  only 
if  unknown.  Elsa  is  disconsolate;  but  in  parting  Lohengrin  finds 
himself  able  to  disenchant  her  brother  Gottfried,  who  was  really 
the  swan. 


214  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

The  music  to  this  work,  strangely  enough,  was  at  first  attacked  as 
unmelodic.  But  its  melodies  have  a  rich  harmonic  support  that  was 
evidently  too  novel  for  the  critics.  The  Bridal  Chorus  is  now  known 
evenrwhere.  The  Prelude  is  a  shimmering  web  of  tonal  richness. 
The  work  is  one  long  stream  of  musical  beauty;  but  especially  attrac- 
tive are  Elsa's  dream,  her  balcony  soliloquy,  the  processional  music, 
Lohengrin's  love-song  ("Dost  thou  not  breathe  with  me")  and  his 
farewell. 

The  Trilogy  consists  of  "The  Rheingold,"  "The  Valkyrie,"  "Sieg- 
fried," and  "The  Twilight  of  the  Gods."  Its  story  is  partly  told  in 
various  versions  of  the  Nibelungenlied.  These,  with  "Tristan," 
"The  Mastersingers,"  and  "Parsifal,"  are  called  music-dramas 
instead  of  operas.  In  these  Wagner  developed  his  theories  with  some 
fulness.  In  the  first  place,  he  insisted  that  a  libretto  should  be  poetic, 
and  worthy.  He  held  also  that  the  composer  should  write  his  own 
librettos.  Wagner  did  this  so  well  that  "The  Mastersingers"  is  now 
a  textbook  in  the  German  schools.  In  "The  Ring"  he  wrote  in  a 
brief,  strong  fashion  pregnant  with  expression,  and  well  suited  to 
musical  setting.  He  insisted  on  the  continuous  style  that  he  called 
Melos.  He  held  that  the  music  should  always  reflect  and  intensify 
the  spirit  of  the  words  or  situation;  and  this  idea  he  carried  out  faith- 
fully. He  summed  it  up  well  in  the  words,  "Music  is  Truth."  He 
used  also  guiding  motives,  especially  in  "The  Ring."  These  are 
short,  pregnant  phrases  that  illustrate  some  personage  or  event,  and 
may  be  used  afterwards  to  suggest  that  character  or  event.  As  will 
be  seen,  the  use  of  these  motives  enables  an  orchestra  literally  to  tell 
a  story  in  tones.  He  discarded  ensembles  as  being  unnatural.  But 
back  of  all  theories  was  Wagner's  own  musical  inspiration.  His  com- 
positions showed  the  possibilities  of  the  rich  modem  orchestra  as 
applied  to  opera.  Liszt  handled  the  instruments  equally  well,  but 
in  certain  operatic  scenes  Wagner's  genius  went  far  beyond  that  of 
Liszt.  Wagner  learned  from  Beethoven,  though  his  idiom  is  vastly 
different.  Wagner  may  rank  with  Beethoven  and  Bach  in  leader- 
ship. 

"  The  Rheingold  "  opens  in  the  depths  of  the  Rhine,  with  the  three 
Rhine  Daughters  playing  as  they  guard  the  gold.  Alberich,  king  of 
the  Nibelungs  (subterranean  Dwarfs),  enters  suddenly.  At  first  he 
is  charmed  by  the  maidens;  but  on  learning  that  he  who  renounces 


WAGNER  AND  HIS  REFORMS  215 

love  can  win  the  gold,  he  turns  from  them  and  takes  the  treasure. 
From  it  he  makes  afterwards  a  magic  ring  and  a  helmet  of  invisibility 
(Tarnhelm).  A  second  scene  shows  the  Gods  ready  to  enter  Wal- 
halla.  The  Giants  Fafner  and  Fasolt,  who  have  built  it,  demand  as 
pay  Freia,  Goddess  of  youth  and  love.  Loge,  the  Fire-God,  sent  to 
find  a  ransom  for  her,  brings  news  of  the  gold,  which  the  Giants  v/ill 
accept;  and  Wotan,  the  All-Father,  decides  that  the  Gods  must  get 
it.  A  scene  in  Niffelheim  shows  the  Dwarfs  at  work,  slaves  to  the 
spell  of  the  ring.  The  Gods  ask  Alberich  to  prove  his  power  of  trans- 
formation (due  to  the  Tarnhelm) ;  and  when  he  turns  to  a  toad,  they 
clutch  him  and  carry  him  back  to  their  mountain.  There  they  force 
Alberich  to  bring  up  the  gold ;  but  he  lays  on  it  a  curse  that  shall  cause 
misfortune  to  all  who  possess  it  until  it  is  returned.  The  Giants 
claim  the  hoard  and  release  Freia.  The  curse  shows  its  first  effect 
when  the  Giant  Fafner  kills  his  brother  Fasolt,  to  own  the  gold 
alone.  Then  Donner  (Thor)  smites  a  rock,  and  a  rainbow  bridge 
appears,  over  which  the  Gods  march  to  their  new  abode. 

Before  "  Die  Walkiire  "  begins,  Wotan  has  detailed  the  nine  Valky- 
ries, daughters  of  himself  and  Erda  (Earth)  to  bring  to  Walhalla  all 
heroes  slain  in  battle.  In  the  guise  of  a  man  he  is  father  to  the 
Volsung  twins,  Siegmund  and  Sieglinde;  and  he  hopes  that  Siegmund 
will  kill  Fafner,  now  changed  into  a  dragon,  and  restore  the  gold. 
When  "Die  Walkiire"  opens,  Siegniund,  driven  by  a  storm,  takes 
refuge  in  a  forest  hut,  where  he  finds  Sieglinde,  wife  of  Hunding. 
The  pair  are  attracted  to  each  other.  Hunding  enters,  and  welcomes 
the  stranger;  but  Siegmund 's  recital  shows  that  he  is  an  unsuspected 
enemy  of  Hunding's  tribe.  The  latter  tells  him  to  prepare  for  battle 
on  the  morrow.  Left  alone  by  the  hearth,  Siegmund  cries  for  a  sword 
that  his  father  once  promised  him  for  the  time  of  direst  need.  Sieg- 
linde then  appears,  saying  that  she  has  drugged  Himding,  and  show- 
ing a  sword-hilt  in  a  tree- trunk.  None  could  draw  the  sword;  but 
now  Siegmund  does  so,  and  the  pair  flee  together.  In  the  next  scene, 
a  rocky  fastness,  Wotan  tells  Brunhilde,  bravest  of  the  Valkyries, 
to  help  Siegmund  in  the  approaching  fight.  But  Fricka,  his  consort, 
appearing  at  the  moment,  demands  Siegmund's  punishment  for 
making  Sieglinde  false  to  her  marriage  vow;  and  Wotan  has  to  con- 
sent. Brunhilde,  won  by  the  bravery  and  devotion  of  Siegmund, 
who  now  appears  with  Sieglinde,  decides  to  attempt  to  save  him. 


216  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

But  in  the  fight,  Hunding  is  allowed  by  Wotan  to  kill  Siegmund; 
though  Wotan  then  kills  Hunding.  The  third  act  shows  a  gathering 
of  the  Valkyries,  with  Brunhilde  coming  to  escape  from  her  father, 
who  is  angered  at  her  disobedience.  The  two  are  left  alone,  and 
Wotan  is  pacified,  but  even  against  his  will  he  must  punish  Brun- 
hilde. He  puts  her  into  a  magic  sleep,  and  makes  her  the  prize  of  the 
first  man  who  finds  her;  but  at  her  request  he  surrounds  her  with  a 
magic  ring  of  fire,  through  which  none  but  the  bravest  man  can 
penetrate. 

Before  "Siegfried,"  Sieglinde  has  died,  and  Siegfried,  Siegmund's 
child,  is  brought  up  by  the  Dwarf  Mime,  who  hopes  the  young  man 
will  weld  Siegmund's  sword  and  slay  Fafner  with  it. 

"Siegfried"  opens  with  Mime  at  work  over  his  forge,  and  the 
boisterous  Siegfried  being  told  the  story  of  his  birth.  After  Mime 
has  a  dialogue  with  Wotan,  Siegfried  forges  the  sword  successfully. 
The  second  act  shows  a  forest  glade,  where  Siegfried  muses  on  the 
sylvan  beauty.  The  dragon  appears,  and  Siegfried  kills  him.  A 
taste  of  the  blood,  which  has  spattered  on  Siegfried's  hand,  enables 
him  to  read  any  one's  thoughts.  Learning  thus  that  Mime  will  try 
to  kill  him  and  take  the  gold,  he  kills  Mime.  Guided  by  the  birds' 
songs,  he  goes  to  seek  Brunhilde.  In  the  third  act,  Wotan  tries  to 
bar  the  way,  but  his  spear  is  broken  by  Siegfried's  sword.  Siegfried 
pierces  the  ring  of  fire,  and  wins  Brunhilde's  love. 

A  prologue  in  "Die  Gotterdammerung"  shows  the  Noms,  or 
Fates,  spinning  the  thread  of  the  Gods  until  it  breaks.  Siegfried 
now  exchanges  his  ring  for  Brunhilde's  horse.  Grane,  and  starts  in 
search  of  adventures.  After  an  orchestral  interlude,  the  Hall  of  the 
Gibichungs,  on  the  Rhine,  is  seen.  There  Siegfried  finds  Gunther 
and  his  sister  Gutrune  with  their  half-brother  Hagen,  son  of  Albe- 
rich.  Hagen,  who  knows  of  the  ring,  wishes  to  get  it.  He  gives  Sieg- 
fried a  magic  potion  that  makes  the  latter  forget  Brunhilde  and  love 
Gutrune.  Then  he  suggests  that  Siegfried  shall  get  the  ring  and 
bring  Brunhilde  to  be  Gunther's  bride,  which  is  done  by  Siegfried  in 
Gunther's  form.  In  the  second  act,  Brunhilde  is  overcome  on  seeing 
Siegfried  wearing  her  ring  and  marrying  Gutrune.  She  accuses  him 
of  treachery;  but  the  potion  has  made  him  forget  the  past.  Gunther, 
thinking  himself  betrayed,  joins  Hagen  in  plotting  Siegfried's  death. 
In  the  third  act,  in  a  forest,  the  Rhine  Daughters  beg  Siegfried  to 


WAGNER  AND  HIS  REFORMS  217 

give  them  the  ring;  but  he  refuses,  in  spite  of  their  warning.  Hagen 
restores  Siegfried's  memory  by  a  second  potion;  and  when  he  has 
told  of  Brunhilde,  Hagen  stabs  him  in  the  back,  —  his  one  vulner- 
able spot.  Another  scene  shows  Gutrune  at  the  castle.  Hagen  says 
Siegfried  has  been  killed  by  a  boar.  He  claims  the  ring,  and  stabs 
Gunther  in  order  to  get  it.  But  as  he  reaches  for  it  Siegfried's  dead 
hand  is  raised  in  warning.  Brunhilde,  having  learned  the  truth  from 
the  Rhine  Daughters,  immolates  herself  on  Siegfried's  funeral  pyre. 
As  Hagen  tries  to  get  the  ring  from  the  ashes,  the  Rhine  rises  and 
engulfs  him,  the  maidens  thus  recovering  the  ring.  Meanwhile  a 
glow  in  the  sky  is  seen;  Walhalla  is  in  flames,  the  old  Gods  perish, 
and  humanity  rules  on  earth. 

The  music  of  this  great  epic  is  best  understood  by  a  close  laiowl- 
edge  of  the  words.  Without  that,  some  passages  seem  tedious.  But 
even  to  one  who  knows  little  of  the  librettos,  the  scores  contain 
many  orchestral  passages  of  great  beauty.  Such  are  the  entrance 
into  Walhalla,  the  Ride  of  the  Valkyries,  the  Magic  Fire  music,  the 
Forest  Rustling,  and  the  Rhine  Journey.  But  all  the  music  is 
strongly  effective,  and  suits  the  words  remarkably  well.  In  "The 
Rheingold"  are  the  rhythmic,  steady  pulsation  of  the  river,  the 
Rhine  Daughters'  attractive  calls,  the  odd  rhythm  of  the  Dwarfs' 
hammers,  and  the  heavy  footsteps  of  the  Giants,  beside  the  various 
motives  of  the  Gods  and  the  Walhalla  music.  In  "Die  Walkiire" 
are  the  storm,  the  love-song  of  Siegmund,  the  Wotan-Fricka  scene, 
Siegmund's  brave  protection  of  Sieglinde,  the  fight  in  the  daj'kness, 
and  the  wonderful  scenes  of  the  Valkyries  and  the  Magic  Fire.  In 
"Siegfried"  are  that  hero's  forging  of  the  sword,  the  murmurs  of 
the  forest,  the  fight  with  the  dragon,  and  the  great  duet  at  the  close. 
In  "Die  Gotterdammerung"  the  guiding  motives  are  built  up  into 
grand  climaxes.  The  use  of  these  motives  may  be  shown  by  Sieg- 
fried's funeral  march,  which  practically  tells  the  story  of  his  life  in 
tones.  Another  famous  example  of  their  use  is  in  the  first  act  of 
"  Die  Walkiire."  Siegmund,  alone  by  the  hearth  of  his  enemy,  is  lost 
in  musing.  The  motives  show  that  he  barely  thinks  of  the  storm;  he 
remembers  Sieglinde  and  her  kindness  instead.  Soon  he  grows  agi- 
tated, and  finally  calls  for  the  sword.  The  firelight  then  flares  up 
and  reflects  on  the  sword  hilt  in  the  trunk  of  the  tree  about  which  the 
hut  is  built;  while  in  the  orchestra  the  sword  motive  is  interwoven 


218  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

with  the  motive  of  Wotan's  compact,  showing  the  audience  that  the 
promise  of  the  sword  will  be  kept. 

"Tristan  and  Isolde"  opens  on  shipboard.  King  Mark  had 
chosen  as  his  bride  the  subjugated  Irish  princess  Isolde,  and  had  sent 
Tristan  to  be  her  escort.  Isolde  wishes  to  die;  and  she  summons 
Tristan  (whom  she  hates  because  he  did  not  woo  her  for  himself 
on  a  former  occasion)  to  drink  a  fatal  draught  with  her.  But  her 
servant,  Brangaene,  substitutes  a  love-potion  for  the  fatal  draught, 
and  the  pair  feel  its  effects.  In  the  second  act,  at  King  Mark's  castle, 
Tristan  meets  Isolde  secretly,  and  they  sing  of  their  love.  But  his 
enemy,  Melot,  brings  the  king  on  the  scene,  and  wounds  Tristan, 
who  is  taken  away  by  his  squire  Kurwenal.  The  third  act  shows 
Tristan  sick  and  delirious  at  his  castle  in  Brittany.  A  shepherd  sig- 
nals that  a  ship  is  approaching.  Isolde  enters.  Tristan  dies,  and  she 
sings  his  elegy  and  dies  of  love,  just  as  Mark's  men,  from  a  second 
ship,  force  their  way  in.  Mark  has  learned  of  the  potion,  and  is 
ready  to  pardon  the  pair;  but  he  comes  too  late. 

The  music  of  this  work  is  intense  in  character.  To  some  it  seems 
monotonous,  while  others  regard  it  as  the  very  essence  of  Wagner's 
theories.  If  the  text  is  followed  closely,  the  music  will  be  foimd  to 
illustrate  it  perfectly. 

"The  Mastersingers  of  Nuremberg"  opens  in  a  church,  with  the 
knight  Walther  von  Stolzing  and  Eva,  daughter  of  the  goldsmith 
Pogner,  falling  in  love  at  first  sight.  Learning  that  her  hand  is  to 
be  the  prize  in  a  mastersinging  contest,  Walther  wishes  to  enter  the 
masters'  guild.  The  apprentice  David,  under  orders  from  Eva's 
maid  Magdalena,  tells  him  of  their  intricate  rules.  He  discards  these, 
however;  and  he  sings  to  the  masters,  who  have  gathered,  a  trial 
song  that  is  free,  though  poetic  enough.  A  pedantic  rival,  Beck- 
messer,  counts  him  as  failing;  and  only  Hans  Sachs  appreciates  his 
poetic  gifts.  The  opera  is  in  some  sense  autobiographical,  and  Wal- 
ther represents  Wagner,  whose  genius  was  not  recognized  by  those 
who  clung  to  old  standards.  The  second  act  shows  the  narrow  street 
between  Pogner's  house  and  the  cobbler  shop  of  Sachs.  Eva  and 
Walther  try  to  elope,  but  Sachs,  working  in  the  open  air,  prevents 
them  by  his  presence.  Beckmesser  comes  to  serenade  Eva,  but  his 
ludicrous  music  reaches  Magdalena,  who  has  sat  at  the  window 
to  personate  Eva  while  she  met  Walther.    Beckmesser  pretends  to 


WAGNER  AND  HIS  REFORMS  219 

Sachs  that  he  is  trying  out  a  song,  and  lets  Sachs  mark  any  mistakes 
with  hammer-strokes  on  his  cobbler's  last.  Much  comedy  results, 
for  Sachs  interrupts  Beckmesser  when  the  latter  thinks  he  has  won 
attention  from  the  figure  in  Pogner's  window.  David,  seeing  Beck- 
messer serenading  Magdalena,  grows  angry,  and  starts  to  beat  him; 
while  the  people  are  brought  out  by  the  disturbance,  and  a  general 
riot  results.  Eva  meanwhile  enters  her  home,  and  Sachs  pushes 
Walther  into  his  shop.  The  third  act  shows  Sachs  in  his  room,  medi- 
tating. Walther  appears  with  a  song  he  has  dreamed,  and  Sachs 
helps  him  to  shape  it  according  to  rule,  writing  it  out  as  Walther 
sings  it.  They  go  into  another  room,  and  Beckmesser  enters.  Seeing 
the  manuscript,  Beckmesser  accuses  Sachs  of  intending  to  compete; 
but  Sachs,  foreseeing  a  method  of  helping  Walther,  lets  Beckmesser 
take  and  use  the  song.  Eva  then  enters  to  have  a  shoe  mended,  and 
Walther  greets  her;  while  Magdalena  and  David  appear,  ready  for 
the  festival.  The  scene  changes  to  a  meadow  by  the  Pegnitz,  where 
the  contest  is  to  take  place.  It  is  a  festal  day,  and  the  guilds  march 
in  one  by  one,  the  mastersingers  coming  last.  Beckmesser  then  tries 
to  palm  off  as  his  own  the  song  Sachs  had  given  him;  but  as  Sachs 
had  foreseen,  he  blunders  woefully  over  it.  Angered  by  the  people's 
laughter,  Beckmesser  says  the  song  is  by  Sachs.  The  latter  then  ex- 
plains, and  gains  for  Walther  a  new  chance  to  sing  before  the  mas- 
ters. This  time  Walther  wins  the  contest.  At  first  he  wants  nothing 
to  do  with  the  masters,  but  Sachs  persuades  him  to  respect  their 
honesty,  and  all  ends  happily. 

The  music  is  a  perennial  delight.  The  long  Prelude  foreshadows 
the  story  of  the  work,  suggesting  with  inimitable  humor  the  debate 
over  Walther's  first  song.  The  church  chorale,  the  lively  appren- 
tices' music,  the  meeting  of  the  masters,  Pogner's  address  offering 
Eva  as  prize,  Walther's  trial  song,  the  musing  of  Sachs  in  the  sec- 
ond act,  Beckmesser's  ludicrous  serenade,  the  riot  music,  the  call  of 
the  belated  and  timid  watchman,  Sachs's  monologue  in  his  room,  the 
great  quintet  before  the  departure  for  the  festival,  the  lively  en- 
trances of  the  guilds,  and  the  prize  song,  are  all  strong  points  in  the 
score;  but  in  reality  every  note  of  the  music  is  delightfully  effective. 

"Parsifal"  deals  with  that  knight's  healing  of  Amfortas.  The 
latter.  King  of  the  Grail  Knights,  had  been  allured  by  Kundry  into 
the  garden  of  her  magician-master  Klingsor,  and  had  dropped  the 


220  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

holy  spear,  with  which  Klingsor  had  wounded  him.  He  can  be  cured 
only  by  a  touch  of  the  spear.  The  first  scene  is  a  rustic  glade,  where 
the  innocent  Parsifal  slays  one  of  the  sacred  swans,  thinking  no  evil 
of  it.  The  knight  Gumemanz  takes  him  to  the  Grail  castle,  the  scen- 
ery moving  by  in  a  panorama  until  the  pair  enter  the  castle  hall. 
There  the  Grail  service  is  held,  but  Parsifal  does  not  understand  it. 
Gumemanz  had  hoped  to  find  in  him  the  "guileless  fool"  who  was 
to  heal  Amfortas.  The  second  act  shows  Klingsor's  magic  garden 
and  its  flower  maidens.  Parsifal,  who  has  entered,  is  tempted  by 
Kundry;  but  at  her  kiss  he  recoils,  and  gains  the  understanding 
that  he  had  not  possessed  before.  His  resistance  to  temptation  over- 
comes Klingsor;  he  recovers  the  holy  spear,  and  the  garden  sinks 
into  ashes.  The  third  act  takes  place  on  Good  Friday.  Parsifal  is 
baptized  by  Gumemanz,  and  anointed  by  Kundry,  the  latter  being 
now  freed  from  Klingsor's  spell,  and  duly  penitent.  Again  the  scen- 
ery moves  until  the  Grail  castle  is  reached.  This  time  Parsifal  knows 
what  to  do,  and  heals  Amfortas  with  the  spear,  being  afterwards 
made  king  himself. 

The  music  is  sometimes  a  little  spun-out,  but  it  has  many  great 
beauties.  These  include  the  joyous  Parsifal  motive,  the  Grail  ser- 
vice, the  attractive  song  of  the  flower  maidens,  Kundry's  sensuous 
appeal,  the  "Good  Friday"  spell,  and  the  final  service. 

Wagner  composed  a  few  other  works,  such  as  his  dramatic  "  Faust " 
overture  and  several  marches.  Of  the  latter,  the  "Kaisermarsch" 
was  for  Germany,  and  the  "Centennial  March"  for  the  Philadelphia 
Exposition.  But  his  operatic  marches,  such  as  the  one  in  "Tann- 
hauser,"  are  much  worthier  affairs.  The  "Siegfried  Idyl,"  planned 
as  a  surprise  for  his  wife  Cosima  at  Triebschen,  is  full  of  beauty.  It 
uses  motives  from  the  music-drama,  but  treats  them  in  a  new  way. 


XXIV 

BRAHMS  AND  THE  SYMPHONISTS 

Johannes  Brahms  was  born  at  Hamburg  in  1833.  Son  of  a  con- 
trabass player,  the  boy  soon  learned  the  rudiments  of  music,  though 
his  father's  opposition  made  him  work  in  secret  at  first.  He  prac- 
tised composing  exercises  and  variations  by  himself  for  a  time;  but 
under  Marxsen  his  studies  became  systematic  and  thorough.  When 
fourteen,  Brahms  appeared  publicly  as  pianist  and  composer;  but 
he  wisely  withdrew  from  the  career  of  a  prodigy  and  studied  quietly 
for  some  years  more.  He  earned  a  precarious  living  by  arranging 
marches  and  dance  music,  or  playing  at  dances  himself. 

At  this  time  he  went  on  a  tour  with  the  violinist  Remenyi.  Once 
they  were  to  play  the  "  Kreutzer  Sonata"  of  Beethoven.  The  piano 
proved  too  low  for  the  needed  violin  brilliance;  so  Brahms  transposed 
the  entire  piece  a  semitone  upward,  from  memory,  and  played  it 
with  accuracy  and  spirit,  in  spite  of  Remenyi's  misgivings.  Joachim, 
who  was  in  the  audience,  was  so  astounded  by  this  feat  that  he  gave 
Brahms  letters  to  Liszt  and  to  Schumann.  The  tour  ended  suddenly 
at  Hanover,  where  the  police  remembered  that  Remenyi's  brother 
(and  probably  he  himself  too)  had  been  active  in  the  uprisings  of 
1848.  But  the  pair  went  to  Weimar,  and  gave  a  performance  which 
Liszt  heard.  Remenyi  introduced  his  companion  at  Liszt's  house, 
where  the  latter  played  Brahms's  Scherzo  (Op.  4)  from  an  almost 
illegible  manuscript.  A  little  later,  Liszt  played  his  own  sonata;  but 
when  he  looked  aroimd  for  approbation,  he  found  that  Brahms, 
worn  out  from  travel,  was  sleeping  peacefully. 

Brahms  made  a  much  better  impression  on  Schumann.  Walking 
from  Gottingen  to  Diisseldorf  (he  was  too  poor  at  the  moment  to 
ride),  he  was  warmly  welcomed  on  his  arrival,  and  entertained  for 
some  time.  He  captivated  the  local  musicians  by  a  performance  of 
Schumann's  "Carnival";  and  Schumann  responded  by  writing  up 
Brahms  most  favorably  in  his  magazine.  The  article  calls  Brahms 
the  coming  hero  of  music,  speaks  of  his  piano  sonatas  as  "veiled 
symphonies,"  and  praises  his  other  early  works. 


«22  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

One  result  of  this  praise  was  an  appearance  at  the  Leipsic  Gevvand- 
haus.  There  Brahms  met  with  a  foretaste  of  the  adverse  criticism 
that  was  to  follow  him  for  some  time.  In  spite  of  the  praise  of  Schu- 
mann and  Joachim,  one  critic  wrote,  ''Brahms  will  never  become  a 
star  of  the  first  magnitude";  and  another  wished  him  "speedy  deliv- 
erance from  his  over-enthusiastic  patrons."  But  attention  was 
drawn  to  the  young  man,  and  the  publishers  soon  began  to  print  his 
works. 

Brahms  was  a  devoted  friend  to  the  Schumanns  during  the  elder 
composer's  illness;  and  in  later  life  Brahms  cherished  the  greatest 
admiration  for  Mme.  Clara  Schumann. 

Soon  after  this  Dietrich  described  Brahms  as  having  a  depth  of 
seriousness,  but  an  underlying  vein  of  quiet  humor  also.  Brahms 
never  married,  though  at  Dietrich's  house  he  met  a  lady  whom  he 
said  he  would  have  liked  to  marry.  Poverty  prevented  him  at  first, 
and  afterwards  he  considered  it  too  late.  His  life  was  orderly  and 
well-balanced,  exhibiting  all  the  virtues  of  the  Germanic  character, 
in  refreshing  contrast  to  Wagner. 

Much  of  Brahms's  later  life  was  passed  in  Vienna.  He  was  fond  of 
long  walks,  and  would  often  settle  down  for  a  time  at  any  near-by 
place  that  seemed  quiet  and  suitable  for  composition.  In  these  trips, 
and  in  his  summer  vacations,  he  showed  an  extreme  fondness  for 
children.  He  would  often  carry  sweetmeats  for  them.  Once  an  Eng- 
lish lady,  wishing  to  see  Brahms  when  he  stopped  at  the  hotel  where 
she  was  staying,  found  him  on  all-fours,  giving  a  horseback  ride  to 
three  juvenile  friends. 

Brahms  was  at  first  described  as  "rather  delicate,  slim-looking, 
and  with  a  beardless  face  of  ideal  expression."  He  remarked  of 
himself,  "  I  suppose  I  did  look  something  like  a  candidate  for  the 
ministry  in  those  days."  But  he  grew  afterwards  to  really  Teu- 
tonic breadth  of  stature.  He  was  athletic  enough,  and  used  to  be 
fond  of  diving  when  off  on  vacations  with  Henschel  or  other  friends. 
In  mountain-climbing,  however,  he  would  soon  be  out  of  breath; 
though  he  often  concealed  his  state  by  getting  his  comrades  to  pause 
and  examine  the  view. 

Brahms  was  much  averse  to  writing  letters.  An  English  publisher 
once  wished  permission  to  bring  out  the  composer's  new  works 
at  the  same  time  that  they  appeared  in  Germany;  but  Brahms 


BRAHMS  AND  THE  SYMPHONISTS  223 

declined,  because  he  would  then  have  to  write  two  letters  about  each 
work,  instead  of  one.  A  lady  friend  once  sent  him  some  embroidered 
slippers,  and  was  wise  enough  to  include  a  card  of  thanks,  all  written 
out  ready  for  the  composer's  signature.  Brahms's  dislike  for  for- 
mality kept  him  out  of  England,  which  he  regarded  as  a  place  where 
one  had  to  live  in  a  dress  suit  and  white  tie.  He  was  of  a  retiring 
disposition  with  strangers,  and  disliked  the  adulation  of  gushing  ad- 
mirers; but  among  his  friends  he  was  usually  the  life  of  the  party. 

Brahms  was  at  one  time  very  fond  of  reading  fairy  tales.  He  never 
wrote  an  opera,  though  he  thought  of  "King  Hirsch"  as  a  subject 
for  one. 

His  modesty  was  shown  once  at  a  restaurant  gathering.  The  best 
wine  had  been  ordered,  and  some  one  praised  it  by  saying  that  it  was 
"the  Brahms  among  vintages."  Instantly  the  composer  retorted, 
"  Then  order  me  a  bottle  of  Bach  at  once." 

In  1896  Clara  Schumann  died.  Brahms  missed  the  train  that  was 
to  take  him  to  her  funeral;  and  he  was  so  angered  by  this  event  that 
his  feelings  may  have  brought  on  the  illness  that  proved  fatal  to  him. 
He  was  told  by  his  doctor  that  a  determination  to  live  would  help 
him;  but  he  made  light  of  his  disease  at  first.  It  was  an  affection  of 
the  liver,  which  had  carried  off  his  father  before  him;  and  he  died 
of  it  on  April  3,  1897. 

The  music  of  Brahms  belongs  to  the  classical  school  that  Bee- 
thoven represented.  Von  Billow  spoke  of  the  three  great  B's  in 
music,  —  Bach,  Beethoven,  and  Brahms.  Von  Billow  may  have  been 
prejudiced  in  favor  of  the  letter  that  was  his  own  initial;  but  his 
grouping  of  the  composers  was  fair  enough.  Just  as  Reinken,  on  hear- 
ing Bach,  rejoiced  that  the  greatness  of  counterpoint  had  not  per- 
ished from  the  earth,  so  do  present-day  audiences,  after  listening  to 
the  Brahms  symphonies,  feel  glad  that  he  kept  alive  the  classical 
style  of  pure  music,  as  exemplified  by  Beethoven.  The  music  of 
Brahms  has  a  good  deal  of  intellectuality  about  it.  There  is  nothing 
in  it  resembling  the  plaintive  sweetness  of  Grieg,  or  the  wild  emotion 
of  Tschaikovsky.  But  it  shows  a  vein  of  underl5dng  feeling  that  is 
intense  enough.  If  Brahms  leaned  towards  intellectuality,  he  still 
balanced  this  quality  with  enough  emotion  to  make  his  works  a  last- 
ing monument  of  greatness.  He  belongs  with  the  very  few  foremost 
masters.   Those  who  do  not  appreciate  him  are  those  who  have  not 


224  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

learned  (either  by  study  or  experience)  that  form  is  the  true  logic  of 
music.  So  great  a  writer  as  Finck  has  called  Brahms's  work  "musi- 
cal small-talk,  meaningless  twaddle,"  and  rated  the  composer  as  "a 
great  dressmaker;  a  musical  Worth."  But  the  "dressmaking,"  the 
balancing  of  structure,  and  development  of  figures,  are  really  points 
of  value  in  music,  and  not  a  cause  for  reproach.  More  difficult  to 
imderstand  is  Runciman's  claim  that  Brahms  "had  not  the  intellect 
of  an  antelope,"  and  "had  not  a  great  matter  to  utter."  Time  has 
shown  the  true  value  of  Brahms,  who  stood  for  all  that  was  best  in 
classicism. 

The  orchestral  works  of  Brahms  include  four  symphonies,  two 
overtures,  a  beautiful  set  of  variations  on  a  Haydn  theme,  a  set 
of  Hungarian  dances,  a  serenade,  and  another  serenade  for  smaller 
orchestra.  With  these  works  belong  also  two  piano  concertos,  a 
standard  violin  concerto,  and  a  double  concerto  for  violin  and  'cello. 
Of  these  works,  the  symphonies  are  heard  of tenest.  The  first  one,  in 
C  minor,  is  the  one  that  Von  Biilow  called  the  "tenth,"  not  exactly 
because  it  was  fit  to  succeed  the  nine  of  Beethoven,  but  because  it 
came  tenth  in  a  list  of  great  symphonies  that  he  was  making.  The 
music  is  deeply  earnest  and  austerely  noble.  The  second  sym- 
phony is  more  playful.  The  third  has  many  moments  of  beauty, 
while  the  fourth  is  sometimes  odd  and  novel  in  flavor. 

The  chamber  music  of  Brahms  displays  the  same  earnestness  and 
underlying  feeling  that  the  orchestral  works  show.  It  consists  of  two 
string  sextets,  two  string  quintets,  three  string  quartets,  a  quintet  for 
clarinet  and  strings,  three  piano-violin  sonatas,  two  'cello  sonatas, 
three  piano  trios,  three  piano  quartets,  a  piano  quintet,  a  trio  for 
piano,  violin,  and  horn,  another  with  clarinet  in  place  of  horn,  and 
two  clarinet  sonatas.  The  piano  quintet  and  the  sextets  are  espe- 
cially great. 

The  piano  solos  by  Brahms  include  sonatas,  rhapsodies,  varia- 
tions, etudes,  and  other  pieces.  He  wrote  also  an  excellent  sonata 
and  other  works  for  four  hands,  besides  two  organ  compositions.  In 
all  these,  both  chamber  and  solo  works,  he  is  at  his  best.  He  does 
not  give  the  artist  much  chance  for  technical  display.  The  pieces 
are  hard  enough  for  the  performer,  but  it  is  a  self-abnegatory  sort  of 
difficulty,  in  which  he  has  to  present  form  or  emotion  without  show- 
iness. 


BRAHMS  AND  THE  SYMPHONISTS  225 

Brahms  composed  many  fairly  large  choral  works,  sometimes 
with  orchestra.  Best  of  these  is  the  great  "German  Requiem,"  not 
a  liturgical  requiem,  but  a  noble  oratorio  treating  of  death  and  con- 
solation. He  wrote  this  just  after  his  mother's  death,  and  undoubt- 
edly had  her  in  mind.  Another  great  work  is  the  "  Ode  of  Destiny," 
for  chorus  and  orchestra.  " Nanie "  and  the  "Song  of  the  Fates "  are 
other  famous  choral-orchestral  compositions.  The  list  is  completed 
by  motets,  psalm,  and  many  choruses. 

Brahms  composed  over  two  hundred  solo  songs.  In  many  of  these 
his  style  of  unobtrusive  emotion  and  depth  is  shown  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage. Such  a  case  is  found  in  the  "Sapphic  Ode,"  —  apparently 
simple,  but  in  reality  most  poignant  in  expression.  Nearly  all  the 
songs  are  vocal  gems;  but  some  of  the  part-songs  show  an  over- 
refinement  of  style,  and  a  too  great  repression  that  results  in  com- 
monplaceness.  The  chamber  and  orchestral  works  avoid  this  defect, 
for  they  offer  the  composer  many  parts  instead  of  a  single  melodic 
voice,  and  allow  him  to  give  to  his  music  the  contrapuntal  sugges- 
tion that  makes  for  strength  and  permanence. 

On  the  whole,  then,  Brahms  is  the  composer  who  leans  most  to- 
ward intellectual  effects.  These  are  not  dry  and  uninspired,  as  some 
critics  assert.  His  effects  are  contemplative  where  those  of  a  Bee- 
thoven were  dramatic;  but  they  have  their  full  share  of  feeling,  in 
spite  of  the  occasional  quietness  of  style.  The  appreciation  of 
Brahms  is  still  growing;  and  the  next  generation  will  probably  ad- 
mit that  Von  Billow's  ranking  him  with  Beethoven  was  practically 
justified.  In  the  wild  chaos  of  modem  radicalism,  Brahms  stands  as 
a  model  of  all  that  is  sane  and  well-balanced  in  music.  If  others  do 
not  follow  his  lead,  it  is  because  they  do  not  possess  his  genius.  The 
impressionistic  style  is  easy  to  adopt,  and  the  student  can  soon 
leaiTi  to  compose  in  the  programme  school  by  throwing  together 
his  masses  of  orchestral  color.  But  it  is  much  harder  to  write  music 
that  unites  the  logic  of  form  with  the  persuasiveness  of  expressive 
beauty,  and  yet  does  not  borrow  interest  from  any  outside  story. 
Brahms  did  this,  but  no  one  seems  to  have  inherited  his  mantle  of 
leadership. 

Anton  Bruckner  (1825-96)  was  in  some  respects  a  rival  of  Brahms. 
Without  desiring  it,  Brahms  was  held  up  as  a  model  for  Wagner 
by  the  latter's  enemies.  Brahms  himself  could  appreciate  Wagner's 


226  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

freedom  of  style,  but  at  first  the  critics  could  not.  When  Bruckner 
began  to  become  known  by  his  symphonies,  their  involved  charac- 
ter and  their  use  of  the  full  modem  orchestra  tempted  Wagner's  par- 
tisans to  claim  him  as  a  symphonist  of  the  Wagnerian  school.  That 
Wagner  looked  askance  at  all  such  rivalry  is  shown  by  his  statement 
that  he  intended  his  style  only  for  opera.  But  that  did  not  prevent 
the  upholders  of  both  sides  from  making  rivals  out  of  Brahms  and 
Bruckner,  with  much  consequent  bickering. 

Binickner  was  bom  at  Ansfelden,  in  Upper  Austria.  His  father 
and  grandfather  were  school-teachers,  his  mother  an  innkeeper's 
daughter.  He  was  the  oldest  of  twelve  children.  As  the  teachers 
were  expected  to  be  musicians,  Anton  found  his  father  ready  to  teach 
him.  At  twelve  he  was  sent  to  a  relative,  Weiss.  When  his  father 
died,  his  mother  and  the  family  moved  to  St.  Florian's,  where 
Anton  became  a  choir-boy.  There  he  continued  his  studies. 

As  a  school-teacher  in  Windhag,  he  was  so  poor  as  to  be  literally 
half -starved.  Kronstorf  proved  even  worse;  but  he  was  soon  trans- 
ferred to  Steyr,  where  there  was  a  good  organ  and  sufficient  pay. 
After  that  he  taught  at  St.  Florian,  practising  ten  hours  a  day  on  the 
organ  and  three  on  the  piano.  Later  on  he  became  organist  at  Linz, 
and  finally  he  went  to  Vienna,  where  he  became  a  conservatory 
teacher. 

His  great  mastery  of  coimterpoint  was  shown  in  a  theoretical 
examination,  when  Herbeck  and  others  gave  him  a  subject  on  which 
he  was  to  extemporize  a  fugue.  Herbeck  made  the  subject  long  and 
hard;  but  Bruckner  handled  it  with  such  mastery  that  Herbeck 
exclaimed,  "  He  should  examine  us  instead."  In  spite  of  his  skill, 
Bruckner  studied  with  Sechter.  This  teacher  was  not  the  best  one, 
for  Bruckner  was  often  diffuse,  and  Sechter  did  not  correct  the  tend- 
ency. 

Owing  to  the  Brahms-Bruckner  rivalry,  the  critic  Hanslick  became 
a  virulent  enemy  of  Bruckner,  slashing  at  his  works,  and  even  oppos- 
ing his  appointment  as  counterpoint  teacher.  So  much  did  this  in- 
justice rankle  that  when  Bmckner  was  presented  to  the  Emperor, 
and  asked  to  name  a  favor,  he  replied  naively,  "Won't  you  please 
make  Mr.  Hanslick  stop  writing  about  me?"  Von  Biilow,  the  Her- 
zogenbergs,  and  other  friends  of  Brahms  were  also  unable  to  appre- 
ciate Bruckner's  greatness. 


-^;' 


/<^ 


!?; 


BRAHMS  AND  THE  SYMPHONISTS  227 

In  person,  Bruckner  was  full  of  odd  mannerisms,  and  showed  a  sly- 
peasant  humor  that  betrayed  his  humble  origin.  But  he  was  tre- 
mendously sincere  in  his  music.  Once  he  said  to  a  friend,  "  I  think 
that  if  Beethoven  were  alive,  and  I  should  go  to  him  with  my  sev- 
enth symphony,  and  say,  '  Here,  Mr.  Van  Beethoven,  this  is  not  so 
bad  as  certain  gentlemen  would  make  out,'  ...  I  think  he  would 
take  me  by  the  hand,  and  say,  'My  dear  Bruckner,  never  mind,  I 
had  no  better  luck.'  Then  I  'd  say  to  him, '  Excuse  me  for  going  be- 
yond you  in  freedom  of  form,  but  I  think  a  true  artist  should  make 
his  own  forms,  and  stick  to  them.' " 

Bruckner  composed  three  masses,  a  requiem,  a  "Te  Deum"  for 
voices,  orchestra,  and  organ,  a  "Tantum  Ergo,"  and  other  sacred 
works;  but  he  is  best  known  by  his  nine  symphonies.  Weingartner 
says  that  Bruckner  was  too  much  given  to  the  invention  of  ideas, 
and  too  little  to  their  development,  while  Brahms  showed  the  re- 
verse fault.  Bruckner's  symphonies  are  often  long,  and  not  always 
perfectly  balanced.  But  they  are  earnest  to  the  point  of  absolute 
austerity,  and  their  intensity  impresses  the  hearer  in  spite  of  any 
faults  of  construction.  The  seventh  and  eighth  symphonies  are  full 
of  grand  effects.  The  ninth  is  unfinished,  being  without  a  finale.  It 
is  dedicated  to  God.  The  large  plan  and  serious  intent  of  these  works 
places  Bruckner  among  the  masters. 

Max  Bruch,  bom  in  1838  at  Cologne,  has  been  active  in  many 
fields.  He  composed  three  symphonies,  but  these  are  seldom  heard 
now.  A  better  fate  awaited  his  four  violin  concertos,  as  they  are  fa- 
vorites with  the  soloists,  especially  the  beautiful  work  in  G  minor. 
His  oratorio,  "Moses,"  and  the  operas  "Lorelei"  and  "Hermione," 
are  comparatively  little  known;  but  in  the  field  of  the  epic  cantata 
he  achieved  constant  success.  The  martial  "  Frithjof  "  and  the  strik- 
ing "Odysseus"  are  works  in  this  form  that  are  most  wonderfully 
impressive.  "Arminius"  is  less  so,  though  it  is  the  composer's 
favorite.  Other  works  of  the  same  sort  are  "Achilleus,"  "The  Song 
of  the  Bell,"  and  "Damajanti."  Such  male  choruses  as  "Salamis," 
"Leonidas,"  and  the  "Normannenzug"  deserve  especial  mention 
for  similar  virile  qualities. 

Herman  Goetz  (1840-76)  composed  a  symphony  which  has  re- 
mained in  the  repertoire  for  some  time.  He  became  known  also  by 
an  operatic  setting  of  "The  Taming  of  the  Shrew." 


228  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

August  Klughardt  (1847-1902)  composed  five  symphonies,  the 
symphonic  poem  "Leonore,"  several  overtures,  and  four  operas. 

Josef  Rheinberger  (1837-1902)  produced  a  Florentine  symphony, 
three  overtures,  the  tone-picture  "Wallenstein,"  two  operas,  a 
mass,  and  much  chamber  music.  He  excelled  in  counterpoint.  As  a 
teacher,  he  had  many  American  pupils. 

Friedrich  Gemsheim,  bom  in  1839,  has  been  known  as  conductor, 
teacher,  and  composer.  He  wrote  four  symphonies,  of  which  the 
first  and  last  have  been  most  frequently  given.  His  choral-orches- 
tral works  include  "Die  nordische  Sommernacht"  and  "Der  Nomen 
Wiegenlied."  His  male  choruses,  such  as  "Salamis"  and  the  "Wach- 
terlied,"  are  well  knov/n.  A  recent  composition  is  the  "Overture  to 
a  Drama,"  which  handles  modem  effects  with  classic  dignity. 

Gustav  Satter,  bom  in  1832,  has  composed  symphonies,  over- 
tures, an  opera,  and  the  tone-picture  "Washington." 

Ferdinand  Thieriot,  born  in  1838,  has  composed  orchestral  fan- 
tasies, manuscript  symphonies,  and  the  opera  "Renata." 

Georg  Riemenschneider,  bora  in  1848,  is  another  conservative 
composer  for  orchestra. 

Hans  Koessler  has  produced  a  symphony,  a  violin  concerto,  a 
cantata,  and  smaller  worfe;  but  he  became  best  known  through  his 
sjTnphonic  variations,  in  which  he  endeavored  to  picture  Brahms  in 
various  phases  of  life. 

Wilhelm  Berger,  bom  in  Boston,  though  living  in  Germany,  is 
another  conservative.  His  "Todtentanz"  scored  a  fair  success. 

Georg  Henschel,  for  a  long  time  intimate  with  Brahms,  composed 
some  instrumental  music,  as  well  as  an  oratorio,  a  requiem,  and  small 
operas.  But  he  became  most  famous  by  his  singing  and  his  early 
leadership  of  the  Boston  Symphony  Orchestra. 

Paul  Caro  composed  four  symphonies,  as  well  as  symphonic  poems 
and  operas. 

Ignaz  Brtill  (1846-1907)  composed  a  symphony,  serenades,  con- 
certos, and  overtures,  but  was  most  widely  known  by  his  operas, 
such  as  "The  Fiery  Cross"  and  "The  Heart  of  Stone." 

Other  German  symphonists  include  Albert  Thierfelder,  Karl 
Grammann,  Max  Zenger,  Bemard  Scholz,  Heinrich  Hofmann, 
Richard  Heuberger,  Amold  Kmg,  Otto  Kurth,  and  Richard  Metz- 
dorff.    Many  of  these  men  composed  operas  also.   Other  opera 


BRAHMS  AND  THE  SYMPHONISTS  229 

composers  of  the  time  before  Wagner  grew  popular  were  Karl  Gotze, 
Theodor  Hentschel,  Edmund  Kretschmer,  Victor  Nessler,  Karl 
Perfall,  Richard  Perger,  Franz  Poenitz,  Greorg  Rauchenecker,  and 
Hans  Sommer.  Kretschmer's  "Folkunger"  and  "Henry  the  Lion" 
have  received  much  praise,  while  Nessler's  "Trompeter  von  Sak- 
kingen  "  is  in  a  lyric  style  that  made  it  very  popular. 

While  Bruckner  kept  the  symphony  still  classic  in  style,  Gustav 
Mahler  (1860-1911)  tried  to  make  it  dramatic.  Like  his  predecessor, 
he  composed  nine  large  symphonies.  Some  of  these  have  passages  or 
movements  with  solo  voices  or  chorus.  An  instance  is  found  in  his 
second  symphony,  "Ein  Sommermorgentraum,"  which  contains  an 
effective  alto  solo.  His  fourth  symphony  ends  with  a  celestial  chorus. 
Mahler's  early  works  included  an  incomplete  opera,  "The  Argo- 
nauts," a  second  opera,  "Riibezahl,"  and  the  choral  work  "Das  kla- 
gende  Lied."  A  later  choral  work  of  some  importance  is  "Das 
Lied  von  der  Erde."  Mahler  composed  also  many  beautiful  songs, 
some  with  orchestral  accompaniment. 

The  merits  and  defects  of  Mahler's  orchestral  work  are  well  shown 
by  his  fifth  symphony.  That  work  exhibits  sufficient  power  and 
variety  of  style,  and  a  strong  handling  of  the  modem  instrumental 
forces.  But  it  is  too  dramatic,  too  full  of  exaggerated  contrasts, 
which  suggest  a  programme  where  none  is  given  to  the  auditor. 
Mahler  has  been  called  the  successor  of  Bruckner;  but  he  fell  below 
the  earlier  master  in  not  really  succeeding  in  the  school  of  pure  music. 
Few  of  Mahler's  symphonies  have  any  programme;  but  all  of  them 
seem  like  programme  works. 


XXV 

GRIEG  AND  THE  NORTHERN  COUNTRIES 

Edward  Hagerup  Grieg  (1843-1907)  was  the  only  Scandinavian 
composer  to  VTin  a  place  among  the  world's  great  musical  masters. 
Bom  at  Bergen,  he  benefited  by  the  musical  atmosphere  of  his  home, 
and  was  well  taught  by  his  mother.  Ole  Bull  was  so  impressed  by 
Grieg's  early  attempts  at  composition  that  he  persuaded  the  boy's 
parents  to  send  him  to  Leipsic  for  study.  This  was  done,  and  the 
course  completed,  in  spite  of  illness.  Grieg  then  worked  imder  Gade 
for  a  while;  but  in  Copenhagen  he  met  Rikard  Noordraak,  whose 
national  principles  drew  Grieg's  attention  to  the  beauty  of  the 
Norwegian  folk-music.  Grieg  returned  afterward  to  Norway,  where 
he  settled  in  Christiania,  married  a  charming  and  cultivated  wife, 
and  devoted  himself  to  composition.  A  later  change  of  residence 
brought  him  to  a  villa  near  Bergen,  where  his  retired  life  could  not 
prevent  him  from  receiving  many  honors,  and  drawing  a  govern- 
ment pension.  Occasionally  he  made  little  tours,  where  he  proved 
calm  and  forceful  as  a  conductor,  but  rather  nervous  as  a  pianist. 

In  composition,  Grieg  became  devoted  to  a  style  that  echoed  the 
Norwegian  folk-music.  That  music  is  full  of  the  most  expressive 
and  plaintive  effects,  as  may  be  shown  by  such  songs  as  "  Astri,  my 
Astri,"  or  "The  Herder's  Call."  The  richness  of  melodic  and  har- 
monic beauty  in  Grieg's  works  of  course  goes  beyond  the  popular 
style,  but  is  nevertheless  a  very  definite  idealization  of  it.  Grieg's 
melodies  are  lyrical,  and  full  of  a  sweetness  that  is  never  common- 
place, but  always  remarkable  for  its  joyous  enthusiasm  or  plaintive 
sadness.  There  is  in  his  works  a  melting  tenderness,  a  warmth  of 
sentiment  that  seems  perennially  charming.  His  harmonic  effects 
are  responsible  for  much  of  this,  as  they  are  not  only  fresh  and  novel, 
but  full  of  feeling  and  pathos  also. 

Grieg's  compositions  may  be  divided  into  three  classes.  These 
consist  of  his  larger  works,  the  smaller  works  that  are  essentially  his 
own,  and  the  many  pieces  directly  inspired  by  the  Norwegian  folk- 
music. 


GRIEG  AND  THE  NORTHERN  COUNTRIES        231 

Best  known  in  the  first  class  is  the  "Peer  Gynt"  music,  which  the 
composer  arranged  in  two  concert  suites.  The  melodic  beauty  of  the 
"Morning  Mood,"  the  intense  gloom  of  "  Aase's  Death,"  the  rhythm 
of  "  Anitra's  Dance,"  and  the  suggestive  oddity  of  "  In  the  Mountain 
King's  Halls"  are  known  to  nearly  all  concert-goers.  The  second 
suite  is  less  familiar,  but  contains  "Solvejg's  Song,"  which  is  a  gem 
of  pathetic  appeal.  His  other  orchestral  works  include  the  impressive 
Autumn  overture,  a  worthy  and  dignified  piano  concerto,  the  melo- 
drama "Bergliot,"  and  the  "Sigurd  Jorsaliar"  suite,  as  well  as  some 
Norwegian  dances.  The  elegiac  melodies,  the  Norwegian  themes, 
and  the  Holberg  suite  are  all  for  strings.  These  works  show  all  of 
Grieg's  rich  fulness  of  l3^cal  expression;  and  the  same  is  true  of  the 
large  choral  works,  such  as  "Olaf  Trygvason." 

The  second  group  may  be  said  to  include  Grieg's  three  beautiful 
violin  sonatas,  in  F,  G,  and  C  minor.  Of  these  the  first  is  the  favor- 
ite. Many  of  Grieg's  piano  works  belong  here,  among  them  the 
"Humoresken"  and  a  part  of  the  "Lyric  Pieces."  Here,  too,  must 
be  classed  the  many  beautiful  songs  that  Grieg  composed.  These 
songs  show  a  most  wonderful  freshness  of  inspiration.  Such  lyrics  as 
"Die  Prinzessin,"  "Sonnenuntergang,"  "Waldwanderung,"  "Haa- 
kons  Wiegenlied,"  or  "The  First  Primrose,"  show  a  most  surprising 
and  novel  beauty  of  style.  Grieg  had  something  new  and  interesting 
to  say  in  music  at  a  time  when  inspiration  seemed  at  a  discount  else- 
where. 

More  directly  mspired  by  the  Norwegian  music  are  the  "Hallings," 
"Spring  Dances,"  and  similar  numbers,  both  in  the  "Lyric  Pieces" 
and  elsewhere.  Some  of  these,  like  the  "Slatter,"  Op.  72,  were  mod- 
elled on  the  actual  performances  of  peasant  musicians. 

Grieg  has  been  compared  with  Chopin,  since  both  emphasized 
emotion,  and  both  drew  inspiration  from  national  sources.  But  while 
Chopin  sometimes  grew  morbid,  Grieg  never  did.  Grieg's  music  is 
plaintively  expressive  rather  than  intensely  passionate.  But  it  loses 
nothing  by  this,  as  its  charming  originality  leaves  the  auditor  re- 
freshed instead  of  exhausted. 

Among  Norwegian  musicians,  Ludwig  Lindemann  did  pioneer 
work  in  collecting  the  folk-music.  Waldemar  Thrane  produced  the 
first  native  opera.  Ole  Bull  composed  a  violin  concerto  and  other 
large  works,  but  wrote  also  in  the  national  style.  Torgeir  Audunson 


232  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOT\TEDGE 

was  a  native  genius  who  refused  to  take  music-lessons.  Half  dan  Kje- 
rulf 's  songs  were  early  favorites  in  many  nations.  Rikard  Noord- 
raak  died  very  young,  but  became  known  by  his  national  songs. 
Edmund  Neupert,  Adolf  Terschak,  and  Christian  Cappelen  deserve 
mention  also.  Erik  Meyer-Helmund  (bom  at  St.  Petersburg)  com- 
posed some  successful  songs  and  an  opera.  Among  the  women, 
Agathe  Backer-Grondahl  is  known  by  her  expressive  vocal  works. 
Peer  Winge  and  Peer  Lasson  are  also  successful  song  composers. 

Johann  Severin  Svendsen  (1840-1911)  was  less  distinctively  na- 
tional in  style.  He  studied  in  Germany,  toured  Europe  as  a  violinist, 
married  an  American  wife,  and  settled  in  Denmark.  His  "Rhap- 
sodies Norvegiennes,"  like  his  "Carnival  at  Paris,"  give  a  very 
much  diluted  nationalism.  His  symphonies,  his  "Zorahayda"  music, 
and  his  "Sigurd  Slembe"  overture  show  similar  qualities,  being 
good  music,  but  not  distinctively  national  or  overwhelmingly  ori- 
ginal. 

Christian  Sinding,  bom  in  1856,  has  shown  himself  the  greatest  of 
the  Norwegians  after  Grieg.  He  has  entered  the  orchestral  field  with 
a  sjnnphony,  a  "Rondo  Infinito,"  the  "Episodes  Chevaleresques," 
a  piano  concerto,  and  two  violin  concertos.  A  recent  work  of  much 
merit  is  his  opera,  "The  Holy  Mountain."  He  writes  with  modem 
orchestral  control.  He  has  composed  songs,  but  he  is  most  widely 
known  by  his  many  excellent  piano  pieces,  of  which  the  "  Rustle  of 
Spring"  is  a  favorite.  Sinding  has  been  so  fond  of  weaving  rapid 
tonal  embroideries  about  his  themes  that  the  musical  copyists  united 
in  charging  him  more  than  the  regular  rates. 

Johann  Selmer,  bom  in  1844,  composed  several  orchestral  tone- 
pictures,  and  many  vocal  works. 

Otto  Winter-Hjelm,  bom  in  1837,  wrote  two  symphonies  based  on 
German  models,  but  became  more  popular  by  his  songs  and  other 
short  works. 

Ole  Olsen,  bom  in  1850,  has  composed  a  symphony,  incidental 
music,  the  symphonic  poem  "Asgardsreien,"  the  opera  "Stig 
Hvide,"  and  much  piano  music.  His  birthplace  was  Hammerfest, 
the  most  northerly  city  in  the  world. 

Sigurd  Lie  and  Eyvind  Alnaes  are  more  recent  orchestral  com- 
posers in  Norway.  Thomas  Tellefsen,  of  Norwegian  descent,  has 
written  successful  chamber  music.  Gerhard  Schjeldemp  represents 


GRIEG  AND  THE  NORTHERN  COUNTRIES         233 

the  modem  radicals,  having  produced  orchestral  works  and  music 
dramas  that  are  full  of  modem  dissonances. 

The  Swedish  folk-music  was  collected  by  Geijer,  Afzelius,  Drake, 
and  Arvidson.  Ivor  Hallstrom  was  a  pioneer  in  Swedish  opera, 
though  Haffner,  Dupuy,  Randel,  and  Johann  Ahlstrom  had  worked 
in  the  same  field.  Olaf  Ahlstrom  composed  effective  chamber  music, 
while  Von  Kapfelmann  wrote  part  songs. 

Franz  Berwald  (1796-1868)  composed  a  "Symphonic  Serieuse" 
and  other  works  that  were  admired  by  Liszt.  His  other  compositions 
consisted  of  chamber  music,  a  large  cantata,  and  six  operas.  Ber- 
wald's  uncle  was  an  earlier  composer,  and  a  pupil  of  Abt  Vogler. 

Otto  Lindblad  wrote  vocal  works,  including  national  and  student 
songs.  Gunnar  Wennerburg  became  known  in  the  same  field;  while 
Jbsephson  composed  oratorios.  Adolf  Lindblad  (1801-78)  wrote 
many  songs,  which  were  often  sung  by  his  pupil  Jenny  Lind;  but  he 
composed  also  a  symphony  and  an  opera.  Albert  Rubenson  was 
another  orchestral  composer. 

August  Sodermann  (1832-76)  worked  in  a  national  style,  but 
gained  a  reputation  throughout  Europe.  His  compositions  include 
a  mass,  an  overture,  incidental  music,  and  many  operettas. 

Ludvig  Norman  (1831-85)  was  another  orchestral  composer, 
writing  three  symphonies,  some  overtures,  and  much  chamber 
music. 

Anders  Hallen,  bom  in  1846,  is  the  leader  of  a  new  Swedish  school. 
His  operas  include  "Harold,"  "Hexfallan,"  "Waldemar's  Treasure," 
and  other  stage  works.  His  symphonic  poems  and  Swedish  rhapso- 
dies are  well  known  abroad.  He  has  composed  also  several  impor- 
tant choral  works,  as  well  as  many  beautiful  songs. 

Emil  Sjogren,  bom  in  1853,  has  written  admirable  chamber  music, 
good  organ  pieces,  and  many  striking  songs,  such  as  "  Der  Vogt  von 
Tenneburg."  In  his  larger  works  he  is  very  expressive,  but  some- 
times too  bizarre  in  his  novelty  of  style.  His  piano  cycles,  such  as 
"Auf  der  Wanderschaft,"  "Erotikon,"  and  the  "Noveletten,"  are 
deservedly  popular. 

Wilhelm  Stenhammar,  bom  in  1871,  is  of  a  younger  generation. 
His  operas  are  unsuccessful  Wagnerian  attempts.  His  large  orches- 
tral cantatas,  however,  fare  much  better.  His  string  quartets,  piano 
works,  and  songs  are  also  well  received.   His  compositions  show  a 


234  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

delightfully  fresh  enthusiasm,  and  a  warm  richness  of  harmonic 
beauty. 

Wilhelm  Peterson-Berger,  bom  in  1867,  is  an  operatic  leader,  hav- 
ing produced  "Sveagaldrar,"  "Fortune,"  and  the  later  music-drama 
"Ran."  His  operatic  Ijrrics,  like  his  songs,  are  sometimes  pensive, 
but  generally  marked  by  a  simny  warmth  of  feeling. 

Hugo  Alfven,  bom  in  1872,  has  composed  three  fairly  successful 
symphonies,  besides  a  Swedish  rhapsody,  a  symphonic  poem,  and 
many  smaller  works. 

Tor  Aulin,  bom  in  1866,  is  famous  as  a  violinist,  and  has  composed 
three  violin  concertos  and  four  idyls  of  much  musical  worth. 

Erik  Akerberg  has  produced  orchestral  and  choral  works.  Gus- 
tav  Hagg  has  tried  the  orchestral  forms,  but  is  best  known  by  his 
organ  music.  Jacob  Hagg  composed  a  "Northern  SjTnphony"  and 
other  works.  Fritz  and  Anton  Hartvigson  were  pianists  as  well  as 
composers.  Johann  Nordqvist  is  an  orchestral  writer  of  an  older 
generation.  Wid^en  has  produced  excellent  male  choruses.  Linde- 
gren  was  a  composer  of  chamber  music.  Bror  Beekman  has  worked 
in  the  violin  field.  LiUefors,  Vletbad,  Erikssohn,  and  Lundberg  have 
composed  for  the  piano.  Elfrida  Andree  leads  the  women,  with 
Valborg  Aulin,  Helen  Munktell,  and  Alice  Tegner  deserving  mention. 

In  Denmark,  Gade's  prominence  obscured  both  Johann  Hartmann 
and  his  gifted  son  Emil,  though  both  had  written  good  symphonies 
and  popular  operas.  After  Gade's  death,  a  new  generation  succeeded 
them. 

Siegfried  Saloman  wrote  operas  for  Copenhagen,  beginning  in 
1832.  Henrik  Rung  produced  eight  dramatic  works,  beginning 
in  1847.  Alfred  Tofft  was  another  Danish  opera  composer.  Jorgen 
Mailing  was  still  another  Copenhagen  writer  of  operas.  Freshen 
Nodermann  became  known  by  his  "King  Magnus." 

In  more  recent  years,  Ludvig  Schytte  (1850-1909)  composed  sev- 
eral operas,  including  "The  Mameluke,"  "The  Swallow,"  "Hero," 
and  the  burlesque  "  Circus-Damen,"  as  well  as  the  pantomime 
"Atelderspuck." 

Eduard  Lassen  (1830-1904)  has  been  mentioned  in  connection 
with  Liszt. 

A  recent  Danish  opera  composer  is  August  Enna,  bom  in  1861. 
He  v/as  handicapped  at  first  by  poverty,  and  once  indulged  in  the 


GRIEG  AND  THE  NORTHERN  COUNTRIES        235 

melodramatic  act  of  burning  some  of  his  manuscripts  for  warmth. 
His  early  *' Village  Tale"  won  a  little  notice;  but  "Areta"  was  re- 
fused, and  "Aglaia"  sacrificed  as  fuel.  An  orchestral  suite  and  a 
symphony  won  some  attention  and  a  little  money,  enabling  the  com- 
poser to  travel.  On  his  tour  he  wrote  much  of  "The  Witch,"  his 
first  great  triumph.  This  work  was  accepted  by  an  opera  manager, 
but  laid  aside,  and  rescued  from  oblivion  only  when  Svendsen  hap- 
pened to  look  at  the  score  and  admire  its  beauties.  It  is  based  on 
Fitger's  drama  of  the  same  name.  Its  success  was  marked.  Since 
that  time  Enna  has  held  a  leading  position  in  Denmark.  His  later 
operas  include  "Cleopatra,"  "Aucassin  and  Nicolette,"  "Lamia," 
"The  Little  Match-Girl,"  and  several  other  Andersen  subjects. 

In  the  orchestral  field,  Simon  Paulli  was  an  early  composer  who 
outlived  Gade.  The  Helsted  family,  consisting  of  Hermann,  Karl, 
and  Adolph,  were  active  in  Danish  music,  the  first  composing  bal- 
lets, while  the  other  two  wrote  symphonies  and  various  large  works. 
Lange-Miiller  is  a  more  recent  symphonic  and  operatic  composer. 
Joachim  Andersen  is  a  flute  composer  who  has  also  entered  the  sym- 
phonic  field.  Victor  Bendix,  a  Gade  pupil,  has  composed  several 
symphonies,  including  the  "Felsensteigung"  and  the  "Sommer- 
klange  aus  Siidrussland."  Asgar  Hamerik,  who  taught  for  a  time  in 
Baltimore,  has  written  six  symphonies,  some  operas,  and  other  large 
works.  Otto  Mailing  has  composed  orchestral  and  chamber  music. 
Emil  Homemann  has  written  a  number  of  overtures;  Fini  Henriques 
is  known  by  incidental  music,  as  well  as  piano  pieces;  August 
Hyllested  is  another  orchestral  composer  who  has  taught  in  America; 
August  Winding  has  written  a  violin  concerto;  while  Karl  Nielsen 
is  becoming  known  as  an  important  symphonist.  In  the  smaller 
forms,  Attrup,  a  Gade  pupil,  has  composed  organ  works;  while 
Johann  Nebelong  and  Asgar  Juul  have  produced  piano  works  and 
songs.  Thorvald  Otterstroem  is  a  visitor  to  America  who  has  com- 
posed good  chamber  works. 

The  first  well-known  Finnish  composer  was  Bemhard  Crusell 
(177&-1838),  who  lived  in  Sweden  and  Germany  and  composed  the 
opera  "Die  Kleine  Sklavin."  But  the  real  founder  of  the  Finnish 
school  wa^  Fredrik  Pacius  (1809-91),  a  German  by  birth  who  spent 
his  life  in  Finland  and  composed  national  songs  and  operas.  Filip 
von  Schantz,  who  lived  until  1865,  produced  songs,  choruses,  and 


236  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

o 

cantatas.  Carl  Wasenius  was  active  at  Abo,  the  former  capital. 
Karl  Collan,  son-in-law  of  Pacius,  composed  very  popular  choral 
marches.  Conrad  Greve,  of  Abo,  wrote  incidental  music.  Mohring 
devoted  his  efforts  to  male  choruses,  while  Ingelius,  Ehrstrom,  and 
Linsen  composed  well-known  songs.  Richard  Faltin,  the  successor 
of  Pacius  as  a  teacher,  produced  cantatas,  vocal  works,  and  piano 
pieces.  Martin  Wegelius  became  known  by  the  overture  to  "Daniel 
Hjort,"  and  by  his  critical  essays.  Robert  Kajanus  founded  and  led 
the  Philharmonic  Orchestra  at  Helsingfors,  the  capital,  and  com- 
posed symphonic  poems  on  subjects  from  the  Finnish  national  epic, 
the  Kalevala.  This  epic  has  much  literary  interest,  and  may  have 
inspired  the  methods  used  by  Longfellow  in  his  "Hiawatha." 
Armas  Jamefelt,  bom  in  1869,  wrote  orchestral  suites  and  the  sym- 
phonic poem  "  Korsholm,"  and  united  lyric  beauty  with  rich  instru- 
mentation. Ernest  Mielck,  known  as  "the  Finnish  Schubert,"  died 
when  only  twenty-two,  after  composing  a  beautiful  symphony  and 
other  orchestral  works.  Oskar  Merikanto  has  produced  an  opera, 
"  The  Maid  of  Pohja."  Ilmari  Krohn  has  written  instrumental  works 
and  motets,  besides  teaching  and  publishing  essays.  Erik  Melartin  is 
a  song-writer;  Emil  Genetz  awakened  much  enthusiasm  by  his  male 
choruses,  such  as  "Heraa  Suomi"  (Awake,  Finland  ");  while  Selim 
Palmgren  is  known  by  songs  and  piano  pieces  of  much  brilliancy. 

But  the  leader  of  the  Finnish  school,  and  the  only  Finnish  com- 
poser to  win  a  government  pension  for  musical  excellence,  is  Jean 
Sibelius.  He  was  intended  for  the  legal  profession,  but  his  violin  les- 
sons led  him  to  adopt  a  musical  career.  He  studied  with  Wegelius  in 
Finland,  and  with  Becker  and  Goldmark  in  Berlin  and  Vienna.  He 
has  composed  four  sjmiphonies  at  the  present  writing.  His  sym- 
phonic poems  "The  Swan  of  Tuonela"  and  "Lemminkainen"  are 
based  on  Kalevala  subjects.  "Islossningen,"  "Sandels,"  and  "Sn5- 
frid"  demand  choruses,  while  "Kullervo"  employs  soloists  as  well. 
His  suites,  "Carelia"  and  "King  Christian  IV,"  are  earnest  works, 
the  Elegy  in  the  latter  being  especially  impressive.  His  "Fin- 
landia,"  an  orchestral  work  based  on  Finnish  tunes,  aroused  such 
patriotic  feeling  that  the  Russians,  after  depriving  Finland  of  self- 
government,  forbade  the  performance  of  the  work.  His  other  com- 
positions include  cantatas,  vocal  ballads,  songs,  piano  pieces,  string 
quartets,  and  additional  chamber  music. 


GRIEG  AND  THE  NORTHERN  COUNTRIES        237 

A  comparison  of  the  first  and  fourth  symphonies  of  Sibelius 
shows  that  he  has  progressed  toward  attempts  at  broad  effects,  but 
become  a  little  vague  in  the  process.  His  first  symphony  is  in  fairly 
strict  form,  with  a  large-voiced  slow  movement  and  an  oddly  attrac- 
tive scherzo.  In  the  fourth,  however,  he  seems  to  strive  after  the 
broadest  effects  of  a  Bruckner;  but  he  becomes  more  impressionistic 
in  style.  Yet  in  spite  of  its  vagueness,  the  latter  work  is  effective 
enough,  and  promises  well  for  the  composer's  future. 


XXVI 

STRAUSS  AND  RECENT  GERMANS 

Richard  Strauss  was  bom  at  Munich  on  June  11,  1864.  His 
father,  Franz,  was  first  horn  player  in  the  court  orchestra.  On  one 
occasion  Franz  found  certain  Wagnerian  horn  passages  too  difficult; 
but  he  did  not  know  then  that  his  son  would  one  day  compose 
music  even  more  intricate  than  Wagner's.  Richard's  mother  was  a 
daughter  of  the  brewer  Pschorr. 

The  child's  precocity,  aided  by  the  musical  atmosphere  of  his 
home,  resulted  in  a  readiness  for  piano  lessons  at  four,  and  the 
beginning  of  composition  at  six.  Songs  and  piano  pieces  were  even 
followed  by  an  orchestral  overture.  The  child's  handwriting  was 
still  immature,  so  the  mother  had  to  inscribe  the  words  of  the  songs 
in  order  to  get  them  into  their  proper  space. 

During  his  Gymnasium  course  (at  the  age  of  eleven),  young  Rich- 
ard began  taking  lessons  in  musical  theory  and  composition.  An 
"Electra"  chorus,  several  songs,  an  overture,  and  a  string  quartet 
came  soon  after  this  period.  These  were  all  in  classical  form  and 
style.  The  same  is  true  of  a  violin  concerto,  a  horn  concerto,  and 
the  F-minor  Symphony.  The  latter  work  was  intended  to  be  in  the 
Brahms  style,  but  it  is  not  so  deeply  earnest  as  the  Brahms  sym- 
phonies. Piano  works  of  these  years,  such  as  the  "Mood-Pictures," 
Op.  9,  show  much  beauty,  and  are  somewhat  in  Schumann's  style. 
This  group  includes  the  delicate  and  ethereal "  Traumerei."  Another 
early  choral  work  is  the  "Wanderers  Sturmlied,"  Op.  14,  for  six 
voices  and  orchestra. 

Soon  after  this,  Strauss  gained  Von  Billow's  esteem,  and  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  conductor  at  Meiningen.  This  came  about  after 
Von  Billow  heard  Strauss  conduct,  without  rehearsal,  his  "Sere- 
nade," Op.  7,  for  thirteen  wind  instruments.  Strauss  afterward 
became  chief  conductor. 

It  was  at  this  time  that  Strauss  met  Alexander  Ritter,  who  per- 
suaded the  young  composer  to  abandon  classical  forms  and  styles  in 


STRAUSS  AND  RECENT  GERMANS  239 

favor  of  the  symphonic  poem  and  the  programme  school.  In  1886 
the  Meiningen  post  was  given  up;  and  a  trip  to  Italy  resulted  in  the 
symphonic  fantasia  "Aus  Italien,"  his  first  work  in  the  free  style. 
After  this  came  a  series  of  symphonic  poems  and  other  programme 
works,  as  well  as  some  radical  operas. 

The  tone  poem  "Macbeth,"  composed  in  1887,  gives  a  strong  pic- 
ture of  the  cruel  hero  of  the  play,  and  a  still  stronger  one  of  Lady 
Macbeth. 

"Don  Juan,"  which  came  next,  is  based  on  a  poem  by  Lenau, 
which  makes  its  amorous  hero  a  seeker  after  female  perfection,  but 
forever  disappointed.  Restless  and  uncertain  themes  of  indecision 
are  followed  by  love  scenes,  a  carnival  of  dissipation,  and  a  final 
motive  of  disgust. 

"Tod  und  Verklarung"  ("Death  and  Transfiguration")  is  a  much 
nobler  work,  treating  its  impressive  subject  at  times  with  tenderness, 
and  at  times  with  tremendous  breadth.  Strauss  has  often  laughed  at 
commentators  who  try  to  read  too  much  into  his  works;  though 
at  other  times  he  himself  has  claimed  almost  unlimited  scope  for  the 
possibilities  of  programme  music.  One  commentator  has  gone  so  far 
as  to  classify  two  fever-themes.  The  work  begins  with  a  sombre 
passage  that  may  well  suggest  the  exhaustion  of  the  sufferer.  Then 
come  tenderly  expressive  passages,  typifying  memories  and  regrets. 
A  harsh,  discordant  section  follows,  evidently  showing  a  renewed 
fight  against  illness,  and  ending  in  the  exhaustion  of  defeat.  More 
memories  recur,  but  they  are  soon  lost  in  a  grim  struggle  with  death 
itself.  After  a  final  knell,  a  mysterious  hush  leads  to  the  great 
apotheosis,  which  is  of  the  broadest  and  most  compelling  character. 
This  work  may  be  taken  as  the  best  one  yet  produced  by  the  modem 
school  that  succeeded  Liszt  and  Wagner. 

"Till  Eulenspiegel "  treats  of  the  mediaeval  character  of  that 
name,  —  a  sort  of  Continental  Robin  Hood,  who  played  many 
pranks,  but  was  always  on  the  people's  side.  Till,  however,  was 
something  of  a  rascal  as  well,  and  finally  fell  a  victim  to  the  gallows. 
In  the  Strauss  tone-picture,  Till's  fantastic  jokes,  sly  humor,  and 
mercurial  disposition  are  depicted  in  remarkably  humorous  fashion. 
The  work  is  a  rondo,  and  there  are  two  themes  portraying  Till,  — 
one  a  rapid,  bubbling  affair  for  flute  and  other  instruments,  the 
other  a  more  extended  passage  of  somewhat  similar  character.   At 


«40  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

the  end  of  the  work  there  is  no  mistaking  the  stem  anger  of  the  citi- 
zens who  have  caught  the  rogue.  His  inconsequential  httle  theme  is 
of  not  the  slightest  avail  against  their  insistent  accusation.  At  last 
his  theme  starts  in  a  final  plea,  but  is  choked  off  ruthlessly  in  the 
middle. 

"Also  Sprach  Zarathustra"  is  based  on  Nietszche's  mystic  phi- 
losophy, in  which  Zarathustra  (Zoroaster)  is  made  to  teach  a  doc- 
trine of  super-men.  There  is  a  picture  of  the  "Hinterweltern,"  or 
dwellers  in  the  rear- world  of  ordinary  narrow  humanity;  and  their 
striving  and  yearning  find  voice  in  a  tender  "  Grave-Song."  Science 
and  its  futility  are  represented  by  a  chroniatic  fugue.  A  passage  en- 
titled "The  Convalescent"  shows  the  defeat  of  sorrow  and  trouble, 
and  the  triumph  of  the  super-man's  joy  and  laughter.  An  exult- 
ant "Dance-Song"  pictures  this  still  more  definitely.  At  the  close 
comes  the  mystic  "Song  of  the  Night- Wanderer";  and  the  work 
ends  oddly  in  two  keys,  as  if  representing  eternal  doubt.  Strange 
as  it  may  seem,  this  composition  shows  much  sublimity,  in  spite  of 
the  unusual  nature  of  its  subject. 

"Don  Quixote"  is  still  more  definite  in  its  tone-painting.  This  is 
a  set  of  variations,  each  of  which  portrays  one  adventure  of  the 
Knight  of  the  Sorrowful  Countenance.  These  adventures  include 
the  attack  on  the  windmills,  the  dispersal  of  the  flock  of  sheep,  the 
discourses  of  the  knight  with  his  squire  Sancho  Panza,  the  mistaking 
of  the  pilgrims  for  robbers,  the  knight's  vigil,  a  meeting  with  Dul- 
cinea,  the  ride  through  the  air,  the  voyage  in  the  enchanted  boat, 
the  mistaking  of  the  two  monks  for  magicians,  and  the  fight  with  the 
Kjiight  of  the  White  Moon.  The  original  theme  contains  a  passage, 
typical  of  the  Don,  that  appears  in  a  distorted  shape  at  first,  but  in  a 
simplified  and  clear  form  at  the  end,  where  the  hero  regains  his  sa- 
nity just  before  his  death.  In  the  variations,  the  programme  idea  is 
carried  out  thoroughly.  The  flock  of  sheep  bleat  persistently;  the 
pilgrims'  sacred  phrases  come  to  a  rude  end;  and  the  ride  through 
the  air  is  accompanied  by  a  theatrical  wind-machine. 

"Ein  Heldenleben"  ("A  Hero's  Life")  is  meant  as  a  bit  of  auto- 
biography. It  is  divided  into  six  sections.  The  first,  portraying  the 
hero,  is  brought  to  a  great  climax.  Then  his  enemies  are  described, 
by  cackling,  snarling  phrases  on  the  woodwind  instruments.  His 
helpmate  is  represented  by  a  solo  violin,  giving  rather  conventional 


STRAUSS  AND  RECENT  GERMANS  241 

passages,  and  by  a  love-duet  and  other  sweet  music.  The  hero's 
battlefield  is  shown  as  a  fierce  orchestral  struggle.  The  hero's  works 
of  peace,  which  form  the  fifth  section,  bring  in  themes  from  the  com- 
poser's earlier  works,  —  as  many  as  twenty-three  reminiscences,  one 
writer  claims.  The  final  section  shows  the  hero's  apotheosis.  This 
work  is  grand  in  conception,  but  the  thematic  material  is  sometimes 
commonplace. 

The  "Domestic  Symphony"  is  a  long  one-movement  work.  It  is 
said  to  depict  a  day  in  the  composer's  home,  which  is  apparently 
very  noisy.  There  are  themes  for  father,  mother,  and  child,  while 
the  advent  of  other  relatives  is  suspected  here  and  there.  Strauss 
once  told  the  present  writer  that  the  work  is  supposed  to  depict  the 
passing  of  night  and  the  succeeding  morning,  in  the  latter  of  which 
is  a  fugue  portraying  the  education  of  the  child.  But  he  has  given 
different  versions  of  the  symphony  at  different  times.  The  music  is 
often  broadly  effective;  but  it  does  not  gain  much  from  the  nature 
of  its  subject. 

The  programme  school,  which  seems  to  have  won  first  place  in 
contemporary  music,  permits  some  variety  of  treatment.  Music  can 
depict  emotions  successfully,  but  is  at  a  disadvantage  when  trjdng 
to  describe  actual  scenes  or  events.  A  programme  subject  that  indi- 
cates contrasts  in  emotion  is  therefore  more  fitted  to  permit  the  writ- 
ing of  great  music.  Liszt's  "Tasso,  Lament©  e  Trionfo,"  has  been 
cited  as  an  example.  In  the  music  of  Strauss,  "Death  and  Trans- 
figuration" affords  a  similar  effective  contrast  without  forcing  the 
music  to  depend  on  trivial  details.  But  "Don  Quixote"  brings  in 
the  objective  realism  which  is  hard  to  portray  accurately  by  musical 
means.  To  illustrate  this,  the  reader  may  listen  to  short  programme 
pieces  (piano  solos  are  most  convenient)  without  knowing  their 
names.  He  will  find  that  the  music  is  almost  always  capable  of  many 
explanations,  and  does  not  of  necessity  suggest  its  subject.  Strauss 
claims  that  programme  music  will  ultimately  become  much  more 
definitely  suggestive  and  accurate;  but  this  idea,  like  his  claim  that 
all  composers  really  use  mental  programmes  in  writing  music,  is 
definitely  incorrect.  What  may  be  called  subjective  programme 
music,  dealing  with  emotions  rather  than  events,  has  more  possibili- 
ties and  more  value  than  objective  programme  music. 

Strauss  has  composed  several  operas.   "  Guntram,"  the  first,  is  a 


242  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

story  of  a  knight  belonging,  like  Lohengrin,  to  a  mystic  order.  Gun- 
tram  rescues  Freihild,  who  is  drowning  herself  to  escape  a  hateful 
marriage.  Her  father  honors  him,  but  is  angered  by  his  praises  of 
peace  and  meekness.  He  attacks  Guntram,  the  latter  killing  him  in 
self-defense.  Though  Guntram  is  held  blameless,  he  knows  that 
rivalry  in  love  was  his  real  motive;  and  he  is  forced  to  renounce 
Freihild. 

"Feuersnoth"  is  based  on  an  old  Oudenarde  legend.  Diemut,  the 
Burgomaster's  daughter,  is  loved  by  the  stranger  Kunrad.  She  re- 
sents a  kiss  given  too  publicly,  and  revenges  herself  by  enticing  him 
into  a  basket,  hauling  him  halfway  up  to  her  window,  and  leaving 
him  there.  In  his  turn  he  casts  a  spell  that  puts  out  all  the  fires  and 
lights  in  town;  and  she  renews  her  allegiance  before  he  relents.  In 
the  legend  the  gu-l  was  made  the  only  source  of  renewing  the  fire, 
so  that  her  pride  was  abased  by  exposure  to  the  touch  and  the  eyes 
of  the  multitude.  This  opera  has  some  richly  orchestrated  music, 
though  it  is  not  often  performed.  It  has  an  autobiographical  passags 
in  the  text,  in  which  puns  on  Wagner  (cartwi'ight)  and  Strauss  (bou- 
quet) show  that  he,  like  Wagner,  objected  to  the  critics  who  had  ma- 
ligned him  at  first.  But  where  Wagner's  "Meistersinger"  passages 
are  artistic,  the  personal  allusions  of  Strauss  are  too  openly  con- 
ceited. 

His  later  operatic  style  has  been  exemplified  by  "Salome," 
"Elektra,"  "Der  Rosenkavalier,"  and  "Ariadne  auf  Naxos."  "Sa- 
lome" is  an  intensely  dramatic  one-act  affair.  "Elektra,"  based  on 
Hofmannsthal's  version  of  the  subject,  is  terrifically  strong,  and  the 
orchestra  almost  drowns  the  singers'  voices.  "Der  Rosenkavalier" 
is  somewhat  in  the  style  of  "The  Marriage  of  Figaro,"  though 
scored  for  full  modem  orchestra;  but  it  lacks  sincerity  in  a  way,  and 
is  not  rated  highly.  "Ariadne"  is  a  two-act  setting  of  "Le  Bour- 
geois Gentilhomme,"  one  act  being  devoted  to  M.  Jourdain's  enter- 
tainment of  the  marquise,  while  the  second  consists  of  the  play 
"Ariadne,"  given  for  her  amusement.  It  is  scored  for  only  thirty- 
six  instruments,  but  each  one  is  given  important  work  in  a  solo  style. 

The  songs  of  Strauss  are  polished  gems  of  perfection.  Sometimes 
they  seem  fragmentary  at  first,  but  on  repeated  hearing  they  all 
show  a  most  perfect  unity.  While  his  orchestral  themes  are  some- 
times commonplace,  in  spite  of  the  grand  uses  to  which  he  puts  them, 


STRAUSS  AND  RECENT  GER^IANS  «4S 

his  songs  show  a  most  striking  melodic  beauty.  They  are  more  mod- 
ulatory than  the  earlier  Lieder;  but  their  modulations  are  guided  by 
a  master  hand.  Such  examples  as  the  serenely  beautiful  "Traum 
durch  die  Dammerung,"  the  sparkling  "Serenade,"  or  the  short  but 
expressive  "  Morgen,"  prove  their  composer  a  master  of  lyric  beauty;, 
while  the  tragic  " Steinklopf ers  Lied"  shows  him  gifted  also  with 
dramatic  power. 

In  estimating  Strauss,  one  is  strongly  reminded  of  the  Imes,  — 

"  O,  it  is  excellent 
To  have  a  giant's  strength;  but  it  is  tyrannous 
To  use  it  like  a  giant." 

He  has  the  intellectual  grasp  and  power  that  are  needed  in  handling 
the  complex  modem  orchestra.  In  the  battle  of  his  "Hero's  Life," 
for  example,  are  chords  spread  on  thirty  orchestral  staffs,  and  con- 
taining as  many  as  forty-six  notes  each.  His  mastery  of  instrumen- 
tation is  greater  even  than  Wagner's.  But  in  real  inspiration  he  falls 
behind  the  Bayreuth  master.  He  has  the  sure  touch  of  a  master,  but 
his  utterances  are  sometimes  commonplace.  In  certain  cases  his  music 
becomes  so  bizarre,  so  fully  devoted  to  the  programme  style  as  an 
end  rather  than  a  means,  that  one  cannot  help  wishing  him  less  of 
an  extremist.  None  of  his  later  works  seem  so  well-balanced,  or  so 
properly  unified,  as  his  comparatively  early  "  Death  and  Transfigu- 
ration." He  has  the  methods  and  the  surety  of  genius,  but  he  does 
not  always  show  its  inspiration. 

Siegmund  von  Hausegger,  born  at  Graz  in  1872,  gave  up  a  law- 
yer's career  to  become  a  composer  of  symphonic  poems  and  other 
works.  While  still  in  school,  he  wrote  a  mass.  His  orchestral  ballad 
"Odinsmeeresritt,"  and  the  operas  "Helfried"  and  "Zinnober," 
were  other  early  compositions.  He  showed  his  first  flash  of  genius 
in  the  "Dionysiac  Fantasie"  for  orchestra. 

His  "Barbarossa,"  a  second  success,  is  a  three-movement  work 
based  on  the  legend  that  Barbarossa  sleeps  under  the  KyfThauser 
mountain,  ready  to  awake  in  time  of  Cxcrmany's  need.  The  fu'st 
movement  portrays  the  distress  of  the  people.  Next  comes  a  weird, 
shadowy  picture  of  the  emperor  sleeping  in  his  mountain  retreat. 
The  last  movement  shows  his  awakening  and  triumph. 

"Wieland  the  Smith,"  a  later  work,  is  in  four  movements.  Wie- 
land  is  that  gifted  smith  who  makes  swords  so  sharp  that  they  can 


244  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

cut  off  a  head  and  yet  leave  it  in  place.  In  the  first  movement  the 
celestial  maid  Swanhilda  appears.  Wieland  loves  her,  but  she  is  ter- 
rified at  first  by  earthly  passion,  and  retires  to  her  lofty  abode.  The 
second  movement  shows  Wieland's  despair.  The  third  movement 
depicts  him  forging  a  pair  of  wings,  which  he  completes  successfully. 
In  the  fourth  movement  he  departs  aloft  with  Swanhilda,  leaving 
the  dull  world  for  the  realms  of  eternal  sunlight. 

Hausegger  has  written  other  works,  including  songs  with  orches- 
tra. He  is  prominent  as  a  conductor.  His  music  shows  a  most  richly 
melodious  character,  that  makes  it  remarkably  attractive.  "Bar- 
barossa,"  for  example,  has  many  charming  passages,  though  it  is 
rather  long-drawn-out. 

Strauss  and  others  consider  Jean  Louis  Nicode  (bom  in  1853)  a 
pioneer  in  the  programme  school.  Nicode  taught  piano  at  first,  and 
became  a  conductor.  His  works  include  the  "Carnival  Pictures," 
"Maria  Stuart,"  a  "Jubilee  March,"  a  violin  concerto,  a  set  of 
symphonic  variations,  and  choral-orchestral  compositions,  such  as 
"Das  Meer"  and  "Gloria,"  a  romantic  "Sturm  imd  Sonnen-lied." 
They  show  some  largeness  of  structure,  and  an  interesting  style. 

Felix  Weingartner,  bom  in  1863,  has  been  active  in  many  fields, 
and  is  known  as  a  gifted  conductor.  After  study  with  Mayer,  who 
taught  Strauss,  Weingartner  spent  some  years  as  conductor  in  small 
theatres.  In  a  letter  to  the  present  writer,  he  complains  of  the  hard 
conditions  in  these  minor  posts.  "I  became  acquainted  with  their 
wretchedness,"  he  writes.  "The  salary  was  small,  —  150  marks 
[$37.50]  a  month,  for  seven  months  and  a  half.  ...  In  Dantzic  there 
were  only  four  or  five  first  violins,  two  contrabasses,  third-rate  sing- 
ers, a  miserable  chorus,  and  no  chance  for  proper  rehearsals,  as  the 
du'ectors  insisted  upon  an  extensive  repertoire." 

Weingartner's  first  opera,  "Sakuntala,"  was  given  by  Liszt  at 
Weimar.  Later  operas  by  him  were  "Malawika"  and  "Genesius." 
His  "Orestes"  is  a  group  of  three  one-act  dramas  on  subjects  from 
iEschylus.  His  sjinphonic  poems  include  "King  Lear"  and  "The 
Elysian  Fields,"  the  latter  being  inspired  by  a  Bocklin  picture.  He 
has  also  written  symphonies,  of  which  the  third,  with  organ,  is  full 
of  broad  effects.  His  chamber  music  includes  three  string  quartets 
and  a  sextet.  He  has  composed  also  many  beautiful  songs,  and  a 
number  of  piano  pieces.  His  larger  works  show  a  strong  handling  of 


STRAUSS  AND  RECENT  GERMANS  245 

the  orchestra,  and  a  commendable  freedom  of  style  without  radical 
harmonic  excesses. 

Max  Reger,  bom  in  1873,  mingles  classical  learning  with  experi- 
ments in  abstruse  styles.  His  string  quartets  show  the  very  intricate 
and  jumbled  harmonic  effects  that  constitute  modem  radicalism. 
He  has  composed  a  very  beautiful  set  of  variations,  with  fugue,  on  a 
theme  by  Hiller;  but  his  "Suite  in  Old  Style"  shows  less  direct  inspi- 
ration. He  has  written  many  organ  works. 

But  the  wildest  radical  in  modem  Germany  is  Arnold  Schoenberg, 
bom  in  1874.  His  earlier  compositions,  including  the  large  vocal- 
orchestral  "  Gurrelieder,"  were  fairly  direct  in  style.  In  rebent  years, 
however,  he  has  employed  wildly  dissonant  harmonies  in  a  most  sur- 
prising way.  His  works  seem  at  first  sight  nothing  more  than  chaotic 
masses  of  fragments.  His  piano  pieces  have  made  audiences  think 
that  he  must  have  written  them  as  a  joke.  But  in  spite  of  their 
jumbled  character,  they  show  a  marked  dramatic  force,  even  though 
they  are  too  radical  for  those  who  appreciate  the  more  orderly  work 
of  Strauss.  The  "Five  Orchestral  Pieces"  form  another  much-dis- 
cussed and  much-abused  work.  Like  the  piano  pieces,  they  are  for 
the  most  part  almost  too  wildly  radical  to  be  classed  as  music.  But 
some  of  them,  especially  the  fii'st  one,  entitled  "Presentiments," 
show  a  dramatic  power  of  utterance  that  prevents  Schoenberg  from 
being  disregarded. 

A  list  of  those  who  have  composed  recent  symphonies  will  include 
Herman  Bischoff,  Gustav  Brecher,  Hugo  Daffner,  Paul  Ertel,  the 
conductors  Max  Fiedler  and  Emil  Paur,  Georg  Fitelberg,  Gustav 
Kord,  Julius  Major,  Josef  Reiter,  August  Scharrer,  Paul  Schein- 
pflug,  Ernst  Seyffardt,  and  Ewald  Straesser.  Many  of  these  men 
have  composed  symphonic  poems  also.  Other  orchestral  writers  are 
Carl  Bleyle,  Ernst  Boehe,  Walther  Braunfels,  Joseph  Foerster, 
Oskar  Fried,  Richard  Gabriel,  Karl  Kampf,  Siegfried  Karg-Ehlert 
(knoA\'Ti  also  by  organ  works),  the  boy-prodigy  Erich  Wolfgang 
Komgold  (a  symphonietta,  a  pantomime  "Der  Schneemann," 
chamber  music,  and  shorter  pieces),  G^erhard  von  Keussler,  the 
earlier  Julius  Kniese,  Theodor  Kroyer,  Walter  Lampe,  Richard 
Mandl,  Franz  Mayerhoff,  Heinrich  Noren,  Siegfried  Ochs,  Bemhard 
Paumgartner,  Ferdinand  Pfohl,  George  Washington  Pittrich,  Max 
Puchat,  Felix  von  Rath,  Rudolf  Roesel,  Hugo  Rueter,  Hans  Schaub, 


246  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Bemhard  Sekles,  Georg  Schumann,  Thomas  Stamm,  Rudi  Stephan, 
Otto  Taubmann,  Amadeus  Wandelt,  Hermann  Wetzler,  and  the 
conductor  Hans  Winderstein.  This  list  does  not  claim  absolute 
completeness,  for  orchestral  composers  in  Germany  are  as  thick  as 
blackberries  in  August.  But  it  is  representative  enough.  Beside 
these  men,  a  number  of  the  opera  composers  have  written  sym- 
phonies and  other  orchestral  works.  Best  known  among  these  are 
Eugen  D'Albert,  Waldemar  von  Baussnern,  Leo  Blech,  August 
Bungert,  Otto  Dom,  Josef  Erb,  Alban  Foerster,  Robert  Fuchs,  Paul 
Geisler,  Theodor  Gerlach,  Albert  Gorter,  Waldemar  Kampfert, 
Hugo  Kaun,  Friedrich  Klose,  Josef  Krug-Waldsee,  Friedrich  Koch, 
Arthur  Koennemann,  Georg  Kramm,  Franz  Mikorey,  Leopold 
Reichwein,  August  Reuss,  Bemhard  Schuster,  the  older  Robert 
Schwalm,  Ludwig  Thuille,  Fritz  Volbach,  Richard  Wetz,  Hugo  Wolf, 
Felix  Woyrsch,  and  Heinrich  Zoellner.  Among  those  who  have  paid 
attention  to  other  forms.  Max  von  Erdmannsdorfer  and  Reinhold 
Herman  have  composed  cantatas,  Hugo  Roehr  has  produced  an 
oratorio,  Robert  Kahn  and  Stephan  Krehl  are  known  for  their  cham- 
ber music,  Heinrich  Gebhard  is  a  piano  composer,  while  Henning 
von  Koss,  Alexander  von  Fielitz,  and  Hans  Heumann  have  won 
notice  by  their  songs. 

In  opera,  Engelbert  Humperdinck,  bom  in  1854,  is  the  most  suc- 
cessful of  the  contemporary  Germans.  Studying  architecture  at 
first,  he  took  up  music  at  Hiller's  suggestion.  His  works  include  a 
Moorish  rhapsodie  for  orchestra,  the  choral  ballad  "  Die  Wallfahrt 
nach  Kevlaar,"  and  many  musical  plays  arranged  for  his  juvenile  rel- 
atives. The  latter  include  "Dornroschen,"  "The  Kings'  Children," 
"Saint-Cyr,"  and  "Die  Sieben  Geislein."  From  these  came  also  his 
first  great  success,  "Hansel  and  Gretel";  while  a  later  opera,  "The 
Kings'  Children,"  is  elaborated  from  the  earlier  musical  play  of  the 
same  name. 

"Hansel  and  Gretel,"  brought  out  in  1893,  is  based  on  one  of 
Grimm's  fairy  tales.  It  opens  with  the  two  children  dancing  and 
making  merry  instead  of  working.  Finally  they  upset  the  cream-jug. 
Their  stepmother,  catching  them,  sends  them  out  to  gather  berries 
on  the  Ilsenstein,  to  make  up  the  deficit  in  food.  Left  alone,  she 
bewails  the  family's  poverty.  The  father,  Peter,  retums  in  a  rollick- 
ing humor,  having  sold  his  brooms  and  other  wares  to  good  profit,  and 


STRAUSS  AND  RECENT  GERMANS  247 

being  now  laden  with  supplies.  But  he  grows  anxious  when  he  hears 
where  the  children  have  gone,  for  a  witch  inhabits  the  Ilsenstein. 
The  next  scene  shows  the  children  at  play  in  the  forest.  They  eat 
some  of  their  berries,  crown  one  another  with  garlands,  and  imitate 
the  cuckoo.  But  at  length  they  realize  that  they  have  lost  their  way. 
Darkness  comes  on,  the  Sandman  makes  them  sleepy,  and  they  lie 
down  to  slumber.  First,  however,  they  say  theu*  prayer  asking  the 
angels  to  guard  them;  and  in  answer  to  their  simple  faith,  after  they 
fall  asleep  the  heavenly  hosts  do  in  reality  descend  to  watch  over 
them.  In  the  morning,  after  the  dew-fairy  wakes  them,  the  scene 
changes  suddenly  to  the  witch's  gingerbread  hut.  She  finds  the  two 
children,  and  casts  spells  over  them.  Gretel  is  set  to  work,  while 
Hansel,  whom  the  witch  plans  to  eat  first,  is  fattened  in  a  cage. 
After  a  ride  on  a  broomstick,  in  true  magic  fashion,  the  witch  pre- 
pares her  fire  and  brings  Hansel  toward  it.  But  the  children  push 
the  witch  into  her  own  oven.  While  they  are  rejoicing  over  their 
deliverance,  the  oven  blows  up,  and  some  painted  figures  about  the 
house  turn  into  real  children.  Taking  the  witch's  wand,  Gretel  dis- 
enchants them  so  that  they  can  move  freely.  Peter  and  his  wife  then 
find  their  children,  safe  after  all;  and  a  chorus  of  happiness  ends  the 
work. 

The  music  to  this  opera  is  straightforward  and  melodious,  with  a 
richly  beautiful  harmonic  accompaniment.  Its  direct  attractiveness 
and  its  idealization  of  folk-song  effects  pointed  a  moral  for  those 
who  were  trying  to  imitate  only  the  more  bombastic  side  of  Wag- 
ner's works. 

"The  King's  Children"  begins  with  a  witch  berating  the  goose- 
girl  who  serves  her.  A  youth  finds  the  gh-l  later,  and  loves  her.  Al- 
though he  is  in  rags,  he  is  really  a  king's  son,  and  carries  a  crown 
with  him.  The  town  of  Hellabrun  sends  to  the  witch  to  find  who  will 
be  its  next  ruler,  as  its  king  has  just  died;  but  she  will  say  only  that 
whoever  enters  the  town  gates  next  day  at  noon  should  rule.  The 
second  act  shows  a  square  in  the  town.  The  king's  son  seeks  work, 
and  other  by-play  occurs.  At  noon,  when  all  have  gathered,  the  gates 
are  opened,  and  it  is  the  goose-girl  who  enters,  followed  by  the 
minstrel  (Spielmann)  who  had  been  with  those  visiting  the  witch. 
She  greets  the  king's  son,  and  tells  him  she  has  come  to  join  him  on 
the  throne;  but  the  people  will  not  accept  them.  The  third  act  shows 


248  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

the  forest  again,  with  the  minstrel  living  in  the  hut  of  the  witch, 
whom  the  people  had  killed  in  anger  at  her  supposed  mockery. 
Messengers  come  to  ask  him  to  return;  and  a  child  begs  him  to  find 
the  king's  son  and  the  goose-girl  again.  While  he  is  away,  the  pair 
return  to  the  hut,  famished  after  their  wanderings;  but  the  people 
refuse  them  food,  and  they  retreat  to  the  hillside  to  die.  The  min- 
strel finds  them  too  late,  and  sings  a  very  striking  lament  over  their 
bodies.  The  music  is  keenly  expressive  and  richly  melodious.  The 
plot  is  really  an  allegory  meant  to  show  that  true  nobility  of  soul  is 
not  recognized  by  the  common  herd. 

A  very  successful  opera,  which  has  been  translated  into  many 
languages,  is  "Der  Evangelimann,"  by  Wilhelm  Kienzl.  Its  plot  is 
based  on  self-sacrifice.  Mathias  and  Johannes,  two  brothers,  both 
love  the  same  girl,  Martha.  She  prefers  Mathias;  and  Johannes,  in 
anger,  sets  fire  to  the  bam  where  the  lovers  are  meeting,  and  de- 
noimces  Mathias  as  the  incendiary.  Martha's  effort  to  save  her 
lover  prove  futile;  he  accepts  his  fate,  and  is  imprisoned  for  twenty 
years.  After  the  term  is  up,  Mathias  finds  Johannes  dying,  and  for- 
gives him.  Kienzl,  bom  in  1857,  has  composed  other  operas,  such  as 
"Urvasi,"  "Heilmar  der  Narr,"  "Don  Quixote,"  and  the  recent 
"Kuhreigen,"  or  "Ranz  des  Vaches,"  based  on  the  actions  of  the 
Swiss  guard  at  Paris  during  the  French  Revolution. 

Eugen  D'Albert,  bom  in  1864,  is  famous  as  a  pianist.  He  has  com- 
posed piano  concertos,  a  'cello  concerto,  overtures,  and  a  symphony. 
But  opera  has  been  his  chief  work,  and  he  has  set  a  dozen  or  more 
dramatic  subjects.  "  The  Ruby"  is  based  on  Hebbel's  version  of  an 
Oriental  story,  in  which  a  Caliph's  daughter  is  magically  imprisoned 
in  the  gem,  and  duly  freed  by  her  lover.  "Ghismonda"  treats  the 
love  of  a  low-bom  man  for  a  princess.  When  discovered,  he  dies 
rather  than  reveal  her  secret;  but  she  makes  his  chivalry  known. 
"Gemot"  is  a  fairy  opera  with  much  delicate  music.  " Die  Abreise" 
shows  the  reconciliation  of  a  married  couple,  who  had  drifted  apart, 
but  were  brought  together  through  the  unwelcome  attentions  of  a 
third  party.  "Cain"  is  a  one-act  version,  somewhat  altered,  of  the 
Biblical  story.  "  Der  Improvisator  "  is  a  setting  of  Hugo's  "  Angelo." 
"Tiefiand,"  the  best  of  D'Albert's  works,  treats  a  Spanish  story  of 
true  love  that  baffles  the  intrigues  of  a  dissolute  lowland  Alcalde. 

Cyrill  Kistler,  bom  in  1848,  was  once  looked  upon  as  a  possible 


STRAUSS  AND  RECENT  GERMANS  249 

successor  to  Wagner.  His  "Kunihild,"  which  was  well  received,  has 
for  heroine  Kunihild,  who  lives  in  a  magic  castle,  and  is  won  by 
Sigun,  but  loses  him  through  the  enmity  of  his  brothers.  Kistler 
composed  also  "Eulenspiegel,"  the  legendary  "Baldur's  Death," 
the  comedy  "Im  Honigmond,"  and  "Der  Vogt  von  Miihlstein." 
His  style  is  sometimes  too  heavy-handed. 

Max  Schillings  has  produced  the  symphonic  fantasias  "Meer- 
gruss"  and  "Im  Morgen,"  and  a  dignified  prologue  to  "(Edipus." 
Of  his  operas,  "Ingwelde"  treats  a  viking  story.  Its  heroine  is  car- 
ried from  her  home,  her  kidnapper  is  killed  by  his  brother,  and  when 
she  returns,  that  brother  kills  her  husband  also,  after  which  the  pair, 
who  love  each  other,  set  out  in  a  boat  and  immolate  themselves  to- 
gether. "  Der  Pfeifertag"  is  an  attempt  at  the  old-time  atmosphere 
of  "Die  Meistersinger."  The  plot  includes  various  adventures  on 
"Piper's  Day,"  with  the  guild  resenting  an  excessive  toll;  but  it  is 
rather  confused. 

August  Bungert  went  to  Grecian  mythology  for  his  subjects,  and 
composed  a  hexalogy  consisting  of  "Achilles,"  "  Clytemnestra," 
"  Circe,"  "  Nausicaa,"  "  Odysseus'  Return,"  and  "  Odysseus'  Death." 
The  plots  are  admirably  arranged,  but  the  music  is  hardly  great 
enough  for  such  beautiful  subjects.  Bungert  wrote  also  a  comic 
opera,  the  "Tasso"  Overture,  and  a  symphonic  poem. 

Hugo  WoK  (186(>-1903)  composed  an  opera,  "Der  Corregidor," 
and  partly  finished  another,  "Manuel  Venegas."  The  former  is 
based  on  a  Spanish  libretto,  and  apparently  aims  to  duplicate  the 
success  of  "Carmen";  but  its  story  is  intricate,  and  its  music  not 
strongly  dramatic.  His  symphonic  poem  "Penthesilea"  is  a  worthy 
work;  but  he  is  best  known  by  his  many  songs.  These  are  real  art- 
works, and  continue  the  excellence  of  the  German  Lied  with  some- 
thing of  the  variety  and  force  shown  by  the  Strauss  songs. 

Siegfried  Wagner,  bom  at  Triebschen  in  1869,  has  attempted  to 
carry  on  German  opera,  but  with  more  persistence  than  success.  His 
subjects  are  good  enough,  consisting  mostly  of  German  legendary 
lore;  but  his  music  is  never  great.  His  operas  include  "Der  Baren- 
hauter,"  "Herzog  Wildfang,"  "Der  Kobold,"  "Bruder  Lustig," 
"The  Kingdom  of  Black  Swans,"  and  others  of  the  sort.  But  he  is 
better  known  as  a  conductor. 

Ludwig  Thuille  (1861-1907)  was  much  praised  by  Strauss.  Thuille 


250  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

composed  overtures  and  chamber  works  that  are  well  known.  His 
operas  consist  of  the  unsuccessful  "  Theuerdank,"  the  fairy  play 
"Gugeline,"  and  "Lobetanz,"  given  recently  in  New  York. 

Leo  Blech,  bom  in  1871,  is  credited  with  three  symphonic  poems 
and  several  operas.  The  latter  include  the  village  picture  "Das  war 
ich,"  the  legendary  "Aschenbrodel,"  the  dramatic  "  Alpenkonig," 
and  the  bright  comic  opera  "Versiegelt." 

Heinrich  Zoellner,  bom  in  1854,  shows  American  influence  in  his 
cantata  "Columbus"  and  his  choral  work  "Onaway,  awake."  He 
has  composed  also  several  symphonies.  His  operas  include  "Der 
Ueberfall,"  "Frithjof,"  and  "The  Sunken  Bell." 

Hugo  Kaun's  American  stay  resulted  in  "Minnehaha"  and  other 
symphonic  poems.  Bom  in  1863,  he  now  lives  abroad.  He  has  com- 
posed a  "Fatherland  Symphony,"  choral  works,  and  the  opera 
"Der  Pietist." 

Emanuel  Moor,  of  Czech  extraction,  has  composed  a  symphony, 
two  concertos,  and  three  operas. 

Among  operas  that  have  been  highly  praised  are  Friedrich  Klose's 
"Ilsebill,"  Paul  von  Klenau's  "Sulamith,"  Julius  Bittner's  "Der 
Musikant,"  Arnold  Mendelssohn's  "Elsi,"  Hans  Pfitzner's  "Die 
Rose  vom  Liebesgarten,"  Max  von  Oberleithner's  "Aphrodite," 
Max  Vogrich's  "Buddha,"  and  Waltershausen's  "Oberst  Chabert." 
Other  opera  composers,  not  mentioned  in  connection  with  orchestral 
works,  are  Robert  Erben,  Ivan  Knorr,  Gustav  Kulenkampf,  Rein- 
hold  Becker,  Max  Marschalk,  Karl  Pottgiesser,  Eugen  von  Volborth, 
Ignaz  Waghalter,  and  Hector  von  Woikowsky-Biedau. 


XXVII 

FRANCK  AND  MODERN  FRANCE 

CfisAR  AuGUSTE  Franck  (1822-90)  was  a  native  of  Li^ge,  but 
lived  in  Paris.  After  Conservatory  study  in  both  places,  he  became 
organist  at  the  Ste.  Clotilde  Church,  and  divided  his  time  between 
organ-playing,  teaching,  and  composing.  As  teacher  in  the  Paris 
Conservatoire  and  elsewhere,  he  influenced  many  of  the  later  French 
composers. 

Franck's  first  success  was  the  Biblical  eclogue  "Ruth."  More 
famous  now  is  "The  Beatitudes,"  a  broadly  planned  musical  setting 
of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount.  The  poor,  the  weak,  and  the  sufferers 
cry  out  in  anguish;  but  they  are  comforted  by  the  voice  of  Christ. 
Satan  then  tries  to  stir  up  dissension;  but  he  is  silenced  when  the 
sacred  voice  speaks  again.  The  work  is  in  eight  sections,  and  shows 
dramatic  force,  sympathetic  feeling,  and  real  inspiration.  Later 
oratorios  by  Franck  include  "Rebecca"  and  "The  Redemption." 

In  the  orchestral  field,  Franck  followed  a  set  of  symphonic  varia- 
tions by  his  great  symphony  in  D  minor.  The  latter  is  a  three- 
movement  work  of  strong  and  impressive  character.  Franck's  many 
symphonic  poems  include  "Psyche,"  which  contains  solos,  duets, and 
even  a  chorus;  "Les  Eolides,"  based  on  a  poem  by  Leconte  de  Lisle, 
that  gives  homage  to  the  breezes,  the  daughters  of  ^olus;  "Les 
Djinns,"  depicting  the  spirits  of  the  Orient  that  wander  about  in 
search  of  mischief;  and  "Le  Chasseur  Maudit,"  portraying  the  fate 
of  the  fabled  Count  of  the  Rhine,  who  started  a  sacrilegious  hunt  on 
a  Sunday,  and  was  forced  in  punishment  to  hunt  forever,  driven  by 
flames  and  pursued  by  demons. 

Franck's  chief  opera,  "Hulda,"  deals  with  a  viking  subject,  and 
seems  to  show  in  its  story  the  influence  of  "Tristan  and  Isolde." 
Hulda  is  a  maiden  who  is  loved  by  her  captor,  Gudleik,  but  prefers 
Eyolf.  She  stirs  up  a  duel,  in  which  Gudleik  falls.  For  a  time  she  is 
satisfied;  but  when  Eyolf  returns  to  a  former  sweetheart,  Swanhilda, 
Hulda  arouses  Gudleik's  brothers  to  avenge  his  death.   She  leads 


252  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Eyolf  into  an  ambush,  where  he  is  killed.  While  the  victors  debate 
whether  such  a  gentle  maid  as  Hulda  should  not  be  put  out  of  this 
cruel  world,  Eyolf 's  men  appear,  and  she  casts  herself  into  the  sea  to 
escape  their  vengeance. 

"Le  Valet  de  Ferme"  was  an  earlier  opera  that  did  not  met  with 
great  success.  "Ghisella"  was  left  unfinished,  and  too  fragmentary 
for  performance. 

Franck  composed  some  excellent  chamber  music,  and  a  number  of 
shorter  works.  His  organ  pieces  are  naturally  well  suited  to  their 
instrument.  His  "  Prelude,  Aria  et  Finale,"  and  similar  compositions 
for  piano,  are  widely  known. 

Franck's  work  is  rather  modulatory.  In  his  shorter  pieces  he  shows 
an  interesting  style,  though  his  modulations  are  not  handled  with 
the  freshness  possessed  by  a  Strauss.  In  the  orchestral  works, 
Franck's  manner  is  dignified  and  lofty,  and  often  strongly  dramatic. 
His  organ  compositions  show  much  solid  learning. 

Franck's  simple  faith  and  devout  earnestness  won  him  much 
respect;  and  Ropartz  wrote  of  him,  "He  stands  out  from  his  con- 
temporaries as  one  of  another  age.  They  are  scoffers,  he  was  a 
believer;  they  vaunt  themselves,  he  worked  in  silence;  they  seek 
glory,  he  let  it  seek  him.  .  .  .  They  shrink  from  nothing,  —  conces- 
sion, compromise,  meanness  even;  he  performed  his  mission  faith- 
fully, and  without  counting  the  cost,  leaving  us  the  noblest  example 
of  uprightness." 

Charles  Camille  Saint-Saens,  born  at  Paris  in  1835,  represents  a 
more  conservative  school.  His  musical  activity  began  at  sixteen, 
when  he  produced  his  first  symphony.  Soon  afterward  he  became  a 
church  organist;  and  his  later  improvisations  at  the  Madeleine  made 
him  famous.  He  has  been  active  also  as  a  piano  teacher  and  a  public 
performer,  though  most  of  his  later  years  have  been  spent  in  compo- 
sition. 

His  orchestral  works  include  four  symphonies,  two  suites,  and 
five  piano  concertos,  of  which  the  one  in  G  minor,  with  clean-cut 
andante,  graceful  allegretto,  and  brilliant  presto,  is  a  prime  favorite. 
For  voices  in  addition  he  wrote  a  Christmas  oratorio,  two  masses, 
the  ode  "La  Lyre  et  la  Harpe,"  and  many  orchestral  ballads.  His 
songs  with  piano  are  often  Oriental  in  character.  His  piano  and  organ 
solos  are  also  successful.   His  four  symphonic  poems  seem  rather 


RIMSKY-KORSAKOV 


DVORAK 


FRANCK 


FRANCE  AND  MODERN  FRANCE  25S 

thinly  scored  in  comparison  with  contemporary  works,  but  they 
were  once  highly  prized.  They  consist  of  "La  Jeimesse  d'Hercule," 
"Le  Rouet  d'Omphale,"  "Phaeton,"  and  the  "Danse  Macabre." 
The  last  one,  cited  in  later  chapters  on  "  Instruments,"  depicts  the 
skeletons  emerging  from  their  graves  at  midnight,  and  dancing  to 
the  music  of  Death's  violin  imtil  dawn. 

In  opera,  Saint-Saens  found  it  hard  to  get  a  hearing  at  first;  for 
his  symphonic  style  and  his  great  learning  brought  him  under  the 
atrocious  suspicion  of  being  a  Wagnerian.  His  one-act  "Princesse 
Jaune"  did  not  appear  until  1872,  and  "Le  Timbre  d'Argent"  was 
delayed  even  beyond  that  year.  But  "Samson  et  Dalila,"  produced 
by  Liszt  at  Weimar  in  1877,  assured  its  composer's  reputation.  This 
beautiful  work  shows  the  Jews  among  the  Philistines,  with  Samson 
attaining  their  leadership.  He  is  captivated  by  Dalila,  whom  he 
meets  as  she  emerges  from  the  temple.  In  the  second  act,  at  her 
home,  the  high  priest  exhorts  her  to  betray  Samson;  and  the  ensuing 
love-scene  shows  her  success.  A  scene  showing  Samson  blind, 
chained,  and  grinding  a  mill  is  followed  by  a  gathering  in  the  temple, 
which  he  finally  overthrows.  The  first  act  has  some  charming 
choruses.  The  second  act  includes  Dalila's  great  solo,  "Amour,  viens 
aider  ma  faiblesse,"  and  the  beautiful  love-scene  "Mon  coeur  s'ouvre 
a  ta  voix."  In  the  third  act  are  the  rhythmic  and  doleful  mill  music, 
the  temple  service,  some  excellent  canonic  work,  Dalila's  taunting  of 
Samson  (with  a  parody  of  the  love-theme),  and  the  final  catastrophe. 

Later  works  by  the  same  composer  include  "The  Deluge"  (prac- 
tically a  cantata),  "Etienne  Marcel,"  "Henry  VIII,"  "Proserpine," 
"Ascanio,"  the  old-fashioned  "Phryne,"  "Dejanh-e,"  "Les  Bar- 
bares,"  ^d  "Helene." 

Jules-Emile-Frederic  Massenet  (1842-1912)  was  another  conserv- 
ative. After  taking  the  Prix  de  Rome  with  the  cantata  "David 
Rizzio,"  he  won  a  name  by  dramatic  oratorios  of  the  sacred  opera 
type,  such  as  "Marie  Madeleine"  and  "Eve,"  followed  later  by 
"La  Vierge"  and  "La  Terre  Promise."  For  orchestra  Massenet 
composed  a  number  of  suites.  Some  of  these  treat  Neapolitan,  Alsa- 
tian, and  Hungarian  subjects;  but  the  best  is  the  "Scenes  Pitto- 
resques,"  depicting  "Noon  in  the  Village,"  "The  Angelus,"  and  other 
phases  of  rural  French  life.  Massenet's  songs  are  often  charmingly 
piquant,  and  usually  full  of  sentiment. 


254  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Massenet  started  his  operatic  career  with  "La  Grand'  Tante"  and 
"Don  Cesar  de  Bazan."  "Le  Roi  de  Lahore,"  which  followed,  was 
spectacular.  It  dealt  with  the  love  of  Alim  for  the  Hindu  Princess 
Sita,  who  is  coveted  also  by  the  powerful  Scindia.  In  jealousy, 
Scindia  strikes  Alim  dead.  The  latter,  in  the  Oriental  paradise,  begs 
Indra  that  he  may  return  to  earth.  He  is  accorded  permission,  but 
must  die  (permanently)  when  Sita's  life  ends.  Scindia's  pursuit 
grows  so  importunate  that  Sita  kills  herself.  The  scene  in  the  Indian 
heaven  is  gorgeously  set  and  staged. 

"Herodiade"  was  another  success,  but  it  was  thrown  in  the  shade 
by  "Manon."  The  latter  work,  founded  on  Prevost's  novel,  shows 
that  fair  but  frail  beauty  leaving  her  lover  for  a  rich  admirer,  passing 
through  various  vicissitudes,  being  reconciled  to  the  former,  and 
finally  dying  in  his  arms. 

"Le  Cid"  proved  rather  weak,  as  Massenet's  style  was  senti- 
mental rather  than  dramatic.  "Esclarmonde,"  however,  scored 
another  success.  It  shows  the  beautiful  Byzantine  sorceress  of  that 
name  winning  the  knight  Roland,  losing  him  through  his  lack  of 
caution,  and  recovering  him  when  he  gains  her  as  prize  in  a  tourney. 
The  prize  idea,  and  the  condition  that  Roland  will  lose  his  love  unless 
he  keeps  their  relation  secret,  seem  reminiscent  of  Wagner's  librettos. 

"  Werther"  is  based  on  Goethe's  novel  of  that  name.  "Le  Mage" 
treated  an  Oriental  subject.  The  very  successful  "Thais"  depicts 
the  conversion  of  an  Alexandrian  courtesan,  who  becomes  truly 
devout  and  saint-like,  while  the  monk  who  converted  her  falls  a 
prey  to  feelings  of  earthly  love  for  her.  "La  NavaiTaise"  is  a  one- 
act  militaiy  affair  (belonging  to  the  verismo  school  of  realism),  in 
which  the  heroine  kills  a  hostile  leader  to  earn  a  reward,  but  is  sus- 
pected by  her  lover  of  having  obtained  the  money  in  a  way  less  cred- 
itable to  her  honor.  "Le  Portrait  de  Manon"  is  a  one-act  love  idyl. 
"  Cendrillon"  treats  a  fairy  subject.  "  Griselidis"  shows  that  legen- 
dary bride's  fidelity,  which  is  unshaken  by  many  attempts  to  prove 
her  inconstant.  "Roma"  and  "Don  Quixote"  are  later  works,  but 
neither  of  them  made  a  success  equal  to  that  of  "The  Jongleur  of 
Notre-Dame."  This  delightful  mediaeval  story  shows  a  poor,  half- 
starved  Jongleur  entertaining  a  crowd.  A  monk  reviles  his  calling; 
and  the  sight  of  a  donkey  laden  with  food  makes  him  willing  to  give 
it  up,  and  enter  the  monastery.   Inside,  he  becomes  the  butt  of  all 


FRANCK  AND  MODERN  FRANCE  255 

except  the  cook;  for  they  can  all  do  something  in  honor  of  the  Virgin, 
while  he  knows  nothing  suitable  to  offer  her.  Struck  by  a  sudden 
idea,  he  thinks  he  will  entertain  her;  and  he  does  his  tricks  before  her 
statue.  The  monks  find  him,  and  are  shocked  at  what  they  think 
blasphemy;  but  the  statue  comes  to  life,  thanks  him,  and  calls  him 
to  her  side  in  heaven.  This  opera  was  written  for  male  voices  only, 
but  changed  afterwards  at  Mary  Garden's  request,  the  juggler's 
part  being  arranged  for  female  voice. 

Vincent  d'Indy,  born  in  1852,  is  a  leader  of  the  new  school  that  the 
Franck  pupils  developed.  In  a  letter  to  the  present  writer,  he  men- 
tioned FVanck's  teaching  as  "worthy  and  beneficent  direction."  A 
trip  to  Germany  in  1872  enabled  D'Indy  to  meet  Liszt;  and  the 
''oung  man  became  a  devout  Wagnerian. 

His  first  success  was  the  "Piccolomini"  Overture,  which  became 
a  part  of  the  later  "Wallenstein"  Triptych.  "La  Chevauchee  du 
Cid"  and  "Le  Chant  de  la  Cloche"  are  vocal-orchestral  works.  The 
overture  to  "Antony  and  Cleopatra,"  and  the  "Jean  Hunyadi" 
Symphony,  were  followed  by  the  symphonic  poem  "La  Foret 
Enchantee."  This  work,  based  on  an  Uhland  poem,  depicts  the 
knight  Harald  riding  through  the  woods,  until  his  companions  are 
lost,  and  he  himself  thrown  into  a  magic  sleep.  "Saugefleurie"  is 
another  symphonic  poem,  treating  a  story  by  De  Bonnieres.  "  Istar," 
the  set  of  variations  treating  an  old  Assyrian  legend,  shows  that 
heroine  seeking  her  lover  in  the  abode  of  death.  Her  procedure  is 
marked  by  successive  sacrifices  of  her  garments,  to  pacify  the 
warders;  and  the  work  depicts  this  by  reversing  the  usual  form,  and 
having  the  variations  grow  simpler,  with  the  theme  at  the  end.  Of 
D'Indy's  two  symphonies,  the  first  is  more  successful.  It  is  based 
on  a  Cevennes  air;  and  the  pure,  sad  melody  is  treated  in  a  way  that 
is  earnest,  if  somewhat  ascetic.  Other  orchestral  works  by  the  com- 
poser include  the  "Karadec"  suite  and  incidental  music  to  Mendes' 
"Medee." 

In  opera,  D'Indy's  early  one-act  comedy,  "Attendez-moi  sous 
rOrme,"  has  been  frequently  given.  "  Fervaal "  is  based  on  a  Druidic 
plot,  in  which  the  hero,  loved  by  Guilhen,  daughter  of  his  Sara- 
cen conqueror,  renounces  everything  in  a  vain  attempt  to  restore 
the  Druids'  power.  "The  Stranger"  has  a  more  symbolical  plot. 
It  treats  of  a  silent,  patient  stranger  who  meets  persecution  in  a 


256  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

fishing-village,  but  is  loved  by  Vita.  Andr^,  who  is  betrothed  to 
Vita,  loses  her  love  through  his  readiness  to  earn  money  by  ferreting 
out  poor  smugglers.  The  others  think  Vita  foolish;  but  she  knows 
and  loves  the  stranger's  forgiving  ways.  From  the  shore  a  boat  is 
seen  in  distress.  No  one  will  try  to  aid  it;  but  finally  the  stranger 
does  so.  Vita  rushes  along  with  him.  The  pair  reach  the  ship,  but 
are  engulfed  with  it.  The  plot  extols  self-sacrifice  by  contrasting  it 
with  selfish  financial  shrewdness. 

Achille  Claude  Debussy  (1862-1918)  was  the  leader  of  the  move- 
ment known  as  modernism.  His  work  has  been  aptly  termed  musical 
stippling.  In  his  operas,  and  orchestral  compositions  similar  to  "The 
Afternoon  of  a  Faun,"  he  gains  his  effects  by  a  succession  of  more  or 
less  detached  chords,  instead  of  by  flowing  harmonic  progressions  of 
the  usual  sort.  His  ear  was  exceedingly  delicate,  the  result  showing 
in  the  continual  softness  of  his  orchestral  pieces.  A  climax  in  his 
works  would  be  lost  in  the  noise  of  a  Strauss  or  a  Scriabine.  His  use 
of  chords  in  fugitive  dissonances  is  much  admii-ed  by  many;  but  they 
are  always  the  ones  who  have  been  the  laggards  in  appreciating  the 
less  fragmentary  style  of  classic  and  romantic  composers.  To  one 
who  does  not  sense  harmonic  relations,  Debussy's  music  will  show 
merely  its  exquisite  delicacy.  But  to  those  who  are  definitely  moved 
by  a  perception  of  orderly  harmonic  progression,  the  more  radical 
work  of  Debussy  and  other  modernists  seems  too  fragmentary  to  be 
pleasing.  Certain  French  critics  have  called  the  modernistic  pro- 
ductions "cerebral  music";  and  the  term  is  fair  enough,  since  those 
who  enjoy  them  feel  a  mental  appreciation  of  their  delicacy  rather 
than  any  emotional  uplift  such  as  a  theme  of  related  harmonies  will 
produce.  Thus  we  may  not  say  that  Debussy's  more  extreme  com- 
positions are  bad,  but  that  their  appeal  is  not  that  of  earlier  music. 
His  little  genre  pictures  sometimes  seem  like  miniatures,  so  excessive 
is  their  refinement. 

To  win  the  Prix  de  Rome,  Debussy  laid  aside  his  new  style,  and 
produced  the  expressive  opera-cantata  "The  Prodigal  Son."  In  this 
he  showed  himself  a  master  of  conservative  music;  but  his  own  aural 
delicacy  soon  led  him  into  strange  paths.  "La  Demoiselle  Elue" 
and  "  Chimene  "  ai'e  two  early  lyric  scenes.  For  orchestra,  the  vague 
and  elusive  Prelude  to  Mallarme's  "Afternoon  of  a  Faun"  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  "Nocturnes,"  consisting  of  "Nuages"  and  "Fetes." 


FRANCK  AND  MODERN  FRANCE  257 

Still  later  came  the  group  named  "Images,"  which  consists  of 
"Iberia"  (in  separate  and  well-contrasted  movements),  the  "Gigue 
Triste,"  and  the  "Rondes  de  Printemps."  An  earlier  piece,  remod- 
elled, is  known  as  "Printemps."  A  recent  work  by  Debussy  is  the 
ballet  "  Les  Jeux,"  which  contains  pantomime  based  on  tennis  and 
other  games.  "  La  Mer  "  is  a  beautiful  three-movement  sketch. 

In  opera,  his  chief  work  is  "Pelleas  et  Melisande,"  based  on  the 
Maeterlinck  play  of  that  name.  The  vague,  shadowy  music  follows 
the  situation  accurately  enough.  The  plot  shows  the  finding  of  the 
timid  Melisande  by  the  old  king  Golaud,  and  their  marriage;  the 
subsequent  love  between  her  and  his  younger  brother  Pelleas;  the 
latter 's  death  at  the  jealous  Golaud 's  hands;  and  the  anguish  of 
Llelisande,  who  sinks  silently  to  the  grave.  A  later  work,  which 
seems  more  like  a  set  of  detached  scenes,  is  "The  Martyrdom  of 
Saint  Sebastian." 

Debussy's  many  songs  and  piano  pieces  are  often  full  of  beauty. 
Their  vague  charm  has  been  likened  to  a  subtle  perfume,  which  per- 
vades the  air  but  defies  analysis.  Some  of  them  are  too  chaotic  for 
the  conservatives;  but  many  of  them  are  comprehensible  and  attrac- 
tive to  all  hearers.  Debussy  and  his  partisans  have  been  rather 
outspoken  against  some  of  the  classics.  They  consider  Beethoven 
lacking  in  taste,  in  spite  of  his  genius;  and  they  fail  to  appreciate 
Schumann's  music.  This  is  due  to  theu"  placing  too  much  emphasis 
on  delicate  effects. 

Erik  Satie  has  been  rated  by  some  as  a  predecessor  of  Debussy. 
Satie's  piano  works,  such  as  the  "Morceaux  en  Forme  de  la  Poire," 
show  a  decidedly  bizarre  character. 

Ernesto  Fanelli  is  another  pioneer  in  the  modem  French  style. 
His  tone-poem  "Thebes,"  unknown  for  many  years,  aroused  much 
appreciation  when  finally  performed.  He  lived  in  poverty  and  ob- 
scurity until  accidentally  discovered  by  Pieme. 

Gabriel  Urbain  Faure  is  classed  with  Debussy.  Faure's  songs,  and 
his  opera  "Penelope,"  show  much  refinement  of  style. 

Maurice  Ravel  is  another  of  the  modernists.  He  has  composed 
the  comic  opera  "L'Heure  Espagnole,"  the  ballets  "Ma  Mere 
rOye"  and  "Daphnis  and  Chloe,"  a  Spanish  rhapsody,  the  "Sche- 
herazade "  Overture,  a  string  quartet,  and  many  piano  works  and 
songs.  His  orchestral  suite  "Ma  Mere  I'Oye"  ("Mother  Goose")  is 


258  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

made  from  a  set  of  piano  pieces.  Its  five  movements  show  a  most 
delightfully  piquant  orchestration,  although  the  thematic  material 
consists  of  the  bitter-sweet  progressions  that  characterize  the  mod- 
em French  school. 

Louis  Aubert  is  a  younger  member  of  the  modernist  group.  His 
opera  "La  Foret  Bleue"  has  an  attractive  plot,  and  some  humorous 
moments,  but  is  set  in  an  altogether  dissonant  and  unattractive 
style. 

Florent  Schmitt  is  another  master  of  dissonance,  but  he  writes  in  a 
more  effective  and  forcible  style.  He  has  composed  a  symphonic 
study  on  Poe's  "Haunted  Palace,"  the  symphonic  poem  "En  fite," 
the  "Combat  des  Raksasas,"  two  rhapsodies,  the  ballet  "La  Trag^ 
die  de  Salome,"  vocal-orchestral  settings  of  psalms,  chamber  works, 
and  smaller  pieces. 

Alexis  Emmanuel  Chabrier  (1841-94)  wrote  in  vigorous  style, 
but  with  more  conservative  harmonies.  His  early  operas  include 
"L'Etoile"  and  "L'fiducation  manquee."  His  "Gwendoline"  is 
strongly  dramatic.  That  herome  is  the  daughter  of  the  ancient 
British  king  Armel.  She  dreams  that  a  Dane  carries  her  over  the 
sea.  The  people  laugh  at  her  fears;  but  their  mirth  soon  changes 
to  dismay,  for  the  Danes,  under  Harald,  have  really  come.  Gwen- 
doline saves  her  father  and  captivates  Harald,  but  Armel  plots 
to  kill  the  invaders  at  the  wedding.  Gwendoline  warns  Harald,  but 
he  disregards  her  words.  His  men  are  massacred,  and  he  is  beaten 
down;  whereupon  she  snatches  his  knife,  stabs  herself,  and  joins  her 
death-song  to  his.  The  score  is  virile  and  forceful,  and  the  work  is 
the  best  French  attempt  at  the  dramatic  Wagnerian  vein.  A  later 
opera,  "Le  Roi  malgre  Lui,"  was  lighter  and  more  humorous  in 
style.  Other  works  by  Chabrier  include  the  orchestral  "Espana," 
the  "Marche  Joyeuse,"  music  to  Mendes'  "Femme  de  Tabarin," 
the  choral  "  Sulamite,"  some  piano  pieces,  and  a  few  oddly  humor- 
ous songs. 

Gustave  Charpentier,  bom  in  1860,  has  some  socialistic  ideas,  and 
has  taken  great  interest  in  the  Montmartre  laborers.  This  shows  in 
his  cantata,  "La  Couronnement  de  la  Muse,"  and  in  his  best  opera, 
"Louise."  The  heroine  of  that  opera  is  a  poor  working-girl,  who 
loves  the  poet  Julien,  but  is  prevented  from  marrying  him  by  her 
parents,  who  think  him  too  wild.  A  street  scene  and  a  worlcoom 


FRANCK  AND  MODERN  FRANCE  259 

scene  show  Julien  taking  Louise  away  to  a  life  of  free  love.  They  live 
very  happily  for  a  time.  Then  her  mother  brings  her  home,  alleging 
that  her  father  is  sick;  and  the  pair  try  to  coerce  her.  She  finally 
leaves  them,  while  the  father  curses  Paris  and  its  baleful  influence. 
The  plot  is  somewhat  confused  in  its  moral,  but  the  underlying  idea 
is  a  protest  against  the  hard  conditions  of  a  working-girl's  life.  The 
music  is  realistic,  even  including  street  cries  at  times.  "Julien,"  in 
certain  ways  a  sequel  to  "Louise,"  has  a  very  weak  plot.  Char- 
pentier's  other  works  include  the  suite  "Impressions  d'ltalie"  and 
the  cantata  "La  Vie  du  Poete."    He  writes  his  own  .librettos. 

Alfred  Bruneau,  bom  in  1857,  won  an  early  success  with 
"L'Attaque  du  Moulin,"  treating  a  story  of  the  Franco-Prussian 
War.  Since  then  he  has  set  many  allegorical  subjects  from  Zola's 
works;  but  their  music  is  rather  heavy-handed. 

Ernest  Chausson  (1855-99)  might  have  become  very  great  if  his 
career  had  not  been  cut  short  by  a  fatal  bicycle  accident.  His  chief 
work  is  the  opera  "Le  Roi  Arthus."  Other  compositions  include  the 
symphonic  poem  "Viviane,"  the  tone-pictures  "Solitude  dans  les 
Bois"  and  "Soir  de  Fete,"  a  poem  for  violin  and  orchestra,  some 
chamber  music,  and  various  songs.  His  style  is  most  charmingly 
expressive,  and  his  harmonies  richly  attractive. 

Gabriel  Pieme,  bom  in  1863,  is  best  known  by  his  interesting  can- 
tata "The  Children's  Ciiisade."  Other  vocal-orchestral  works  by 
him  are  "The  Children  at  Bethlehem"  and  the  oratorio  "St.  Francis 
of  Assisi." 

Paul  Dukas,  bora  in  1865,  won  fame  in  the  orchestral  field  by  his 
scherzo  entitled  "L'Apprenti  Sorcier."  This  illustrates  Goethe's 
ballad  of  the  sorcerer's  apprentice,  who  made  a  broom  bring  buckets 
of  water  constantly,  but  forgot  how  to  stop  it.  The  composition  is 
strongly  effective  in  style,  and  full  of  humorous  touches.  His  opera 
"Ariane  et  Barbe-Bleue"  presents  Bluebeard's  earlier  wives  as 
spiritless  creatures,  while  Ariane  is  more  independent  and  progres- 
sive, and  leads  them  to  freedom.  Other  works  by  Dukas  are  a 
symphony,  overtures  to  "  King  Lear"  and  "  Gotz  von  Berlichingen," 
the  ballet  "Le  Peri,"  a  piano  sonata,  and  smaller  pieces. 

Henri  Duparc  has  been  active  in  the  field  of  oratorio.  Guy  de 
Ropartz  has  devoted  himself  to  orchestral  and  chamber  music. 
Pierre  de  Breville  has  written  in  all  these  styles,  and  composed  a 


«60  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

mass  also.  Arthur  Coquard  is  known  in  opera.  Rene  de  Boisdeffre 
has  produced  a  symphony,  an  oratorio,  and  other  large  compositions. 
Louis  Bourgault-Ducoudray  composed  operas  and  orchestral  works, 
and  became  an  authority  on  folk-music.  Among  the  women  Augusta 
Holmes  (of  Irish  descent)  wrote  large  symphonic  odes  and  an  opera; 
Cecile  Chaminade  has  produced  ambitious  compositions  like  the 
lyric  symphony  "Calirrhoe,"  but  is  better  known  by  her  dainty 
piano  pieces  and  songs;  while  Gabriella  Ferrari  has  become  known 
in  orchestral  and  operatic  work. 

Operas  that  have  received  some  notice  in  France  and  elsewhere 
are  "Elaine,"  by  Herman  Bemberg;  Camille  Erlanger's  "Polish 
Jew"  and  "Aphrodite";  "La  Cabrera,"  by  Gabriel  Dupont; 
"Monna  Vanna,"  by  Henri  Fevrier;  Reynaldo  Hahn's  "Nausicaa"; 
"La  Habanera,"  by  Raoul  Laparra;  Femand  LeBome's  "Giron- 
dins";  "Le  Chemineau,"  by  Xavier  Leroux;  "Daria,"  by  Georges 
Marty ;  Charles  Lef  ebvre'  s ' '  Judith ' ' ;  and  "Quo  Vadis, ' '  by  Jean  Nou- 
guds.  Other  French  opera  com.posers  are  Felix  Fourdrain,  Philippe 
Gaubert,  Andre  Gedalge,  Georges  Hue,  Baron  Frederic  d'Erlanger, 
Eugene  d'Harcourt,  Charles  Lenepveu,  Jules  Mazellier,  Andre  Mes- 
sager,  Edmond  Missa,  Max  d'Ollone,  Georges  Palicot,  Em.ile  Pes- 
sard,  Henri  Rabaud,  Samuel  Rousseau,  Gustave  Sam^azeuilh,  Emile 
Paladilhe,  Charles  Silver,  Antoine  Simon,  and  Paul  Vidal.  Com- 
posers who  have  kept  more  solely  to  the  orchestral  field  are  the 
conductors  Camille  Chevillard  and  fidouard  Colonne,  Henri-Paul 
BUsser,  Roger  Ducasse,  Paul  Ladmirault,  Jean  Lemaire,  Alberic 
Magnard  (killed  in  the  war  in  1914),  Albert  Roussel,  Georges  Sporck, 
Charles  Toumemire,  Richard  Vinee,  G.  Witkowsky,  and  Andre 
Wormser.  Gustave  Sandre  has  composed  chamber  works;  Gabriel 
Grovlez  writes  for  piano;  and  Jean  Baptiste  Faure  is  known  by 
"  Palm  Branches  "  and  other  songs.  Nearly  all  of  these  men  are  alive 
and  active  at  the  present  writing. 


XXVIII 

THE  RUSSIAN  SCHOOL 

While  Dargomiszky  and  Serov  were  building  up  Russian  opera, 
and  Rubinstein  and  Tschaikovsky  were  developing  into  cosmopoli- 
tan composers,  a  more  distinctively  national  school  was  founded, 
through  the  exertions  of  Mily  Alexeievitch  Balakirev  (1837-1910). 
He  was  born  at  Nijni-Novgorod;  and  there,  after  his  return  from 
the  Kazan  University,  he  was  taught  and  helped  by  the  cultivated 
Alexander  Oulibishev.  At  twenty  he  settled  in  St.  Petersburg,  be- 
coming known  as  a  pianist.  He  grew  to  be  a  friend  of  Glinka,  whose 
music  he  admired.  But  it  was  with  Cesar  Cui  that  he  began  the  in- 
timate discussions  that  led  to  the  idea  of  nationalism  for  which  he 
and  his  circle  worked.  He  founded  the  Free  Music  School,  and  organ- 
ized concerts  that  were  useful  in  making  known  the  compositions 
of  his  set.   He  was  active  also  in  collecting  the  Russian  folk-music. 

Balakirev's  compositions  are  not  numerous,  but  they  show  excel- 
lent workmanship.  He  wrote  a  symphony,  overtures  on  Russian, 
Czech,  and  Spanish  themes,  the  symphonic  poem  "Russia,"  inci- 
dental music  to  "King  Lear,"  and  the  symphonic  poem  "Tamara." 
The  last  production  is  based  on  a  legend  of  the  Caucasus.  Tamara 
was  a  beautiful  but  cruel  princess,  who  lived  in  a  tower  over  the  river 
Tarek.  When  any  cavalier  arrived,  there  would  be  a  night  of  rev- 
elry; but  in  the  morning  the  river  would  receive  his  corpse.  Bala- 
kirev composed  a  number  of  finely  wrought  songs,  and  several  piano 
works,  including  the  difficult  Oriental  "Islamey." 

Cesar  Antonovitch  Cui,  the  historian  and  writer  of  the  national 
group,  was  bom  at  Vilna  in  1835,  his  father  being  a  French  soldier 
who  settled  in  Russia  after  Napoleon's  defeat.  Like  his  father,  he 
followed  a  military  career,  graduating  from  the  Engineers'  School 
and  becoming  a  professor  of  fortification  in  the  Military  School.  In 
music,  he  became  a  pupil  of  Moniuszko,  but  gained  much  real  benefit 
from  the  advice  of  Balakirev.  His  first  opera  was  the  one-act "  Man- 
darin's Son,"  a  light  work  in  the  style  of  Auber.   More  ambitious 


262  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

was  "The  Prisoner  of  the  Caucasus,"  based  on  a  Pushkin  poem.  His 
real  reputation  began  with  "Wilham  Ratcliff,"  produced  in  1869. 
But  Cui  had  criticised  others  so  unsparingly  that  it  was  now  time 
for  him  to  receive  his  own  medicine.  The  work  was  freely  attacked 
at  first,  though  it  gained  more  success  later  on.  It  does  not  corre- 
spond to  Cui's  written  principles,  but  seems  midway  between  l>Tic 
and  dramatic  opera.  Tschaikovsky  calls  the  music  too  deliberate,  and 
not  spontaneous  enough.  "Angelo"  is  based  on  a  Victor  Hugo 
play,  dealing  with  the  same  subject  that  Ponchielli  used  in  "La  Gio- 
conda."  This  is  Cui's  most  representative  work;  and  he  confirmed 
that  estimate  himself  in  a  note  sent  to  the  present  writer  some  years 
ago.  "The  Saracen"  is  based  on  the  Dumas  book  entitled  "Charles 
VII  chez  ses  Grands  Vasseaux,"  and  contains  good  love-scenes  be- 
tween that  king  and  Agnes  Sorel.  "Le  Filibustier"  is  a  comedy  on 
a  Richepin  libretto.  "Mam'selle  Fifi"  is  a  one-act  work  on  a  Mau- 
passant story,  while  "A  Feast  in  Time  of  Plague"  is  another  single- 
act  work.  "The  Captain's  Daughter"  treats  another  Pushkin  sub- 
ject. Cui  wrote  also  symphonies,  orchestral  scherzos,  choruses, 
songs,  and  piano  pieces.  His  style  is  not  very  distinctive  or  indivi- 
dual. 

Ale^andeiLPorphyrievitch  Borodin  (1834-87)  was  another  of  the 
Balakirev  group,  which  comprised  five  famous  names.  Borodin  was 
descended  from  the  princes  of  Imeretia,  who  in  turn  claimed  King 
David  as  one  of  their  ancestors.  Like  many  Russian  composers. 
Borodin  had  a  profession,  and  he  became  well  known  in  medicine 
and  chemistry.  He  was  also  active  in  furthering  education  for 
women.  He  considered  music  an  avocation  merely,  and  would  not  at 
first  publish  any  works.  Yet  he  wrote  several  when  quite  young, 
producing  a  flute-and-piano  piece  at  thirteen,  and  a  string  sextet 
soon  after.  In  1862  he  joined  Balakirev's  circle,  and  began  to  com- 
pose in  earnest.  His  first  symphony  met  with  a  pleasing  reception. 
He  followed  this  by  numerous  songs,  including  "La  Princesse  En- 
dormie,"  "La  Vieille  Chanson,"  and  others  of  interest.  These  are 
often  rather  sombre  in  color,  and  Borodin  showed  himself  a  mas- 
ter of  gloom  and  dissonance.  At  this  time  he  composed  one  act 
of  "Mlada,"  a  composite  work  by  himself,  Cui,  Moussorgsky, 
and  Rimsky-Korsakov.  This  idea  of  cooperation  was  also  adopted 
by  younger  men,  who  paid  homage  to  the  publisher  Belaieff  by 


THE  RUSSIAN  SCHOOL  263 

producing  movements  of  a  string  quartet  on  the  notes  B,  La,  F. 
Borodin  wrote  a  second  symphony,  and  part  of  a  third,  which  was 
finished  by  Glazounov.  He  composed  other  orchestral  pieces,  two 
original  quartets,  and  some  piano  music.  His  "Steppenskizze"  was 
the  first  new-Russian  work  to  become  known  in  America.  It  is  an 
orchestral  composition  depicting  the  loneliness  of  the  Steppes,  the 
passing  of  a  caravan  with  its  varied  noises  and  weird  songs,  and 
the  return  of  silence  and  loneliness. 

But  Borodin's  most  important  work  was  his  single  opera,  "Prince 
Igor."  This  is  based  on  an  old  Russian  epic,  dealing  with  Igor's  ex- 
pedition against  the  Polovtsi.  A  prologue  show  the  prince  and  his 
son  Vladimir  leading  their  army  away,  in  spite  of  the  portent  of  an 
eclipse;  while  the  Princess  Yaroslavna  is  left  to  rule  with  her  brother. 
Prince  Galitsky.  The  first  act  shows  Galitsky's  misrule,  and  his 
efforts  to  undermine  her  influence;  but  at  the  news  of  Igor's  defeat, 
the  people  renew  their  loyalty  to  her.  The  second  and  third  acts 
take  place  in  the  enemy's  camp.  The  noble  leader,  Konchak,  has  a 
daughter,  with  whom  Vladimir  falls  in  love.  A  banquet  to  the  cap- 
tive serves  to  introduce  dances,  choruses,  and  great  scenic  effects. 
By  the  aid  of  another  captive,  Ovlour,  who  plies  the  guards  with 
drink,  Igor  escapes;  but  the  leader's  daughter  holds  Vladimir  back, 
and  is  afterwards  married  to  him.  In  the  last  act  the  lamenting 
Yaroslavna  sees  Igor  return.  The  music  of  this  opera  shows  much 
clear  melody,  and  many  strong  scenes.  The  composer  wrote  it  piece- 
meal, working  only  when  he  was  unable  to  give  his  medical  lectures. 
It  was  left  imfinished ;  but  the  obliging  Rimsky-Korsakov  put  in  the 
orchestration,  while  Glazounov,  who  had  heard  Borodin  go  over 
the  work  at  the  piano,  wrote  the  overture  from  memory. 

Modest  Petrovitch  Moussorgsky  (1839-81)  was  decidedly  the 
"bad  boy^  of  the  national  group.  He  was  trained  in  military  sci- 
ence, but  drifted  about  from  one  post  to  another,  and  finally  gave  up 
government  work.  In  music,  too,  he  was  little  amenable  to  disci- 
pline, though  he  atoned  for  this  by  displaying  marked  originality. 
His  life  showed  the  savage  excesses  so  often  found  among  the  Slavs; 
but  his  music  expressed  their  strong  passions  and  deep  emotions. 
Meeting  Borodin  in  1862,  he  attached  himself  to  the  associates,  and 
imbibed  their  principles.  He  lacked  the  simple  routine  that  comes 
from  training;  but  the  formless  style  of  his  music  did  not  obscure  its 


264  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

striking  and  original  character.  He  has  been  called  a  bom  poet,  ex- 
pressing his  great  passions  in  a  medium  that  he  had  not  mastered. 
His  rugged  strength  is  evident  in  many  compositions,  for  piano  or 
orchestra  as  well  as  for  the  stage.  His  orchestral  "  Intermezzo"  and 
"Night  on  Calvary"  show  this  quality.  His  Hebrew  choruses,  such 
as  "The  Defeat  of  Sennacherib,"  are  also  strong  works.  His  piano 
pieces  include  the  "Tableaux  d'une  Exposition,"  while  his  songs 
contain  many  forceful  numbers.  But  he  is  best  known  by  his  operas. 
His  early  works  in  this  form  include  some  "(Edipus"  music,  a  set- 
ting of  "Salammbo,"  "The  Match-Maker,"  and  the  comic  scenes 
entitled  "The  Fair  at  Soroschini."  But  his  "Boris  Godunov"  and 
"Khovantchina"  are  of  greater  power. 

"Boris  Godunov"  is  founded  on  a  Pushkin  drama.  Boris,  having 
killed  the  Czarevitch  Dimitri,  has  his  men  incite  the  populace  to 
offer  him  the  crown.  A  coronation  scene  follows.  The  next  act 
shows  Gregory  and  other  monks,  with  Gregory  planning  to  pretend 
that  he  is  Dimitri,  the  rightful  ruler,  whom  Boris  had  killed.  The 
Poles  support  his  claim.  Another  act  shows  Boris  in  his  family;  but 
the  news  of  the  " False  Demetrius"  begins  to  drive  him  mad.  In  the 
last  act,  the  people  follow  the  pretender,  while  Boris  is  left  deserted, 
his  madness  ending  in  death. 

"Khovantchina"  is  based  on  the  existence  of  the  "Old  Believers," 
who  followed  early  and  incorrect  Scriptural  versions  with  fanati- 
cism. The  story  brings  out  the  contrast  between  them  and  the  newer, 
more  civilized  Russians.  Prince  Khovantsky  and  his  Streltsy 
(archers)  represent  the  old  ideas,  and  finally  immolate  themselves 
rather  than  surrender. 

^  Nicolai  Andreievitch  Rimsky-Korsakov  (1844-1908)  was  by  all 
odds  the  greatest  of  the  nationalists,  even  though  Moussorgsky 
sometimes  excelled  him  in  savage  power.  Like  his  compeers,  he  took 
up  government  work,  graduating  from  the  naval  school  and  serving 
for  a  time  at  sea.  In  later  years  he  had  the  rank  of  admiral,  and  was 
in  charge  of  the  marine  bands.  But  he  made  music  his  life-work. 
While  on  a  voyage,  begun  in  1863,  he  wrote  a  symphony,  said  to  be 
the  first  work  in  that  form  by  a  Russian.  In  the  autumn  of  1865  he 
joined  Balakirev's  circle,  composing  soon  afterward  the  symphonic 
picture  "Sadko,"  the  programme  symphony  "Antar,"  and  his  first 
opera,  "  The  Maid  of  Pskov."  Accepting  a  post  in  the  St.  Petersburg 


THE  RUSSIAN  SCHOOL  265 

Conservatory,  he  gained  a  broader  appreciation,  and  outgrew  some 
of  the  nationalists'  narrow  ideas.  Yet  he  held  to  the  best  of  their 
tenets,  and  cannot  be  said  to  have  left  their  school.  In  one  sum- 
mer he  wrote  sixty-four  fugues,  and  an  amazing  number  of  contra- 
puntal exercises,  some  of  which  he  sent  to  Tschaikovsky.  He  also 
studied  Bach,  though  continuing  to  write  on  modem  lines.  But 
however  freely  he  composed,  such  strict  work  must  certainly  have 
had  its  effect  in  enabling  him  to  surpass  his  comrades. 

The  programme  symphony  "Antar"  depicts  a  man  full  of  hatred, 
who  retires  to  the  ruins  of  Palmyra.  Rescuing  a  gazelle  from  a  mon- 
ster, he  finds  that  the  former  is  really  a  fairy;  and  she  grants  him 
three  wishes.  The  second  movement  portrays  revenge;  the  third 
movement  depicts  power;  while  the  fourth  illustrates  love,  the  fairy 
reappearing  for  him.  But  his  life  depends  upon  this  love;  and  when 
finally  he  begins  to  tire  of  her,  and  to  gaze  longingly  at  the  horizon, 
he  falls  dead. 

"  Scheherazade "  is  a  programme  symphony  depicting  four  epi- 
sodes from  the  "Arabian  Nights." 

The  composer's  other  orchestral  works  include  a  symphonietta  on 
Russian  themes,  an  overture  on  folk-tunes,  another  on  "  The  Russian 
Easter,"  a  Serb  Fantasie,  a  Spanish  Caprice,  and  a  Fairy  Legend. 
His  piano  works  include  fugues,  a  suite,  and  other  pieces;  while  a 
concerto,  dedicated  to  Liszt,  is  a  worthy  affair.  Songs,  choruses,  and 
a  cantata  swell  a  list  that  is  completed  by  over  a  dozen  operas. 

Rimsky-Korsakov's  first  opera,  "The  Maid  of  Pskov"  (sometimes 
known  as  " Ivan  the  Terrible"),  is  based  on  a  drama  by  Mey.  Ivan 
conquers  Novgorod,  but  spares  Pskov  because  the  alleged  daughter 
of  its  prince  is  really  his  own  natural  child.  A  later  opera,  "Vera 
Scheloga,"  shows  Ivan's  love  for  the  mother,  who  bore  that  name. 

"A  May  Night,"  treating  a  tale  of  Gogol,  is  a  comedy  of  village 
love  and  intrigue. 

"The  Snow  Maiden,"  based  on  a  poem  by  Ostrovsky,  embodies 
the  Slav  legend  of  spring.  This  maiden  is  the  daughter  of  King 
Frost  and  the  Fairy  Spring.  Attracted  by  a  shepherd,  she  longs  for 
mortal  life,  and  her  parents  reluctantly  grant  her  wish.  The  shep- 
herd ignores  her  and  falls  in  love  with  Kupava,  whose  former  sweet- 
heart now  pursues  the  snow  maiden  with  attentions.  But  she  cannot 
yet  love  like  a  mortal.  When  she  obtains  this  ability,  by  a  wish  that 


266  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

her  mother  grants,  she  returns  her  lover's  ardor;  but  in  that  moment 
a  ray  of  sunlight  falls  upon  her,  and  she  melts  away. 

"Mlada,"  first  done  in  collaboration,  was  also  completed  by  the 
composer  alone.  It  is  based  on  a  ninth-century  historical  episode. 

** Christmas-Eve  Revels"  treats  the  story  of  Vakula  the  Smith. 

"Mozart  and  Salieri"  is  practically  a  short  dramatic  scene. 

"Sadko,"  based  on  an  epic  of  the  Novgorod  set,  shows  that  indi- 
vidual trying  to  catch  goldfish  on  a  wager,  and  charming  the  Sea- 
King  with  his  Gussla  music.  Afterward  he  sets  sail  with  ships  and 
goods,  and  is  thrown  overboard  as  a  Jonah  when  a  storm  arises.  He 
has  adventures  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  where  the  Sea-King  wishes 
one  of  his  daughters  to  marry  the  newcomer.  His  Gussla  playing 
shakes  the  sea  and  earth,  and  is  only  stopped  when  the  instrument  is 
smashed.   Ultimately  he  returns  to  home  and  hearth. 

"The  Czar's  Betrothed,"  again  based  on  a  Mey  drama,  shows 
Griaznoi  in  love  with  Martha,  who  is  betrothed  to  Lykov.  Griaznoi 
gets  a  potion  which  he  thinks  will  insure  her  love.  The  Czar  Ivan 
sees  her,  and  chooses  her  as  his  bride.  Griaznoi  gives  her  the  potion, 
but  a  rival  has  changed  it  for  one  that  makes  her  insane  and  ugly. 
The  rival  finally  confesses,  and  Griaznoi  stabs  her,  quitting  the  scene 
after  imploring  Martha's  pardon.  This  is  one  of  the  composer's  very 
best  works,  the  score  showing  a  charming  fluency  united  with  a  most 
interesting  handling  of  folk-music.  The  beautiful  overture  is  widely 
popular. 

"The  Czar  Saltan"  treats  that  monarch's  meeting  with  three  sis- 
ters, his  marriage  to  the  yoimgest,  and  the  jealousy  of  the  other  two. 
It  is  brilliantly  orchestrated,  using  folk-melodies  and  guiding  mo- 
tives. 

"Servilia"  deals  with  Christianity  in  ancient  Rome. 

"The  Immortal  Kastchei"  tells  of  a  wizard  of  that  name,  whose 
daughter  redeems  herself  by  letting  fall  a  tear,  which  happens  to 
contain  the  wizard's  fate.  The  action  deals  also  with  the  rescue  of 
the  Czarevna  from  his  power.  When  this  was  first  performed,  the 
composer  had  been  dropped  from  the  Conservatory;  and  his  friends 
made  the  opera  a  pretext  for  giving  him  ovations  and  good-will. 

"Pan  Voyevode"  is  the  story  of  a  Polish  noble  who  parts  lovers  to 
get  the  girl  for  himself.  At  the  wedding  feast,  he  takes  poison  meant 
for  her. 


THE  RUSSIAN  SCHOOL  «67 

"The  Invisible  City"  is  a  legendary  affair.  The  heroine,  Fev- 
ronia,  is  captured  at  her  wedding  by  Tartars;  but  they  are  scared  off 
by  a  reflection  of  the  invisible  city  seen  in  a  lake.  Fevronia  is  then 
called  by  the  prince  who  loved  her,  and  joins  him  in  the  lasting  happi- 
ness of  death. 

"The  Golden  Cock"  is  a  bird  that  crows  whenever  danger  threat- 
ens. It  is  given  to  King  Dodon  by  an  astrologer.  Its  crowing  causes 
him  to  send  his  sons  to  meet  the  trouble,  and  later  to  follow  himself. 
The  danger  turns  out  to  be  a  beautiful  woman,  the  Queen  of  She- 
makha, who  fascinates  the  king,  although  his  sons  had  quarrelled 
over  her  and  killed  each  other.  She  laughs  at  him,  but  finally  be- 
comes his  bride,  and  proves  heartless. 

The  leader  of  a  later  generation  is  Alexander  Constantinovltch 
Glazounov,  who  was  bom  at  St.  Petersburg  in  1865.  He  studied 
with  Rimsky-Korsakov,  and  at  eighteen  wrote  a  symphony,  which 
was  given  by  Liszt  at  Weimar.  Since  then  Glazounov  has  produced 
seven  similar  works,  his  sixth  symphony  being  especially  melodious 
and  pleasing.  He  composed  also  several  symphonic  poems,  which 
echo  the  joy  of  spring,  the  charm  of  the  forest,  the  spell  of  the  sea, 
the  attraction  of  the  Orient,  or  the  majesty  of  the  historic  Kremlin. 
Another  of  these  treats  the  story  of  Stenka  Rasine,  the  Volga  pirate 
who  carried  off  a  princess.  Glazounov  produced  a  Triumphal  March 
for  our  Chicago  Exposition,  and  a  Coronation  Cantata  for  the  Czar. 
Other  orchestral  works  by  him  are  the  Greek  and  Carnival  Over- 
tures, the  "Middle  Ages"  suite,  and  the  glowing  "Overture  Solen- 
nelle."  His  opus  numbers,  nearly  100,  include  many  other  large  com- 
positions, such  as  suites  or  orchestral  cantatas.  His  chamber  works 
and  smaller  pieces  show  much  melodic  charm.  He  has  not  tried 
opera,  but  his  ballets,  such  as  "Raymonda"  and  "The  Seasons," 
hold  the  stage  well.  "Raymonda"  is  the  story  of  a  Crusader's  wife 
who  remains  faithful  in  his  absence  in  spite  of  a  rival's  attentions. 
A  recent  work  by  Glazounov  is  some  strong  incidental  music  to  the 
sacred  drama  "The  King  of  the  Jews." 

Anton  Stepanovitch  Arensky  (1861-1906)  was  another  "Rimsky" 
pupil.  While  teaching  in  Moscow,  Arensky  produced  the  opera 
"A  Dream  on  the  Volga."  He  composed  also  the  one-act " Raphael," 
and  the  ballet  "A  Night  in  Egypt";  but  his  best  work  was  the  opera 
"Nal  and  Damajanti."  This  treats  of  a  mythical  king  who  loses  his 


268  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

sweetheart  and  his  lands  while  gambling,  under  the  influence  of  a 
wicked  god,  but  regains  them  later. 

Sergei  Rachmaninov,  bom  in  1873  at  Novgorod,  is  known  by  his 
picturesque  preludes  and  other  works  for  piano.  He  has  composed  a 
few  operas,  including  "Aleko"  and  "The  Miser  Knight."  His  sym- 
phonic poem  "The  Isle  of  the  Dead,"  illustrating  a  Boecklm  paint- 
ing, is  an  admirable  picture  of  gloom.  His  other  works  include  a 
symphony,  the  cantata  "Spring,"  two  piano  concertos,  and  some 
chamber  music. 

Sergei  Taneiev  (1856-1915)  composed  four  symphonies,  a  few 
overtures,  string  quartets,  and  several  choruses;  but  he  became 
best  known  through  his  "Oresteia,"  a  lofty  operatic  trilogy,  in  eight 
scenes,  based  on  the  works  of  ^schylus.  Alexander  Taneiev,  his 
nephew,  is  another  orchestral  composer  in  Russia. 

Ippolitov-Ivanov,  active  in  Moscow,  used  Hebrew  melodies  in  his 
opera  "Ruth,"  and  put  much  tender  expression  into  his  "Assya." 
His  other  productions  include  suites  and  choruses. 

Michael  Ivanov  composed  incidental  music,  a  symphony,  a  tri- 
umphal overture,  the  ballet  "The  Vestal,"  and  the  operas  "Sabawa" 
and  "The  Feast  of  Potemkin." 

Edward  Napravnik,  a  Bohemian  living  at  St.  Petersburg,  wrote 
the  operas  " Nijni-Novgorod,"  "Harold,"  "Doubrovsky,"  and 
"Francesca." 

Paul  Blaramberg's  operas  consist  of  "The  Mummers,"  "The 
Roussalka-Maiden,"  "Mary  of  Burgundy,"  "Toushino,"  and  "The 
Wave." 

Alexander  Gretschaninov  composed  the  opera  "Dobrynia"  and 
some  incidental  music. 

Vladimir  Rebikov  has  produced  "  In  the  Storm  "  and  "  The  Christ- 
mas Tree,"  as  well  as  the  so-called  mimodrame  "  Genius  and  Death." 

Nicolai  Soloviev  composed  several  operas  of  somewhat  restrained 
character,  as  well  as  an  overture  and  the  symphonic  poem  "  Russians 
and  Mongols." 

Sergei  Vassilenko's  "City  of  Kitezh"  treats  the  subject  already 
described  as  "The  Invisible  City." 

Operas  of  some  success  in  Russia  are  Kazatchenko's  "Prince  Sere- 
briani"  and  "Pan  Sotnik";  Korestchenko's  " Belshazzar's  Feast," 
"The  Angel  of  Death,"  and  "The  Ice  Palace";  and  Kochetov's 


THE  RUSSIAN  SCHOOL  269 

"Terrible  Revenge."  Other  Russian  opera  composers  include  Lis- 
senko,  Famintzin,  Iljdnski,  Klashperov,  Lischin,  Malashkin,  So- 
kalski,  Zemlinsky,  Schaefer,  Schenk,  Gliere,  Youri  von  Arnold, 
and  Baron  Vietinghov.  Gliere  is  known  also  by  some  excellent 
chamber  and  orchestral  works.  Kalinnikov  died  before  finishing 
"The  Year  1812,"  but  left  symphonies,  symphonic  pictures,  and 
a  suite. 

In  the  instrumental  field,  Alexander  Scriabine  has  caused  much 
discussion  by  his  radicalism.  Even  in  his  lesser  works  he  shows  a 
leaning  toward  strange  harmonies.  In  his  later  symphonies  (practi- 
cally symphonic  poems),  such  as  "Prometheus,"  he  builds  up  a  new 
system  by  making  chords  out  of  a  succession  of  fourths.  He  handles 
the  orchestra  with  power;  but  all  except  the  radicals  are  tempted  to 
speak  of  it  as  noise.  He  has  written  piano  concertos  and  other  piano 
works. 

Another  Russian  radical  is  Igor  Stravinsky,  who  is  less  heavy- 
handed,  but  equally  bizarre  in  his  harmonies.  He  is  fond  of  the 
ballet,  having  composed  in  that  form  "The  Bird  of  Fire,"  "Pe- 
troushka,"  "The  Sacrifice  of  Sprmg,"  and  "The  Nightingale."  He 
has  also  written  orchestral  pieces,  such  as  the  tone-picture  "Fire- 
works." 

Paul  Juon  is  another  recent  composer  of  orchestral  and  chamber 
music,  including  a  symphony.  Nicolai  Sokolov  is  responsible  for  an 
orchestral  Elegie  and  incidental  music.  Alexander  Kopylov  has 
composed  a  symphony  and  chamber  music.  Constantin  Antipov  is 
known  by  orchestral  melodies  and  piano  music.  Henry  Pachulski 
has  produced  an  orchestral  suite,  in  addition  to  piano  music.  Ana- 
tole  Liadov,  who  died  in  1915,  was  another  orchestral  and  piano 
composer.  Joseph  Wihtol  has  devoted  much  attention  to  Lett  melo- 
dies, which  show  in  his  "Lhigo  Festival"  and  other  works.  Nicolai 
Stcherbatchev  wrote  orchestral  idyls  and  piano  pieces.  Sergei 
Liapounov's  works  include  a  concerto,  a  symphony,  and  an  "Over- 
ture Solennelle."  Other  orchestral  composers  are  George  Konius, 
Nicholas  Medtner,  Michael  Asantchevski,  Nicholas  Kasanli,  George 
Galitzin,  Michael  Kolatchevski,  Alexander  Koptiaiev,  Ivan  Poma- 
sanski,  Vladimir  Puchalski,  Ivan  Popoff,  Edward  Schuett,  Nicho- 
las Tcherepnin,  Nicholas  Tutkovsky,  Sergei  Vassilenko,  and  the 
Zaremba  brothers.  Many  of  the  foregoing  have  become  known  by 


870  THE   BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

compositions  in  the  shorter  forms;  while  others  who  have  worked  in 
these  are  Alpheraki,  Amani,  Grodsky,  Blumenfeld,  Artsiboutchev, 
Gabrilovitch,  Karganov,  Kastalski,  Pogojev,  and  Warlamov.  Victor 
Ewald  and  Alexander  Winkler  have  written  chamber  music,  while 
Emil  Mlynarski  has  composed  violin  works. 


XXIX 

OTHER  EUROPEAN  NATIONS 

In  the  last  four  decades,  Italy  has  done  much  to  put  herself 
abreast  of  other  musical  nations.  She  has  no  genius  of  the  first  rank, 
as  Strauss  is  the  only  living  man  who  could  by  any  courtesy  be  in- 
cluded in  that  class.  But  she  has  revived  her  traditions  of  operatic 
supremacy,  and  has  also  produced  a  small  but  earnest  group  of 
orchestral  composers. 

The  verismo  (realistic)  school  of  opera  was  founded  by  Mascagni. 
Bom  in  1863,  he  was  the  son  of  a  baker,  and  was  destined  for  the 
law.  He  studied  piano  and  other  musical  subjects  in  secret.  When 
fourteen  he  was  discovered  at  this  work,  and  locked  up  by  his  father; 
but  an  uncle  rescued  him,  and  a  friend  aided  him  to  take  lessons  at 
Milan.  He  became  leader  of  small  operatic  troupes,  until  "Rustic 
Chivalry"  won  him  a  comfortable  prize  from  the  Sonzogno  firm,  and 
an  international  reputation.  Since  then  he  has  composed  many  other 
operas,— "L'Amico  Fritz,"  "I  Rantzau,"  "Ratcliff,"  "Silvano," 
"Iris,"  "Le  Maschere,"  "Isabeau,"  etc.  But  none  of  these  was  suc- 
cessful; and  "Le  Maschere"  was  even  hissed  because  of  its  reminis- 
cences of  Puccini. 

"Rustic  Chivalry"  has  for  its  heroine  Santuzza,  betrayed  and 
deserted  by  Turiddu.  She  tells  Alfio  of  an  intrigue  that  Turiddu  is 
carrying  on  with  Alfio's  wife  Lola.  The  two  then  meet,  and  Turiddu 
is  killed.  The  music  is  endowed  with  a  vivid  strength  that  seemed  a 
revelation  in  Italy.  While  German  composers  were  making  heavy 
imitations  of  the  inimitable  Wagner,  this  work  led  to  a  school  that 
was  wholly  successful,  and  well  suited  to  modem  needs  of  rapidity 
in  action.  Its  one-act  length,  after  the  size  of  Wagner's  works,  made 
it  seem  like  a  short  story  in  comparison  with  a  novel.  Some  of  the 
best  points  in  the  music  are  Turiddu's  "Siciliana"  (sung  from  be- 
hind the  curtain  as  part  of  the  prelude),  the  broad  and  noble 
church  service  ("Regina  Coeli"),  Lola's  solo  "My  King  of  Roses," 
and  the  lively  "  Brindisi,"  or  drinking-chorus.  The  sugary  intermezzo 
has  become  widely  known. 


272  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Ruggiero  Leoncavallo,  born  in  1858,  began  by  composing  "Chat- 
terton,"  at  first  a  failure,  but  well  received  afterward.  He  produced 
also  an  ambitious  trilogy  "  Crepusculum,"  dealing  with  the  Medici. 
But  he  did  not  become  widely  known  until  he  wrote  "I  Pagliacci" 
("The  Strolling  Players")*  in  imitation  of  Mascagni's  style.  This 
opera  became  famous  in  many  lands.  Like  Mascagni,  Leoncavallo 
has  failed  in  later  works,  such  as  "BoMme,"  "Trilby,"  "Zaza," 
and  "Roland  of  Berlin."  For  the  last  of  these  he  was  chosen  com- 
poser by  the  German  Kaiser,  who  wrote  the  libretto. 

"  I  Pagliacci,"  with  an  excellent  libretto  by  the  composer  himself, 
opens  with  the  arrival  of  the  strolling  players  at  a  village.  Tonio, 
the  clown,  overhears  Nedda,  the  leader's  wife,  planning  elopement 
with  the  villager  Silvio.  As  Nedda  had  repulsed  Tonio's  former  ad- 
vances, he  now  revenges  himself  by  bringing  the  leader,  Canio,  on 
the  scene,  but  preventing  him  from  identifying  the  interloper.  The 
second  act  shows  the  play  within  the  play,  given  before  the  villagers. 
This  is  based  on  a  plot  much  similar  to  what  has  happened;  and 
when  Canio  asks  Nedda  the  name  of  her  unknown  lover,  his  passion 
becomes  real  instead  of  mimic.  At  last  he  stabs  her.  Silvio,  rushing 
from  the  audience,  meets  a  similar  fate.  The  music  is  much  stronger 
than  that  of  "Rustic  Chivalry,"  though  in  the  same  school.  The 
prologue  (for  baritone),  the  chorus  of  the  first  act,  Canio's  intensely 
strong  lament  after  seeing  Nedda's  perfidy,  and  the  dramatic  close 
of  the  play  are  the  chief  points  in  a  score  that  is  often  strongly 
dramatic. 

The  verismo  school  is  not  merely  realistic,  but  is  devoted  to  a 
tragic  sort  of  realism  that  is  found  in  the  somewhat  crude  and  ele- 
mental lives  of  the  lower  classes.  Love,  jealousy,  and  revenge  are  its 
chief  assets.  But  its  strength  of  expression  has  made  it  important 
in  contemporary  opera.  Other  composers  of  the  school  are  Giordano 
("Siberia,"  "Mala  Vita,"  and  "Mme.  Sans-Gene"),  SpinelU  ("A 
Basso  Porto"),  Tasca  ("A  Santa  Lucia"),  Coronaro  ("Festa  a 
Marina"),  and  Cesare  Rossi  ("Nadeya").  Italo  Montemezzi  chose 
a  higher  subject  in  his  "Love  of  Three  Kings,"  which  treats  of  a 
girl  who  was  betrothed  to  a  mediaeval  prince,  but  forced  into  a  mar- 
riage with  his  conqueror.  She  still  loves  the  prince,  and  the  suspi- 
cions of  her  husband's  blind  father  lead  to  discovery  and  tragedy. 
Cilea's  "Arlesiana"  and  "Adriana  Lecouvreur"  are  in  older  style. 


OTHER  EUROPEAN  NATIONS  273 

Orefice  produced  the  sacred  opera  "Moses,"  and  arranged  the  pas^ 
ticcio  "Chopin"  on  that  master's  melodies.  Other  Italian  opera 
composers,  of  various  tendencies,  are  the  conductor  Mancinelli 
("Ero  e  Leandre"),  Catalani  ("la  Wally"),  Buongiomo  ("Das 
Madchenherz"  and  "Michelangelo  e  Holla,"  both  excellent),  Zan- 
donai  ("Conchita"  and  "Francesca  da  Rimini"),  Camussi,  winner 
of  prizes,  Smareglia,  Aif  emi,  Cagnoni,  Falchi,  Frontini,  and  Floridia, 
the  last-named  having  written  orchestral  works  also.  Three  other 
men,  however,  deserve  separate  mention. 

Baron  Alberto  Franchetti,  bom  in  1850,  studied  at  Munich,  and 
understood  the  best  German  standards.  This  influence  shows  in 
the  excellence  of  his  works.  His  dramatic  legend  "Asrale"  has 
been  followed  by  several  operas,  —  "Cristoforo  Colombo,"  "Fior 
d' Alpe,"  the  comic  "II  Signor  di  Pourceaugnac,"  and  "La  Figlia  di 
Jorio."  But  his  greatest  success  is  the  much-discussed  "  Germania." 
This  work  shows  the  uprising  of  Germany  against  Napoleon.  En- 
mities are  forgotten  in  the  union  of  patriots;  and  the  work  ends  \vith 
a  strong  scene  showing  the  battle-field  of  Leipsic  and  Napoleon's 
retreat.  This  opera  is  not  popular  with  the  masses,  but  cultivated 
audiences  grow  enthusiastic  over  it. 

Ermanno  Wolf-Ferrari,  bom  in  1876,  is  the  son  of  a  German 
father  and  an  Italian  mother,  and  was  sent  to  Munich  for  study. 
His  orchestral  cantata,  setting  parts  of  Dante's  "Vita  Nuova,"  is 
a  most  pleasingly  beautiful  work.  His  operas  include  "La  Sula- 
mite,"  "Cenerentola,"  "The  Four  Ruffians,"  "Le  Donne  Curiose," 
"The  Secret  of  Suzanne,"  "The  Jewels  of  the  Madonna,"  and 
"L'  Amore  Medico."  The  last  treats  a  Moliere  subject.  "Le  Donne 
Curiose"  is  a  bright  comedy  showing  the  women's  effort  to  find  out 
what  their  husbands  really  do  when  away  at  the  club.  "Suzanne's 
Secret"  is  her  smoking  of  cigarettes,  the  odor  of  which  causes  her 
to  be  suspected  of  having  entertained  a  lover  clandestinely.  "The 
Jewels  of  the  Madonna"  is  a  strong  tragedy.  Gennaro  loves  his 
adopted  sister  Maliella,  though  at  first  she  believes  herself  his  real 
sister.  Her  lowly  origin  shows  in  her  behavior  at  the  festival  of  the 
Madonna  (a  real  Naples  holiday),  where  she  sings  a  wild  "Canne- 
tella"  and  is  impressed  by  the  coarse  love-making  of  the  brigand 
Rafaello.  In  the  second  act,  in  her  home  garden,  Gennaro  tells  her 
of  her  birth,  and  his  love;  but  she  repulses  him,  saying  that  she 


874  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

would  not  love  him  if  he  were  brave  enough  to  steal  for  her  the 
jewels  on  the  Madonna's  statue.  She  listens  with  delight  to  a  ser- 
enade by  Rafaello;  but  Gennaro  does  actually  bring  the  jewels. 
She  puts  them  on,  and  is  lost  in  ecstasy.  The  third  act,  however, 
shows  her  fleeing  from  Gennaro,  and  coming  to  Rafaello's  retreat. 
He  is  shocked  by  her  sacrilege  in  wearing  the  jewels,  and  casts  her 
off.  She  rushes  away  to  plunge  into  the  sea;  while  Gennaro,  com- 
ing after  her,  stabs  himself  because  of  remorse.  The  overture  con- 
sists simply  of  three  pistol-shots;  but  the  festival  scenes  of  the  first 
act  are  carried  out  in  a  large  style.  The  lyrics  are  smoothly  attrac- 
tive, and  the  climax  duly  tragic,  though  the  brigands'  revels  before 
it  are  too  much  spun  out. 

The  chief  figure  in  recent  Italian  opera  is  Giacomo  Puccini. 
Bom  in  1858,  of  a  musical  family,  he  soon  attracted  attention;  and 
Verdi  named  the  young  man  as  his  probable  successor. 

"Le  Villi,"  produced  by  Puccini  in  1884,  was  really  the  origin  of 
the  short  operas.  The  Villi,  or  Wilis,  are  spirits  of  betrothed  but 
deserted  maidens;  and  they  seek  to  lure  their  betrayers  to  death. 
The  scene  is  laid  in  a  Black  Forest  village,  where  Robert  loves 
Anna.  Learning  of  an  inheritance,  he  goes  to  Mainz,  where  he  for- 
gets Anna  and  starts  an  intrigue.  She  dies  broken-hearted.  When 
Robert  returns  he  is  caught  in  the  Wilis'  dance,  and  whirled  about 
until  he  falls  lifeless. 

"Edgar,"  appearing  in  1889,  has  a  hero  who  loves  a  beautiful 
gypsy.  Tiring  of  her,  he  leaves  her  mountain  retreat  and  becomes 
a  soldier.  Returning  home,  he  is  charmed  by  a  village  maiden  who 
has  loved  him  from  the  first;  but  his  happiness  is  short,  for  the 
vengeful  gypsy  stabs  her  rival.  This  Italianized  "Carmen"  was 
not  a  great  success. 

"Manon  Lescaut,"  founded  on  Provost's  novel,  has  some  strong 
scenes.  In  the  first  act  Manon  flees  with  Des  Grieux  rather  than 
enter  a  convent.  In  the  second  act,  she  leaves  him;  and  when  she 
returns,  her  rich  protector  revenges  himself  by  having  her  con- 
signed to  prison.  The  third  act  shows  the  embarkation  of  female 
convicts  for  America,  the  monotonous  roll-call  making  an  impressive 
background  to  the  impassioned  dialogue.  The  last  act  is  a  long 
love-scene,  ending  in  Manon's  death. 

"La  Bohgme,"  based  on  Murger's  "Vie  de  BohSme,"  shows  the 


OTHER  EUROPEAN  NATIONS  275 

four  gifted  but  poverty-stricken  associates  in  their  attic  of  the  Latin 
Quarter.  Rodolfo,  the  poet,  falls  in  love  with  Mimi.  At  the  cafe 
of  the  second  act,  Musetta  returns  to  her  faithful  Marcel.  The 
third  act  brings  jealousies  and  quarrels;  while  in  the  last  act  Mimi 
returns  to  die  in  Rodolfo's  arms.  The  music  has  a  haunting  sweet- 
ness, and  the  plot  seems  to  give  the  touch  of  nature  that  makes  the 
whole  world  kin. 

"Tosca,"  based  on  Sardou's  play,  shows  that  heroine's  love  for 
Mario,  and  the  latter's  troubles  resulting  from  his  protection  of  a 
political  refugee.  Scarpia,  the  wicked  official  in  control,  has  Mario 
arrested,  and  tortures  him  to  make  Tosca  minister  to  his  (Scarpia's) 
pleasure.  When  Tosca  pretends  to  yield,  he  writes  an  order  for 
Mario's  execution,  which  he  alleges  is  to  be  only  pretended.  Mean- 
while, Tosca  secretes  a  knife,  and  when  Scarpia  comes  to  her  she 
stabs  him.  She  then  (Act  III)  goes  to  tell  Mario  that  his  execution 
will  be  only  pretence;  but  the  treacherous  Scarpia  had  directed  his 
soldiers  to  fire  real  cartridges,  after  all.  Mario  is  killed,  and  Tosca 
throws  herself  from  the  battlements  to  escape  capture  for  having 
stabbed  Scarpia.  The  score  is  realistic,  and  follows  the  sense  of  the 
words  faithfully,  even  if  it  is  hardly  definite  enough  to  stand  alone, 
as  Wagner's  music  does.  Tosca's  lament  in  Act  II  ("Vissi  d'arte") 
is  an  effective  solo  number. 

"Madama  Butterfly"  has  a  Japanese  heroine.  An  American  offi- 
cial, amusing  himself  with  her,  goes  through  a  Japanese  marriage 
ceremony,  which  she  naturally  considers  binding.  Left  alone,  she  is 
shown  later  living  with  her  son  and  a  maid,  and  animated  by  a  touch- 
ing faith  in  the  return  of  her  husband.  The  consul  tries  to  show  her  a 
letter  from  the  absent  one,  but  finally  does  not  dare  to  do  so;  and  only 
on  the  officer's  return  does  she  see  that  he  has  rated  her  merely  as  a 
pastime,  and  married  a  girl  of  his  own  nation.  Then  she  kills  herself. 

"The  Girl  of  the  Golden  West"  is  based  on  the  Belasco  play  of 
that  name,  in  which  Minnie,  beloved  by  all  in  the  Western  camp, 
falls  in  love  with  an  admirer  who  comes  as  a  stranger.  When  he 
proves  to  be  the  highwayman  whom  all  are  hunting,  she  protects 
him.  When  he  is  captured  later,  she  saves  him  from  being  Ijrnched, 
and  departs  with  him  to  start  life  anew  elsewhere.  The  music  con- 
tains two  Indian  songs,  one  of  which  (that  of  the  homesick  miner) 
seems  hardly  in  place. 


276  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

The  leader  among  the  new  Italian  orchestral  composers  was  Gio- 
vanni Sgambati  (1843-1914).  He  produced  symphonies,  chamber 
works,  overtures,  a  piano  concerto,  and  many  lesser  pieces  of  vari- 
ous sorts.   His  early  efforts  met  with  encouragement  from  Wagner. 

Other  Italian  orchestral  composers  include  Giuseppe  Martucci, 
Eugenio  di  Pirani,  Edgardo  Del  Valle  de  Paz,  Ettore  Pinelli,  Silvio 
Lazzari,  the  American-known  Martin  Roeder,  Luigi  Torchi  the 
critic,  the  late  violinist  Antonio  Bazzini,  the  pianist  Luigi  Roma- 
niello,  the  Sicilian  Antonio  Scontrino,  Leone  Sinigaglia,  the  mass 
composer  Alessandro  Busi,  and  Amilcare  Zanella. 

Ferrucio  Busoni  has  become  a  modernist,  after  writing  admirable 
fugues  in  his  youth.  His  music  to  "Turandot"  has  been  called  by 
one  critic  the  best  example  of  modernism  yet  produced. 

Marco  Enrico  Bossi,  bom  in  1861,  is  known  as  an  organist  and 
teacher.  His  one-act  opera  "Paquita"  took  a  prize.  He  has  com- 
posed also  a  symphonic  poem,  an  overture,  an  organ  concerto  (given 
at  our  Chicago  Fair),  the  dramatic  oratorio  "Christus,"  the  can- 
tata "Paradise  Lost,"  and  many  other  works.  He  is  a  leader  in  the 
orchestral  field,  and  is  intensely  modern. 

Don  Lorenzo  Perosi  has  been  especially  successful  in  composing 
oratorios  and  other  works  for  the  Catholic  service.  Bom  in  1872,  he 
has  been  very  active.  His  trilogy  " The  Passion  of  Christ"  (the  Last 
Supper,  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  and  the  Crucifixion)  made  him 
known  through  Italy.  Later  works  of  his  include  the  two-part 
"Moses,"  "The  Transfiguration,"  "The  Annunciation,"  and  "The 
Raising  of  Lazams."  Perosi's  brother  Marziano  has  composed  an 
opera,  "The  Last  Days  of  Pompeii." 

Simonetti  is  an  excellent  Italian  violin  composer. 

Italy  had  almost  no  concert  halls  in  1850;  and  even  the  churches 
were  content  to  use  operatic  airs  with  sacred  words.  In  the  sixties, 
an  orchestral  concert  organized  by  Pinelli  earned  fourteen  lire,  from 
which  sixty  performers  were  to  be  paid.  Sgambati  produced  a  Bee- 
thoven symphony  in  Rome,  but  had  to  pay  for  it  himself.  Such 
absurd  conditions  are  now  relegated  to  the  past;  and  Italy  has 
regained  some  musical  influence. 

Spanish  composers  are  greatly  devoted  to  the  Zarzuela,  which  is  a 
national  form  of  light  but  pleasing  and  brilliant  comic  opera.  Among 
those  who  have  worked  recently  in  this  form  are  Larrocha,  Arrieta, 


OTHER  EUROPEAN  NATIONS  277 

Del  Campo,  Inzenga,  Casadesus,  Marques,  Fernandez,  Hernando, 
Oudrid,  Valverde,  Vives,  Nogueras,  Noguerra,  and  Caballero,  as 
well  as  many  of  the  orchestral  composers.  The  latter  include  Manen, 
Pedrell  (the  trilogy  "Patria,  Fides,  Amor"),  the  gifted  Granados, 
various  members  of  the  Albeniz  family  (Isaac  writing  the  opera 
"Pepita  Ximenes"),  the  violinist  Arbos,  Breton  y  Hernandez,  Pablo 
Hernandez,  Jimenez,  Millet,  Morales,  Nicolau,  Saldoni,  and  the 
sacred  composer  Vilanova. 

Portugal  is  represented  by  the  opera  composers  Ameiro  and 
Machado;  while  Ettore  Panizza  was  bom  at  Buenos  Ayres. 

Switzerland  has  a  real  leader  in  Hans  Huber.  Bom  in  1852,  he 
studied  with  the  classicists,  but  soon  began  to  handle  the  modem 
orchestra.  His  works  include  the  operas  "Kudrun,"  "Weltfriih- 
ling,"  and  "Der  Simplicius";  a  concerto  for  violin,  and  two  for 
piano;  beautiful  choral  orchestral  works,  such  as  "Pandora"  and 
the  "Nordseebilder";  and  three  great  symphonies.  One  of  the  latter 
is  entitled  "William  Tell";  while  another  is  inspired  by  a  group  of 
Boecklin  paintings. 

Other  Swiss  composers  include  Emile  Jacques-Dalcroze,  who  has 
recently  become  devoted  to  the  subject  of  rhythmic  gymnastics. 
Gustave  Doret  is  a  protege  of  Saint-Saens;  and  his  "Hymne  a  la 
Beaute"  is  passionately  effective. 

Am.ong  the  Swiss  orchestral  composers  are  Karl  and  Walter  Cour- 
voisier,  Albert  Fuchs,  Friedrich  Hegar,  Lothar  Kempter,  Josef 
Lauber,  Pierre  Maurice,  Louis  Nicole,  Richard  Alder,  Othmar 
Schoeck,  and  Hermann  Suter.  Still  other  men,  working  in  various 
forms,  are  Rudolf  Ganz,  known  in  America  as  a  pianist,  the  choral 
composer  Georg  Haeser,  Fritz  Niggli,  Richard  Franck,  Edward 
Combe,  and  A.  Denereaz. 

Bohemian  popular  music  began  with  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity, in  the  ninth  century.  The  religious  style  was  cherished  for  a 
long  time,  even  down  to  the  period  of  Gluck's  teacher  Cemohorsky. 
During  the  classical  epoch  Bohemia  produced  Pokomy,  Pichl,  Kalli- 
woda,  Tomaschek,  the  Dusseks,  and  others;  but  none  of  these  was  of 
great  importance.  Frantisek  Skraup  (1801-62)  was  an  operatic 
pioneer;  but  he  was  soon  superseded  by  Smetana. 

Friedrich  Smetana  (1824-84)  has  been  called  the  Bohemian  Bee- 
thoven; but  beyond  the  fact  that  he  became  deaf,  he  showed  little 


278  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

resemblance  to  the  German  master.  Composers  like  Smetana,  his 
successor  Dvorak,  Huber,  and  even  Raff,  are  rated  a  little  below  the 
highest  standard.  They  have  produced  much  good  music,  but  they 
do  not  quite  reach  the  high  level  of  the  greatest  masters. 

Smetana  married  the  pianist  Katharin  Kolar,  and  with  her  help 
founded  a  music  school.  He  was  active  also  as  a  conductor;  but  com- 
position was  really  his  life-work.  While  visiting  Liszt  he  heard  Her- 
beck  assert  that  the  Czechs  were  not  original,  but  merely  reproduc- 
tive; and  he  determined  to  disprove  this.  He  succeeded  admirably, 
though  the  world  is  not  yet  as  familiar  as  it  should  be  with  his 
operas. 

Smetana's  instrumental  works  include  a  Festival  Overture,  a 
Triumph  Symphony,  and  many  s3rmphonic  poems.  The  latter  were 
begun  by  "Richard  III,"  which  was  followed  by  "Wallenstein's 
Camp  "  and  "  Hakon  Jarl."  Best  known,  however,  is  the  cycle  of  six 
such  works  known  as  "My  Country."  This  consists  of  "  Vysehrad," 
in  which  the  minstrel  Lumir  is  pictured  as  evoking  the  past  glories  of 
that  fortress;  "Vltava,"  the  Moldau,  comes  next,  and  is  a  favorite 
concert  number;  "Sarka"  treats  of  the  legendary  Amazon  of  that 
name ; '  *  Bohemia's  Groves  and  Meadows ' '  is  the  fourth  in  the  group ; 
"Tabor"  depicts  the  camp  of  the  Hussite  soldiers;  and  "Blanik"  is 
the  mountain  where  they  are  supposed  to  sleep,  in  readiness  to  awake 
at  their  country's  need. 

Smetana's  first  opera,  "The  Brandenburgers  in  Bohemia,"  earned 
for  him  the  reproach  of  trying  to  make  Bohemian  music  Wagnerian. 
Nettled  by  this,  he  produced  the  bright  comedy  "The  Bartered 
Bride,"  which  is  not  only  original  in  style,  but  remarkably  attrac- 
tive. When  it  was  brought  to  foreign  notice,  at  an  1892  fair  in 
Vienna,  the  critics  asked,  "How  is  it  possible  that  such  a  genius  has 
been  unknown  so  long?"  A  return  to  the  serious  and  tragic  vein  re- 
sulted in  "  Dalibor,"  another  success.  "  Two  Widows,"  "  The  Kiss," 
and  "The  Secret"  are  lighter  in  style;  while  "Libusa"  and  "The 
Devil's  Wall "  are  strongly  dramatic.  In  passing,  one  may  state  that 
the  composer's  name  should  be  accented  on  the  first  syllable. 

Antonin  Dvorak  (1841-1904)  showed  an  early  love  for  music.  At 
twelve  he  planned  to  surprise  his  relatives  with  an  orchestral  polka; 
and  as  he  forgot  to  allow  for  the  transposing  instruments,  the  result 
was  even  more  surprising  than  he  expected.   He  supported  himself 


/ 


/ 


OTHER  EUROPEAN  NATIONS  279 

for  a  time  in  Prague,  and  at  length  won  the  government  aid  for  needy- 
geniuses  by  some  early  compositions.  He  stated  that  he  spent  his 
time  in  "hard  study,  occasional  composition,  much  revision,  a  great 
deal  of  thinking,  and  little  eating."  After  his  marriage  he  some- 
times said  that  he  ate  less  and  thought  more  than  ever. 

An  early  opera,  "  Konig  und  Kohler,"  was  attacked  as  being  ultra- 
Wagnerian.  Rewritten  in  a  simpler  and  more  national  style,  it 
made  a  success,  although  its  composer  ridiculed  his  unintelligent 
public.  His  later  operas,  such  as  "Wanda,"  "Selma  Sedlak,"  "The 
Jacobins,"  "Kate  and  the  Devil"  and  "Armida,"  are  almost  all 
national  in  style.  "Dimitri"  treats  of  the  false  Demetrius  that 
Moussorgsky  made  so  famous. 

Dvorak's  overtures  ("Huszitska,"  "Carnival,"  and  "Nature," 
and  others)  are  given  occasionally  on  concert  programmes.  His 
"Stabat  Mater,"  well  received  in  London,  led  to  an  English  stay, 
and  the  composition  of  the  successful  cantata  "  The  Spectre's  Bride." 
A  later  cantata,  "Saint  Ludmilla,"  was  a  comparative  failure;  and 
this  fact  may  have  inspired  Dvorak's  remark,  "The  English  do  not 
love  music;  they  respect  it." 

His  American  sojourn  inspired  him  to  produce  the  beautiful  "New 
World  Symphony,"  the  greatest  of  his  works  in  that  form.  He  used 
the  negro  songs  as  the  true  American  folk-music,  and  made  themes 
that  echoed  their  styles  effectively.  The  negro  music  is  not  all  de- 
voted to  the  smooth  vein  employed  by  Stephen  C.  Foster.  It  is 
plaintively  expressive  at  times,  lively  at  others,  and  in  certain  exam- 
ples weirdly  impressive.  Dvorak  used  all  these  styles,  and  produced 
a  master-work. 

Zdenko  Fibich  (1850-1900)  was  another  Bohemian  leader.  His 
operas  receive  almost  as  much  attention  as  those  of  Smetana. 
His  work  in  melodrama  (the  trilogy  "Hippodamia")  has  been  men- 
tioned elsewhere. 

Emil  Nikolaus,  Freiherr  von  Reznicek,  works  at  Vienna.  He,  like 
many  others,  was  destined  for  law,  but  deserted  it  for  music.  He  be- 
came known  by  his  operas,  —  "Die  Jungfrau  von  Orleans,"  "Satan- 
ella,"  "Emerich  Fortunat,"  the  vivacious  "Donna  Diana,"  and 
"Till  Eulenspiegel."  His  early  orchestral  works,  such  as  his  over- 
tures and  the  "Tragic  Symphony,"  were  fairly  conservative;  but  his 
later  symphonic  poems,  "Schlemihl"  and  "Der  Sieger,"  place  him 


«80  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

among  the  modem  programme  radicals.  He  handles  the  full  orches- 
tra with  admirable  control  and  skill. 

Among  Bohemian  composers,  Josef  Suk,  son-in-law  of  Dvorak, 
produced  the  "Fairy  Tale"  Suite.  Josef  Mraczek  has  composed  an 
opera,  "The  Dream,"  and  the  radical  orchestral  humoresque  en- 
titled "Max  and  Moritz,"  which  depicts  the  adventures  of  two  bad 
boys  well  known  in  German  literature.  Heinrich  Kaan-Albest  has 
composed  several  ballets  and  the  symphonic  poem  "Sakuntala." 
Josef  Nesvera,  a  writer  of  masses,  won  a  success  with  his  opera  "Per- 
dita."  Other  Bohemian  opera  composers  are  Hrimaly,  Jiranek,  Kad- 
letz,  Kovarovic,  Malat,  Navratil,  Ostrcil,  Prochazka,  Prokop, 
Reuter,  Rozkosny,  Sebor,  Tmecek,  and  Skuhersky.  Of  these, 
Jiranek,  Navratil,  and  Tmecek  have  entered  the  orchestral  field. 
Still  other  Bohemian  orchestral  composers  include  Abert,  Laska, 
Nedbal,  Novacek,  Novak,  and  Pribik. 

Hungary  has  its  school  of  native  opera,  brought  into  being  by  the 
Dopplers,  and  Franz  Erkel.  The  latter's  "Hunyadi  Laszlo"  is  very 
popular.  Other  Hungarian  opera  composers  include  his  son  George 
Erkel,  Andreas  Bartay,  Farkas,  Hubay,  Jamo,  Mihalovitch,  Pol- 
dini,  Rekay,  Sztojanovics,  Szabados,  and  Count  Geza  Zichy,  the 
one-armed  pianist.  Some  of  these  have  produced  orchestral  works 
also.  Erwin  Lendvai  has  composed  a  radical  symphony.  Ernst  von 
Dohnanyi  has  gained  much  renown  by  overtures,  concertos,  a  sjnn- 
phony,  and  the  pantomime  "Pierrette's  Veil."  Mihalovitch  has 
won  fame  by  symphonies  and  orchestral  ballads.  Other  Hungarian 
orchestral  composers  include  Bartok,  Buttikay,  Korbay,  Szekely, 
and  Vavrinecz.  Horvath  and  Joseffy  have  produced  piano  music, 
while  Nachez  and  Remenyi  composed  for  the  violin. 

Roumania  is  represented  by  Georges  Enesco  in  the  orchestral  field, 
Theodor  Flondor  in  opera,  and  Franz  Kneisel  in  the  violin  world. 

Xaver  and  Philipp  Scharwenka,  well  known  in  Berlin,  are  of  Pol- 
ish origin.  The  former  has  written  the  opera  "Mataswintha,"  a 
symphony,  and  three  piano  concertos;  while  the  latter  is  credited 
with  choral  cantatas,  symphonies,  a  suite,  an  overture,  and  many 
lesser  works. 

Moritz  Moszkowski  is  another  German  composer  of  Polish  de- 
scent. His  compositions  include  an  opera,  "Boabdil,"  the  sym- 
phonic poem  "Joan  of  Arc,"  two  orchestral  suites,  a  piano  concerto 


PADEREWSKI 


OTHER  EUROPEAN  NATIONS  281 

and  many  smaller  works.  He  seems  able  to  assume  many  styles,  as 
his  piano  cycle  "Aus  aller  Herren  Lander"  will  show.  He  is  full  of 
humor,  and  states  as  other  accomplishments  that  he  can  "play  bil- 
liards, chess,  dominoes,  and  violin,  and  can  ride,  imitate  canary 
birds,  and  relate  jokes  in  the  Saxon  dialect." 

Paderewski  is  widely  known  as  a  composer  because  of  his  minuet 
and  other  pieces.  He  has  written  the  gypsy  opera  "Manru,"  a  long 
symphony,  and  a  piano  concerto,  the  last  of  which  wins  success 
when  he  takes  the  solo  part. 

Other  Polish  opera  composers  include  Gavronski,  Jarecki,  Kazyn- 
ski,  Koczalski,  Melcer,  Mignard,  Moniuszko,  Opienski,  Rozycki, 
and  Stalkowsky.  Polish  orchestral  composers  include  Karlwicz, 
Maszynski,  Novoviejski,  Statkowsky,  Novakovski,  Dobrzynski, 
De  Kontski,  Chopin's  pupil  Mikuli,  Soltys,  Zelenski,  Kurpinski, 
and  Zientarski. 

In  Belgium,  a  recent  leader  was  Peter  Benoit  (1834-1901).  He 
composed  operas  and  other  works,  but  was  best  known  by  his  great 
cantatas.  These  include  "Oorlog"  ("War"),  "Lucifer,"  "De 
Schelde,"  "De  Rhyn,"  "Prometheus,"  and  a  Rubens  cantata. 
They  have  been  described  as  "great  decorative  pictures  in  tone, 
suggesting  vistas  of  grand  palaces,  armies  in  battle  array,  rich  fields 
of  grain,  mystic  visions  of  the  spirit  world,  or  gorgeous  triumphal 
mai'ches." 

Paul  Gilson,  bom  in  1865,  is  another  Belgian  leader.  His  sym- 
phonic sketches  entitled  "La  Mer"  made  him  well  known.  These 
picture  sunrise  at  sea,  the  rollicking  music  of  the  sailors,  a  love- 
scene  with  departure,  and  a  tempest.  The  cantata  "Francesca  da 
Rimini"  is  another  strong  work  by  Gilson.  The  lovers  are  con- 
demned by  Minos,  and  taunted  by  demons  in  the  Inferno.  Fran- 
cesca's  prayer  finally  wins  pity  for  her;  but  she  will  not  accept 
mercy  without  Paolo,  and  decides  to  stay  with  him.  Other  works 
by  Gilson  include  the  oratorio  "Moses,"  the  operas  "Princess 
Sunshine,"  "The  Adventurers,"  and  "The  Demon,"  incidental 
music,  orchestral  works  with  declamation,  overtures,  fantasies, 
suites,  and  many  other  compositions. 

Guillaume  Lekeu  (1870-94)  showed  much  promise  in  his  brief 
career.  He  produced  symphonic  poems,  chamber  works,  and  lesser 
pieces,  often  tinged  with  gloom,  but  usually  very  effective. 


882  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Edgar  Tinel's  chief  composition  is  the  oratorio  "Franciscus." 
This  is  a  three-part  work  showing  Francis  of  Assisi  as  young  noble- 
man, as  monk,  and  as  saint  in  heaven.  Tinel's  "Saint  Godelive" 
is  another  successful  oratorio.  He  has  written  also  orchestral  pieces 
and  cantatas. 

Jan  Blockx  (1851-1912)  produced  orchestral  works  of  various 
sorts,  but  was  best  known  by  the  ballet  "Milenka"  and  by  his 
operas.  Of  the  latter,  "The  Princess  of  the  Inn"  meets  with  most 
success.  Its  heroine,  Reinilde,  loves  Merlyn,  and  refuses  Marcus; 
whereupon  Marcus  plans  to  ruin  Merlyn,  by  means  of  Rita,  an 
innkeeper's  daughter.  Rita's  discarded  lover  Rabo  becomes  jeal- 
ous, and  kills  Merlyn.  Reinilde  is  then  ready  to  kill  Rita,  but  de- 
cides that  a  life  of  remorse  will  be  a  greater  punishment  for  her. 
Other  Blockx  operas  are  the  one-act  "lels  Vergeten,"  the  op^ra- 
comique  "Maitre  Martin,"  "La  Fiancee  de  la  Mer,"  and  "Thyl 
Uylenspiegel." 

Among  Belgian  operatic  composers,  Keurvels  has  produced 
"Paris,"  "RoUa,"  and  "Hamlet";  Wambach  has  composed  "Na- 
thans Parabel,"  as  well  as  oratorios  and  a  symphonic  poem;  the 
works  of  Dupuis  include  "Moina"  and  "Cour  d'Ognon";  Vlee- 
shouwer  is  a  Blockx  pupil;  Van  Duyse  is  credited  with  seven  operas; 
Waelput's  "Stella"  is  better  known  than  his  four  symphonies; 
Raway's  "Neon"  and  "Freya"  are  ambitious  works;  Van  den 
Eeden's  "Rhena"  has  been  well  received;  Juliet  Folville,  a  leader 
among  the  women,  has  composed  "Atala"  and  many  orchestral 
works;  fimile  Mathieu  has  written  incidental  music  as  well  as 
operas;  while  other  active  opera  composers  include  Callaerts,  Da- 
neau.  Kaiser,  Lebrun,  Neuville,  Paque,  Radoux,  Rasse,  Ratez,  Van 
der  Meulen,  and  Verhulst.  Other  Belgians  deserving  mention  in 
various  fields  are  Gevaert,  organist  and  teacher;  Huberti,  an  ora- 
torio composer;  Lenaerts,  who  has  composed  cantatas;  and  in 
general  orchestral  work,  Mailly,  Mestdagh,  Ryelandt,  Ruefer, 
Thiebaut,  Tilman,  Vreuls,  and  Wouters. 

In  Holland,  Richard  Hoi  was  for  many  years  a  leader,  famous 
for  his  national  hjnnn  and  for  symphonies,  cantatas,  and  other 
compositions.  Julius  Roentgen  also  composed  orchestral  worlcs. 
Van't  Kruis  has  been  very  active  in  producing  overtures  and  sym- 
phonies. Other  Dutch  orchestral  composers  are  Averkamp,  Coenen, 


OTHER  EUROPEAN  NATIONS  283 

De  Haan,  Diepenbrock,  Kes,  Van  der  Linden,  the  conductor  Men- 
gelberg,  Cornelia  van  Osterzee,  Van  der  Pals,  Scaefer,  Smulders, 
the  pianist  Stavenhagen,  Zweers,  Berlijn,  and  the  Brandt-Buys 
family.  In  opera,  Gottfried  Mann  witnessed  the  performance  of 
his  charming  "Melaenis";  Van  Milligen  produced  "Brinio"  and 
"Darthula";  Schey  wrote  "The  Eagle's  Nest";  while  Wagenaar, 
Grellinger,  and  Cora  Dopper  have  also  composed  stage  works. 

England,  like  Italy,  was  for  some  time  in  a  state  of  decadence. 
The  ballad  operas  of  Balfe,  Wallace,  Benedict,  and  Costa  were  very 
conventional  in  style,  even  in  comparison  with  Bishop's  earlier 
works;  and  the  English  songs  were  sentimental  and  "mushy."  Five 
men  led  a  renaissance  from  this  musical  "slough  of  despond." 
They  were  Stanford,  Parry,  Mackenzie,  Cowen,  and  Goring  Thomas. 

Charles  Villiers  Stanford,  bom  in  1852,  has  composed  syinpho- 
nies  and  similar  works,  as  well  as  two  oratorios.  In  opera  his  chief 
success  came  with  "Shamus  O'Brien,"  though  his  "Canterbury 
Pilgrims"  is  a  laudable  attempt  to  revive  the  atmosphere  of  early 
days  in  England.  His  Irish  Symphony,  based  on  folk-music,  is 
decidedly  characteristic. 

Charles  Hubert  Hastings  Parry,  bom  in  1848,  has  composed  sym- 
phonies and  overtures,  but  is  best  known  by  his  oratorios,  such  as 
"Judith,"  "Job,"  and  "King  Saul."  In  these  he  often  shows  a 
lofty  and  exalted  style,  and  "brings  all  heaven  before  our  eyes," 
according  to  one  enthusiastic  critic. 

Alexander  Campbell  Mackenzie,  bom  in  1847,  includes  among  his 
works  oratorios,  such  as  "The  Rose  of  Sharon"  and  "Bethlehem"; 
cantatas,  including  "Sayid"  and  "The  Cotter's  Saturday  Night"; 
operas,  especially  "Colomba"  and  "The  Troubadour";  and  many 
orchestral  works.  He  is  of  Scotch  birth,  while  Stanford  is  Irish. 

Frederic  Hymen  Cowen,  bom  in  1852,  is  known  by  six  sym- 
phonies, among  which  the  Scandinavian,  Idyllic,  and  Welsh  are  the 
best.  He  has  won  fame  also  with  his  cantatas,  such  as  "  The  Sleep- 
ing Beauty,"  "St.  John's  Eve,"  "The  Water  Lily,"  and  "The  Veil." 
He  has  composed  also  two  oratorios  and  four  operas. 

Arthur  Goring  Thomas  (1850-92)  won  success  with  his  opera 
"Esmeralda,"  though  a  later  work,  "Nadeshda,"  was  poorly  re- 
ceived. Of  his  cantatas,  "The  Swan  and  the  Skylark"  and  "The 
Sun  Worshippers"  are  the  most  popular. 


284  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

With  these  five  men  worked  a  number  of  others,  such  as  the 
MacFarren  brothers,  Sir  Frederick  Bridge  (known  as  the  "W'est- 
minster  Bridge,"  because  he  is  organist  in  Westminster  Abbey), 
Parratt,  Bamett,  Lloyd,  Corder,  Cusins,  and  Williams.  On  the 
whole,  the  school  had  worthy  aims,  but  lacked  deep  inspiration. 
Ernest  Newman  once  said  that  men  of  the  Bridge-Mackenzie  type 
could  no  more  hatch  out  a  new  school  than  a  hen  could  hatch  hard- 
boiled  eggs.  This  is  too  severe  a  criticism,  but  its  point  is  correct. 

English  hymnology  received  an  impetus  from  Wesley,  whose 
work  was  carried  forward  excellently  by  Stainer,  Bamby,  Webb, 
and  others. 

Su*  Edward  Elgar,  bom  in  1857,  is  the  leader  of  a  newer  and  less 
academic  style.  The  story  goes  that  when  he  was  sent  to  school, 
and  asked  by  a  teacher  what  his  name  was,  he  replied,  "Edward 
Elgar."  "Add  the  sir,"  demanded  the  pedagogue,  wishing  to  instil 
principles  of  respect;  whereupon  the  boy  replied,  "Sir  Edward  El- 
gar." But  he  has  now  attained  knighthood  in  reality,  an  honor 
won  by  the  value  of  his  works. 

In  childhood  he  delighted  in  his  father's  organ-playing  at  Wor- 
cester. He  was  largely  self-taught  in  music,  and  for  practice  in 
composition  he  wrote  a  symphony  with  Mozart's  G-minor  work  as 
a  model,  making  his  themes  and  other  divisions  of  the  same  size 
as  Mozart's.  Of  instruction  books  he  once  said,  "  I  have  read  them, 
and  I  still  live."  But  he  approved  of  Mozart's  "Thorough-Bass 
School." 

His  early  cantata,  "The  Black  Knight,"  was  given  at  a  Worces- 
ter festival.  Other  cantatas,  written  as  an  outcome  of  the  first  one, 
were  "The  Light  of  Life,"  "Caractacus,"  and  "Sir  Olaf."  His 
Enigma  variations  for  orchestra,  each  describing  a  friend,  form  a 
very  attractive  work,  and  earned  him  recognition  in  London.  The  first 
of  his  oratorios,  "The  Dream  of  Gerontius,"  won  him  international 
fame.  Later  compositions  in  this  form  by  him  are  "The  Apostles" 
and  "  The  Kingdom."  Other  vocal  works  of  Elgar's  are,  "  Scenes 
from  the  Bavarian  Highlands,"  "  The  Banner  of  Saint  George," 
**  Lux  Christi,"  and  a  Te  Deum.  For  orchestra  he  has  written  sev- 
eral overtures  ("Froissart,"  "In  the  South,"  and  "Cockaigne"), 
some  effective  "Pomp  and  Circumstance"  marches,  incidental 
music  to  "Diarmid  and  Grania,"  a  Coronation  March,  and  the  Sea 


OTHER   EUROPEAN   NATIONS  285 

Pictures,  for  solo  voice  with  orchestra.  In  recent  years  he  has  gone 
over  to  the  radicals.  His  two  symphonies  are  rather  abstruse, 
though  the  finale  of  the  second  is  very  impressive.  His  violin  con- 
certo is  full  of  difficulties. 

Joseph  Holbrooke,  bom  in  1878,  is  another  radical.  His  opera, 
"  The  Children  of  Don,"  is  to  be  made  the  first  of  a  Trilogy.  For 
orchestra,  sometimes  with  voices,  he  has  written  "The  Raven," 
"The  Skeleton  in  Armor,"  "Ulalume,"  the  bizarre  but  effective 
"  Queen  Mab,"  and  a  Poe  Symphony.  His  works  are  not  sufficiently 
tuneful  for  real  success. 

Frederick  Delius,  bom  in  1863,  is  another  modernist.  His  "Brigg 
Fair"  introduces  old  English  melodies;  but  his  other  works,  such 
as  "Appalachia,"  "The  Dance  of  Life,"  "A  Mass  of  Life"  (with 
voices),  "Sea  Drift,"  "Paris,"  and  "The  Song  of  the  High  Hills," 
are  fragmentary  and  bizarre  in  their  harmonies. 

Cyril  Meir  Scott,  bom  in  1879,  is  one  of  the  few  composers  who 
can  handle  modem  effects  in  an  interesting  way.  His  harmonies 
are  novel,  and  intricate  enough;  but  he  builds  them  into  works  that 
have  beauty  and  coherence.  He  is  known  in  America  by  some  of 
his  interesting  piano  pieces.  But  he  has  composed  in  the  larger  forms 
too,  producing  a  symphony,  a  piano  concerto,  three  overtures,  and 
some  effective  chamber  music. 

Another  radical  who  has  done  good  work  is  Granville  Bantock, 
born  in  1868.  His  early  efforts  resulted  in  the  one-act  operas  "  Caed- 
mar"  and  "The  Pearl  of  Iran," as  well  as  a  vast  setting  of  Southey's 
poem,  "The  Curse  of  Kehama,"  in  twenty-four  orchestral  numbers. 
He  composed  also  a  cantata,  "The  Fire- Worshippers,"  and  the  over- 
tures "  Saul "  and  "  The  Pierrot  of  the  Minute."  The  latter  is  rather 
fragmentary.  Recently  he  has  tried  to  develop  a  symphonic  form 
for  voices  alone,  his  "Atalanta  in  Calydon"  having  four  movements 
and  dividing  the  vocal  forces  into  twelve  groups. 

With  Bantock  have  been  associated  William  Wallace,  composer 
of  a  Creation  Symphony,  a  choral  symphony,  six  symphonic  poems, 
the  opera  "Brassolis,"  and  other  works;  Erskine  Allon,  whose  or- 
chestral ballad  "Annie  of  Lochroyan,"  cantata  "The  Oak  of  Geis- 
mar,"  and  overture  "The  Maid  of  Colonsay"  have  made  his  early 
death  a  subject  for  great  regret;  Reginald  Steggall,  who  has  com- 
posed several  scenas;  Stanley  Hawley,  who  has  become  known  by 


286  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

his  melodramas;  and  Arthur  Hinton,  whose  "Triumph  of  Caesar," 
"  Endymion  "  suite,  and  piano  concerto  are  effective  works. 

Samuel  Coleridge-Taylor  (1875-1912)  was  the  son  of  a  full- 
blooded  negro  physician  of  West  Africa  and  an  English  mother. 
His  works  are  expressive  and  impassioned  in  style.  His  cantata 
"Hiawatha,"  in  several  parts,  shows  much  beauty.  Other  vocal- 
orchestral  works  by  him  are  an  oratorio,  "The  Atonement,"  the 
cantata  "Endymion's  Dream,"  and  "A  Tale  of  Old  Japan."  His 
orchestral  works  consist  of  a  Solemn  Prelude,  the  Herod  music,  and 
other  numbers.  He  composed  also  effective  songs,  piano  pieces, 
and  violin  works. 

\^  Sir  Arthur  Seymour  Sullivan  (1842-1900)  was  a  conservative  in 
style.  Known  on  several  continents  by  his  successful  light  operas, 
he  excelled  also  in  a  more  serious  vein,  with  such  works  as  the  ora- 
torios "The  Prodigal  Son,"  "The  Martyr  of  Antioch,"  and  "The 
Golden  Legend,"  the  cantata  "  Kenilworth,"  a  Te  Deum,  some 
overtures,  much  incidental  music,  the  opera  "  Ivanhoe,"  and  a  sym- 
phony. His  songs  are  widely  known,  "The  Lost  Chord"  being  an 
especially  broad  and  effective  solo. 

With  Sullivan  may  be  classed  the  opera  composers  Alfred  Cellier 
and  Edward  Solomon;  but  Edward  German  (really  German  Ed- 
ward Jones)  is  now  better  known  than  either.  He  has  composed 
two  symphonies,  but  has  won  his  greatest  recognition  by  incidental 
music  to  various  Shakespearian  and  other  plays.  His  dances  from 
the  "Henry  VIII"  music  are  widely  popular.  He  finished  Sullivan's 
"Emerald  Isle,"  and  composed  "The  Rival  Poets"  and  "Merrie 
England."  He  has  employed  the  folk-song  style  with  marked 
success. 

The  English  folk-music  is  direct  and  lively  in  style,  being  mostly 
in  major.  The  Scotch  folk-songs,  with  their  use  of  the  pentatonic 
scale,  are  even  more  attractive.  The  Welsh  songs  are  much  like 
the  Scotch,  and  the  Irish  often  have  odd  but  impressive  harmonies. 
While  Russian  folk-songs  show  the  greatest  variety  of  style  and 
mode,  those  of  Great  Britain  are  attractive  also. 

The  English  orchestral  composers  are  now  very  numerous.  Many 
of  the  following  should  have  special  mention,  if  space  would  permit. 
A  list  of  the  chief  names  includes  Arthur  Somervell,  Frederick 
Cliffe,  Arthur  Hervey,  Robert  Bridges,  Herbert  Bunning,  Samuel 


OTHER   EUROPEAN   NATIONS  287 

Liddle,  Algernon  Ashton,  Charles  Macpherson,  Charles  Stuart 
Macpherson,  Alan  Grey,  the  Scotchman  Hamish  MacCunn,  Allan 
Macbeth,  Alick  Maclean,  Henry  Coward,  Walford  Davies,  the  Irish- 
bom  Michael  Esposito,  Isidore  de  Lara  (known  in  opera),  Eaton 
Faning,  Balfour  Gardiner,  Percy  Grainger,  Hamilton  Harty,  Gus- 
tave  von  Hoist,  Oliver  King,  Norman  O'Neill,  Percy  Pitt,  Ebenezer 
Prout  (an  excellent  author),  Roger  Quilter,  Donald  Francis  Tovey, 
and  among  the  women  Alice  Mary  Smith,  Ethel  Smyth  (operas 
"Der  Wald"  and  "The  Wreckers"),  Agnes  Zimmermann,  Rosalmd 
Ellicott,  and  Marie  Wurm. 

A  number  of  English  composers  have  become  famous  by  their 
songs.  Among  these  are  Hatton,  Hullah,  Watson,  Maybrick  (writ- 
ing as  Stephen  Adams),  Oliver  King,  Bruno  Huhn,  Molloy,  Gaul, 
and  Marzials,  the  songs  of  the  last-named  being  especially  dainty. 
Among  the  women,  Liza  Lehmann,  Frances  All^tsen,  Guy  d'Harde- 
lot  (Mrs.  Rhodes),  and  Maud  Valerie  White  have  done  artistic 
work,  while  Hope  Temple  and  Teresa  del  Riego  adopt  a  more  popu- 
lar standard.  In  the  same  class  are  the  Anglo-Italians  Tosti,  Mattei, 
and  Pinsuti.  The  Aptommas  brothers  and  Parish-Alvars  have 
earned  notice  by  their  harp  music. 

On  the  whole,  England  is  now  successful  in  disproving  Rubin- 
stein's assertion  that  it  was  the  most  unmusical  nation  on  earth. 


XXX 

AMERICA 

The  musical  life  of  the  American  colonies  came  from  small  be- 
ginnings. Virginia  had  its  Cavalier  songs,  but  did  not  develop  them 
into  an  original  school;  while  Massachusetts  was  at  first  devoted 
solely  to  psalms,  even  hymns  being  barred  at  first.  Its  early  scholars 
published  the  "Bay  Psalm  Book,"  and  disputed  learnedly  over  who 
should  be  allowed  to  sing.  When  hjonns  came  into  use,  they  were 
at  first  "lined  out,"  each  line  being  read  before  it  was  sung,  since 
not  all  the  church-goers  possessed  books.  This  sometimes  produced 
rather  strange  effects,  as  in  the  hjnnn  which  began,  — 

"  The  Lord  will  come,  and  he  will  not" 
and  continued,  — 

"  Keep  silence,  but  speak  out." 

In  the  eighteenth  century,  concerts  began  in  such  centres  as  Bos- 
ton, New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Charleston.  These  are  well  de- 
scribed by  Oscar  G.  Sonneck  in  his  "  Early  Concert  Life  in  America." 

The  first  American  composer  was  probably  Francis  Hopkinson 
(1737-91).  He  graduated  at  Princeton,  and  in  1759  began  a  collec- 
tion into  which  he  put  several  original  songs.  In  a  much  later  set, 
dedicated  to  Washington,  he  definitely  claims  the  honor  of  being  the 
first  American  composer.  His  only  rival  was  James  Lyon,  the  min- 
ister, who  graduated  at  the  same  college,  composed  commencement 
odes,  and  published  the  hymn  collection  "Urania"  in  1761.  William 
Billings  (1746-1800),  of  Boston,  was  a  composer  of  somewhat  more 
advanced  style.  He  was  a  tanner's  apprentice  at  first,  but  he  soon 
began  chalking  musical  exercises  on  the  sides  of  leather.  By  1770 
he  published  an  original  collection,  "The  New  England  Psalm 
Singer,"  which  established  his  reputation.  In  later  years  he  worked 
at  "fugue-tunes";  and  while  his  fugal  effects  were  very  flimsy,  his 
preface  showed  that  he  understood  the  nature  and  beauty  of  coun- 
terpoint. Billings  was  the  man  who  was  asked  whether  snoring  was 


AMERICA  289 

vocal  or  instrumental  music;  but  history  does  not  give  his  reply. 
Other  hymn  composers,  of  later  date,  were  Oliver  Holden,  Samuel 
Holyoke,  Jacob  Kimball,  Henry  Kemble  Oliver,  Daniel  Read,  and 
Lowell  Mason.  In  more  recent  years,  William  Bradbury  composed 
hymns  and  cantatas;  the  evangelist  Ira  D.  Sankey  wrote  many 
hymn-tunes;  and  Hart  Pease  Danks  produced  hymns  as  well  as  the 
familiar  "Silver  threads  among  the  gold." 

In  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  came  the  development 
of  orchestras  and  singing  societies,  as  well  as  the  advent  of  opera 
troupes.  William  Henry  PYy  (1813-64)  composed  the  opera  "Leo- 
nora" in  1845,  though  it  was  not  given  until  1858.  In  1863  he  fin- 
ished another  opera,  "Notre  Dame  de  Paris."  George  F.  Bristow 
(1825-98)  composed  "Rip  van  Winkle"  in  1855.  Both  men  wrote 
instrumental  works,  which  were  performed  by  Jullien  on  an  Ameri- 
can trip. 

The  national  songs  of  America  are  largely  borrowed.  The  melody 
of  "Yankee  Doodle"  came  from  English  sources,  and  was  adapted 
by  Dr.  Shuckburgh  to  his  words  satirizing  the  Colonials  in  the  Old 
French  War.  It  was  at  first  a  British  tune,  and  not  taken  by  the 
colonies  until  near  the  end  of  the  Revolution.  "America"  is  bor- 
rowed directly  from  "God  save  the  king,"  a  tune  that  is  used  in 
many  countries.  "Hail,  Columbia  "  is  original,  but  not  a  source  for 
pride.  It  was  first  known  as  "  The  President's  March."  The  melody 
of  "The  Star-Spangled  Banner"  is  taken  from  an  old  English  drink- 
ing-song, "To  Anacreon  in  Heaven,"  which  explains  its  awkwardly 
large  compass  and  bold  outbursts.  The  Civil  War,  however,  brought 
forth  good  native  songs.  "Glory  Hallelujah"  was  originally  a 
Southern  camp-meeting  hymn,  known  as  "Say,  brothers,  will  you 
meet  us."  It  was  adopted  by  the  soldiers  at  Fort  Warren,  Boston, 
with  words  made  up  to  tease  one  of  their  members,  named  John 
Brown.  When  these  men  marched  to  the  front,  they  sang  the  song 
on  their  way,  and  made  it  instantly  popular.  Two  years  later,  Julia 
Ward  Howe  wrote  new  words  for  it.  If  the  North  got  its  best  war- 
song  from  the  South,  it  paid  the  debt  fully;  for  "  Dixie  "  was  a  North- 
em  affair,  composed  by  Dan  Emmett  as  a  minstrel's  "walk-around" 
in  New  York.  GeorgeF^Root  wrote  "  The  Battle-Cry  of  Freedom" 
and  other  war-timesuccesses;  while  Henry  Clay  Work  produced 
the  ever-popular  "Marching  through  Georgia."    H.  L.  Schreiner 


290  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

and  A.  E.  Blackmar  wrote  Southern  war-songs  of  decided  spirit. 
Stephen  Collins  Foster's  songs  show  the  plantation  style.  After  the 
war,  the  growing  musical  atmosphere  in  our  larger  cities,  especially- 
New  York,  Boston,  Cincinnati,  and  Chicago,  resulted  in  the  devel- 
opment of  composers  whose  work  is  more  ambitious  in  style,  and 
more  in  line  with  the  great  European  models.  Valuable  influence 
was  exerted  by  the  pianist  William  Mason  and  the  conductor  Theo- 
dore Thomas. 

A  leader  among  American  orchestral  composers  was  John  Knowles 
Paine  (1839-1906).  Born  at  Portland,  Maine,  he  studied  in  Berlin, 
and  became  known  in  both  Germany  and  America  by  his  organ 
concerts.  In  1862  he  became  head  of  the  music  department  at  Har- 
vard College,  where  he  worked  until  his  death.  In  1867  his  Mass 
in  D  won  a  Berlin  success.  This  was  followed  by  the  American  pro- 
duction of  his  oratorio  "St.  Peter,"  a  work  of  much  skill  and  also 
much  difficulty.  Paine's  first  symphony,  in  C-minor,  was  performed 
by  Thomas;  but  his  second,  the  "Spring"  Symphony,  proved  a 
greater  success.  At  the  Philadelphia  Exposition  of  1876,  his  "Cen- 
tennial Hymn"  showed  more  inspiration  than  Wagner's  blatant 
"Centennial  March."  Paine's  symphonic  poem  "The  Tempest" 
proved  to  be  another  interesting  work.  His  music  to  the  "(Edipus 
Tjn^nnus"  of  Sophocles  was  lofty,  dignified,  and  thoroughly  effec- 
tive. This  was  the  best  American  composition  of  its  time.  Paine 
wrote  also  such  vocal-orchestral  works  as  "Phoebus,  arise,"  "The 
Nativity,"  the  "Song  of  Promise,"  and  the  "Columbus  March  and 
Hymn."  Another  symphonic  poem  by  him  was  "An  Island  Fan- 
tasy," composed  after  a  painting  of  the  Isles  of  Shoals  by  J.  Appleton 
Brown.  The  music  to  "  The  Birds"  of  Aristophanes  was  good,  though 
hardly  equal  to  "(Edipus."  Paine  composed  an  opera,  "Azara," 
based  on  the  old  Trouvere  story  of  "  Aucassin  et  Nicolette."  It  con- 
tains much  beautiful  music,  but  is  not  essentially  dramatic,  as  the 
composer's  forte  was  a  more  conservative  style. 

Edward  Alexander  MacDowell  (1861-1908)  was  held  to  be  Ameri- 
ca's best  composer.  He  studied  in  Germany,  and  taught  at  Darm- 
stadt. In  later  years  he  was  in  charge  of  the  music  department  at 
Columbia  College.  MacDowell's  music  is  earnest,  impassioned,  and 
expressive.  His  studies  with  Raff  resulted  in  giving  him  a  command 
of  melodic  utterance.  He  was  not  a  strict  classicist,  but  put  into  the 


CONVERSE 
CHADWICK 


PAINE 

MACDOWELL 

FOOTE 


HADLEY 
PARKER 


AIVIERICA  291 

old  forms  the  freedom  that  modem  standards  allow.  His  two  great 
piano  concertos  have  been  frequently  played  by  Mme.  Carreno. 
The  same  is  true  of  his  sonatas,  which  are  remarkably  effective 
works  in  the  modem  free  form.  The  first  of  these  is  the  dramatic 
"sonata  tragica";  the  second  is  the  "sonata  eroica,"  inscribed 
with  the  words  "Flos  regum  Arthurus";  the  third,  dedicated  to 
Grieg,  has  been  called  by  Huneker  "An  epic  of  rainbow  and  thun- 
der"; while  the  later  Keltic  Sonata  bears  witness  to  its  composer's 
Scotch  ancestry.  MacDowell's  orchestral  works  include  the  sym- 
phonic poems  "Hamlet,"  "Ophelia,"  and  the  beautiful  "Lancelot 
and  Elaine";  the  Indian  Suite,  based  on  real  Indian  melodies;  "The 
Saracens,"  "The  Lovely  Alda,"  two  fragments  of  the  "Song  of  Ro- 
land," and  a  later  suite,  often  given  in  Germany,  consisting  of  "In 
a  Haunted  Forest,"  "Summer  Idyl,"  "In  October,"  "The  Shep- 
herdess's Song,"  and  "Forest  Spirits."  The  Indian  Suite  naturally 
shows  the  composer's  own  orchestral  use  of  the  themes.  There  has 
been  much  discussion  as  to  whether  Indian  or  negro  music  is  the 
real  folk-music  of  the  United  States.  The  latter  carries  off  the  palm, 
for  two  reasons.  In  the  first  place,  Indian  music  is  not  known  to 
many  people,  and  consequently  does  not  have  the  wide  appeal  of 
true  folk-music;  and  in  the  second  place,  it  is  merely  unison  melody, 
so  that  in  instrumental  use  it  derives  its  character  from  the  indi- 
vidual composer's  harmonies.  Arthur  Farwell  has  used  Indian  mel- 
odies effectively  for  piano,  but  the  harmonies  are  his  own;  while  the 
very  beautiful  chords  of  Charles  Wakefield  Cadman  would  un- 
doubtedly sound  strange  to  the  Indians  whose  songs  he  uses  as  mel- 
odies. MacDowell  wrote  "An  Indian  Lodge"  for  piano,  but  it  is 
no  more  folk-music  than  his  other  piano  works,  —  the  "Woodland 
Sketches,"  the  "Sea  Pieces,"  or  the  earlier  and  more  classical  piano 
suites.  MacDowell  is  known  also  by  many  beautiful  songs,  varying 
in  style  from  the  emotion  of  "Thy  Beaming  Eyes"  to  the  sombre 
force  of  "The  Eagle."  Especially  effective  are  the  Eight  Songs 
(Op.  47),  containing  "The  Sea,"  which  shows  a  noble  breadth  of 
effect,  and  the  delicate  "Midsummer  Lullaby." 

George  Whitfield  Chadwick,  bora  at  Lowell,  Massachusetts,  in 
1854,  studied  with  his  elder  brother  at  first.  He  began  composition 
while  a  pupil  at  the  Lawrence  High  School;  and  some  of  the  dances 
he  produced  then  were  used  later  in  his  successful  musical  comedy 


292  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

"Tabasco."  Studies  at  the  New  England  Conservatory  resulted 
in  the  composition  of  orchestral  works  and  piano  trios.  Chadwick's 
father  wished  him  to  begin  a  business  career;  but  the  young  man 
made  music  his  life-work  by  starting  out  as  music  teacher  in  a  Mich- 
igan college.  There  he  earned  money  enough  for  serious  study  at 
Leipsic,  under  Reinecke  and  Jadassohn.  Since  his  return,  he  has 
been  teacher  and  musical  director  at  the  New  England  Conserva- 
tory. His  "Rip  Van  Winkle"  Overture  and  two  string  quartets 
date  from  his  German  student  days,  and  received  much  praise.  His 
"Melpomene"  Overture  unites  classic  dignity  with  tragic  power  in 
a  way  that  deserves  the  highest  recognition.  "Thalia"  is  an  over- 
ture to  the  muse  of  comedy,  while  "Euterpe"  is  a  later  offering  to 
the  muse  of  dancing.  The  "Adonais"  Overture  is  another  work  of 
nobly  expressive  character.  Chadwick  has  written  three  sympho- 
nies, the  second  of  which  made  use  of  plantation  effects  long  before 
Dvorak  came  to  America  to  work  in  the  same  field.  Chadwick  has 
sometimes  used  this  flavor  in  his  chamber  works,  of  which  a  piano 
quintet  and  a  later  string  quartet  deserve  mention.  His  "Judith" 
is  an  ambitious  sacred  opera,  though  so  far  it  has  been  given  only 
in  oratorio  form.  "Phoenix  Expirans,"  "The  Lily  Nymph,"  and 
"Noel"  are  successful  cantatas.  Later  orchestral  works  include  a 
Symphonietta  (containing  the  wildly  American  "  Vagrom  Ballad"), 
a  Suite  Symphonique,  the  symphonic  poem  "  Cleopatra,"  and  a  later 
one,  "Aphrodite."  The  last-named,  inspired  by  a  beautiful  head 
of  the  goddess  that  is  now  in  the  Boston  Art  Museum,  portrays 
scenes  that  might  have  taken  place  before  the  statue  when  it  stood 
in  its  temple.  The  music  suggests  sacred  dances;  a  storm  at  sea; 
the  thank-offerings  of  rescued  mariners;  temple  services;  moonlit 
solitude;  and  other  appropriate  ideas.  Chadwick's  many  songs 
contain  such  gems  as  "Allah,"  "Sorais'  Song,"  the  "Song  from  the 
Persian,"  and  the  "Bedouin  Love-Song."  His  "  Tam  o'  Shanter," 
a  symphonic  sketch  in  Scottish  style,  was  performed  with  success  in 
1915. 

Horatio  Parker,  bom  at  Auburndale,  Massachusetts,  in  1863, 
did  not  become  interested  in  music  until  the  age  of  fourteen.  Then 
he  began  asking  many  questions  about  it,  and  devoted  himself  to 
study  with  Chadwick,  and  with  Rheinberger  at  Munich.  On  his 
return  he  became  musical  director  in  various  schools,  teacher  in  the 


AMERICA  293 

National  Conservatory,  and  finally  head  of  the  music  department 
at  Yale.  His  early  works  include  piano  pieces,  songs,  chamber 
music,  several  overtures,  and  a  number  of  cantatas.  His  "Hora 
Novissima"  achieved  an  international  reputation.  This  is  an  ora- 
torio treating  a  mediaeval  Latin  poem  by  Bernard  de  Morlaix.  Its 
contrapuntal  structure  and  lofty  atmosphere  make  it  an  absolute 
masterpiece,  of  which  even  a  Bach  might  have  been  proud.  This 
work  resulted  in  an  English  order  for  the  Hereford  Festival  of  1900, 
for  which  the  composer  wrote  "A  Wanderer's  Psalm."  A  later  ora- 
torio of  lofty  dignity  is  "St.  Christopher."  Still  more  recent  is 
"Morwen  and  the  Grail,"  a  mystic  oratorio  with  rather  modulatory 
music.  Parker  has  written  also  an  organ  concerto  and  lesser  organ 
pieces  of  much  worth.  He  has  entered  the  field  of  American  opera 
too,  winning  a  prize  with  his  "Mona,"  and  another  with  "Fairy- 
land." 

The  libretto  of  "Mona,"  by  Brian  Hooker,  is  on  an  old  British 
subject.  Quintus,  son  of  the  Roman  governor,  has  been  brought  up 
among  the  Britons  as  Gwynn.  He  loves  Mona,  the  last  descendant 
of  Boadicea.  Caradoc,  the  bard,  urges  rebellion,  aided  by  Mona's 
foster-brother  Gloom.  Gwynn,  whose  Roman  origin  is  unknown  to 
the  others,  works  for  peace,  and  thereby  gets  himself  disliked.  He 
follows  Mona  as  she  spreads  messages  of  revolt,  and  saves  her  life; 
while  at  the  same  time  he  tells  his  father  that  he  can  avert  the  war. 
He  wins  Mona's  love,  but  she  distrusts  him  when  he  tries  to  make 
her  give  up  the  revolt.  He  is  kept  prisoner  by  her  Britons  while  a 
battle  is  fought.  Gwynn  then  tells  Mona  of  his  parentage.  She  dis- 
believes his  story,  and  kills  him;  but  when  taken  captive  she  finds 
with  vain  regret  that  he  told  the  truth.  The  score  of  "Mona"  is 
scholarly,  earnest,  and  masterly  in  its  orchestration  and  choral  num- 
bers. It  errs  by  being  rather  too  unmelodic,  and  not  always  dra- 
matic; but  it  is  still  a  great  work. 

Arthur  Foote,  bom  at  Salem  in  1853,  is  entirely  an  American 
product.  His  overture  "In  the  Mountains"  is  a  dignified  composi- 
tion. More  interesting,  however,  are  his  suites,  that  in  D-minor 
being  for  orchestra,  while  an  earlier  work,  in  D-major,  is  for  strings. 
In  these  he  shows  a  union  of  the  classical  spirit  with  real  inspiration. 
His  four  character  pieces,  based  on  verses  from  "Omar  IQiayyam," 
are  more  in  the  pictorial  style  of  programme  music.  His  chamber 


£94  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

works,  which  are  highly  prized,  include  a  piano  quintet,  a  string 
quartet,  a  piano  trio,  and  an  excellent  violin  sonata.  Another  work, 
for  orchestra,  is  the  effective  symphonic  prologue  to  Dante's  story 
of  Francesca  da  Rimini.  Foote's  cantatas,  such  as  "The  Skeleton 
in  Armor"  and  "The  Wreck  of  the  Hesperus,"  are  made  of  worthy 
music,  but  the  words  are  sometimes  spun  out,  and  repeated  too 
much.  His  songs  include  many  favorites,  such  as  the  "Irish  Folk- 
Song,"  or  "When  icicles  hang  by  the  wall." 

Henry  Kimball  Hadley,  bom  at  Somerville,  Massachusetts,  in 
1871,  studied  with  Chadwick  in  Boston  and  Mandycewski  in  Vi- 
enna. The  four  movements  of  his  "Youth  and  Life"  sjTnphony 
seem  to  typify  aspiration,  sorrow,  high  spirits,  and  triumph.  "The 
Seasons"  is  another  symphony,  dividing  naturally  into  four  move- 
ments. A  still  later  ssonphony,  "North,  East,  South,  and  West," 
boxes  the  compass  in  excellent  fashion,  portrasdng  the  ruggedness 
of  the  North,  the  mystery  of  the  Orient,  the  lively  jollity  of  the 
South,  and  the  victorious  spirit  of  the  golden  West.  Hadley's  over- 
tures include  "Hector  and  Andromache,"  "In  Bohemia,"  and 
"Herod."  His  ballet  music  has  been  arranged  in  suites.  He  pro- 
duced the  opera  "Safie"  in  Germany;  while  "The  Atonement  of 
Pan,"  composed  for  the  "high  jinks"  of  the  San  Francisco  Bohe- 
mian Club,  is  practically  another  opera.  He  has  produced  chamber 
music  of  real  value,  and  a  number  of  artistic  songs;  but  he  seems 
to  prefer  the  larger  forms.  "Lelewala"  is  an  early  cantata  that 
brings  in  Niagara.  "Merlin  and  Vivian"  is  a  lyric  work  of  dramatic 
tendencies,  for  solo  voices,  chorus,  and  orchestra.  "The  Fate  of 
Princess  Kiyo"  is  another  cantata,  this  time  for  women's  voices. 
Most  advanced,  however,  are  his  symphonic  poems,  consisting  of 
"Salome"  and  "The  Culprit  Fay."  In  the  former,  the  largest  mod- 
em orchestra  is  handled  with  Strauss-like  control  and  power  of 
expression.  The  latter  is  based  on  a  poem  by  Joseph  Rodman 
Drake,  aimed  to  show  that  American  rivers  and  scenes  should  have 
their  poetic  legends.  The  culprit  fay,  disgraced  by  the  glance  of  a 
mortal  maiden's  eye,  regains  his  status  by  voyaging  in  a  mussel- 
shell  boat  to  obtain  the  glistening  drop  of  water  from  a  leaping 
sturgeon  and  the  spark  from  a  falling  star.  After  a  successful  return, 
he  joins  the  fairy  dance  that  ends  with  cock-crow.  In  the  music, 
Hadley  has  given  many  effective  suggestions,  such  as  the  grace  of 


AMERICA  29i 

the  fairies,  the  culprit's  troubles,  the  immensity  of  sea  and  sky,  the 
joyful  return,  and  the  final  dance. 

Frederick  Shepard  Converse,  bom  at  Newton,  Massachusetts, 
in  1871,  is  another  orchestral  and  operatic  leader.  Two  of  his  sym- 
phonic poems,  "The  Festival  of  Pan"  and  "Endymion's  Narra- 
tive, "are  inspired  by  the  poetry  of  Keats.  Both  are  effective  enough, 
but  rather  contemplative  in  style.  More  dramatic  is  "Ormazd," 
which  depicts  the  conflict  between  the  followers  of  that  beneficent 
deity  and  the  forces  of  the  wicked  Ahriman.  "Night  and  Day" 
and  "The  Mystic  Trumpeter"  were  inspired  by  Walt  Whitman's 
poems.  Other  instrumental  works  by  Converse  are  an  early  sym- 
phony, given  while  he  studied  with  Rheinberger  at  Mimich;  the 
concert  overture  "Youth";  a  violin  concerto;  and  two  string  quar- 
tets. He  has  composed  also  the  oratorio  "Job,"  the  baritone  bal- 
lad "La  Belle  Dame  Sans  Merci,"  and  incidental  music  to  Percy 
Mackaye's  "Joan  of  Arc."  But  he  is  known  most  widely  by  his 
operas,  "  The  Pipe  of  Desire"  and  " The  Sacrifice."  He  is  now  work- 
ing at  "Beauty  and  the  Beast." 

"The  Pipe  of  Desire"  begins  with  revels  of  the  Elves,  who  decide 
that  their  favorite  peasant  lolan  shall  be  allowed  to  see  them,  iii 
spite  of  the  warnings  of  the  Old  One,  their  king.  The  latter  plays 
his  sacred  pipe,  and  thus  forces  even  lolan  to  dance;  but  in  revenge 
lolan  seizes  the  pipe.  The  peasant  will  not  give  it  back  until  its 
notes  have  shown  him  a  vision  of  his  desire,  —  a  fertile  farm,  and  a 
comfortable  home  in  which  wife  and  children  await  him.  He  calls 
his  beloved,  Naoia,  to  come  to  him.  Because  of  the  pipe's  power, 
she  has  to  obey;  but  the  journey  is  so  long  that  she  dies  in  the  arms 
of  lolan,  who  is  thus  punished  for  attempting  to  obtain  super- 
natural power.  The  delicate,  contemplative  style  of  the  music  is 
almost  too  refined  for  stage  success. 

"The  Sacrifice"  deals  with  the  renunciation  of  an  American  cap- 
tain (Burton)  who  loves  a  Spanish  girl  (Chonita)  during  the  taking 
of  California  by  the  United  States.  The  plot  is  based  on  a  story 
by  Lieut.  H.  A.  Wise.  Chonita  in  reality  loves  Bemal,  her  country- 
man. The  first  act  contains  an  impressive  Indian  prophecy,  an 
attractive  song  by  Chonita,  and  an  impassioned  love-duet.  The 
second  act,  in  the  interior  of  a  mission  building,  begins  with  a 
spirited  soldiers'  chorus  and  a  piquant  dance  of  gypsy  and  Mexi- 


296  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

can  girls.  When  the  chapel  empties,  Chonita  enters,  and  sings  a 
melodious  prayer.  Bemal,  who  is  really  outlawed,  is  discovered  in 
disguise;  he  tries  to  kill  Burton,  but  Chonita  throws  herself  between 
the  men,  and  is  wounded.  The  third  act  shows  Chonita  recovering, 
and  Burton  planning  to  free  Bemal  for  her.  When  some  Mexicans 
arrange  a  surprise,  he  lets  himself  be  killed,  so  that  Bemal's  free- 
dom will  be  assured.  The  work  has  much  virility,  but  moves 
slowly  at  times. 

An  earlier  American  opera  composer  was  Frederic  Grant  Glea- 
son  (1848-1903).  His  works  mclude  the  cantata  "  The  Culprit  Fay," 
the  orchestral  compositions  "Edris"  and  "The  Song  of  Life," 
and  the  operas  "Otho  Visconti"  and  "Montezuma." 

Victor  Herbert,  bom  at  Dublin  in  1859,  has  made  himself  thor- 
oughly American.  He  has  composed  symphonic  poems,  a  'cello 
concerto,  a  suite  romantique,  and  many  light  operas  as  well  as  the 
grand  opera  "Natoma."  Even  in  his  light  operas  he  usually  in- 
cludes some  serious  munber,  such  as  the  Bridal  Chorus  in  "The 
Red  Mill."  He  has  been  a  well-known  'cello  player. 

"Natoma"  is  based  on  an  Indian  subject.  Natoma  is  the  servant 
of  Barbara,  who  is  loved  by  Paul  Merrill,  whom  she  prefers,  and 
by  Alvarado;  while  the  half-breed  Castro  admires  Natoma,  who 
loves  Merrill  hopelessly.  When  the  unwelcome  suitors  are  refused, 
Castro  arranges  for  Alvarado  to  kidnap  Barbara.  The  second  act 
shows  a  festival,  under  cover  of  which  Alvarado  is  to  act;  but  Na- 
toma, dancing  the  dagger  dance  with  Castro,  rushes  by  him  and 
stabs  Alvarado,  seeking  sanctuary  in  a  church.  Here  (Act  III) 
Natoma's  vengeful  ideas  are  calmed  down,  and  she  becomes  a  nun. 
The  score  contains  both  Indian  and  Spanish  color,  with  brilliant 
festival  effects  in  the  second  act.  A  shorter  opera  by  Herbert  is  the 
one-act  "Madeleine." 

With  Herbert  in  light  opera  belong  Reginald  de  Koven,  whose 
"Robin  Hood"  and  "Maid  Marian"  are  worthy  works.  Here,  too, 
should  be  mentioned  John  Philip  Sousa,  writer  of  marches  and 
the  opera  "El  Capitan." 

Walter  Johannes  Damrosch,  son  of  Leopold  Damrosch,  wrote  a 
"Manila  Te  Deum."  In  opera  his  "Scarlet  Letter"  was  earnest, 
but  not  inspired.  "The  Senator"  is  a  successful  musical  comedy. 
His  latest  effort  is  "  Cyrano,"  which  is  set  with  a  fair  share  of  humor. 


AMERICA  297 

Frank  Damrosch,  brother  of  Walter,  is  active  in  school  music. 

Louis  Adolph  Coeme,  bom  at  Newark,  New  Jersey,  in  1870, 
lived  and  studied  abroad,  though  finishing  under  Paine.  He  has 
been  active  as  organist  and  director.  At  Harvard  he  produced  a 
violin  and  'cello  concerto,  an  orchestral  fantasia,  and  several  an- 
thems. Other  early  works  by  him  are  a  string  suite,  an  organ  con- 
certo with  strings,  horns,  and  harps,  the  interesting  ballet  "Evadne," 
and  the  symphonic  poem  "Hiawatha."  Later  orchestral  works  are 
a  Requiem,  the  tone-poem  "Liebesfriihling,"  the  tone-picture 
"George  Washington,"  and  several  large  cantatas.  In  opera,  his 
"Woman  of  Marblehead"  was  well  received  in  America,  while 
his  later  "Zenobia"  was  favorably  mentioned  in  Germany.  His 
style  is  richly  expressive,  as  may  be  seen  from  his  song  "The  Sea." 
In  this  a  broad  melody  is  supported  by  changing  harmonies  that 
glow  with  kaleidoscopic  beauty. 

Charles  Wakefield  Cadman,  bom  at  Johnstown,  Pennsylvania, 
in  1881,  has  devoted  himself  to  Indian  melodies.  His  forthcoming 
opera,  "Daoma,"  is  to  be  based  on  about  forty  native  themes, 
chiefly  Omaha,  but  partly  Iroquois  and  Pawnee.  Most  interest- 
ing among  his  shorter  works  are  the  "  Four  American  Indian  Songs." 
The  melodies,  played  in  unison  as  an  introduction  in  some  instances, 
are  kept  intact  in  the  songs;  but  the  glowing  beauty  of  the  harmo- 
nies is  of  course  the  work  of  the  composer.  Of  his  other  composi- 
tions, "Three  Songs  to  Odysseus"  is  a  vocal  set  deserving  special 
praise.  Still  other  cycles  are  the  Japanese  "Sayonara"  and  a 
recent  group  of  South  Sea  Island  songs. 

Arthur  Finley  Nevin,  bom  in  1871,  has  composed  several  suites, 
and  the  Indian  opera  "Poia,"  performed  abroad. 

His  older  brother,  Ethelbert  Nevin  (1862-1901),  is  known  be- 
cause of  the  beauty  of  his  short  works.  His  song  "The  Rosary" 
and  his  piano  piece  "Narcissus"  are  national  favorites,  and  show 
that  it  is  often  better  to  excel  in  small  forms  than  to  obtain  only 
mediocre  results  in  the  large  ones. 

George  Balch  Nevin,  born  in  1859,  is  related  to  the  preceding  two 
men.  He  has  become  known  through  his  cantatas  and  sacred  songs. 
His  son,  Gordon  Balch  Nevin,  has  produced  good  organ  works. 

Paul  Allen  has  composed  several  operas  for  Italy,  which  seems 
only  a  fair  return  for  the  many  Italian  operas  brought  here. 


298  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Harvey  Worthington  Loomis,  bom  at  Brooklj^n  in  1865,  has 
hundreds  of  works  in  manuscript,  besides  having  published  many 
compositions.  An  early  piano  concerto  was  the  result  of  study  with 
Dvorak.  He  has  composed  several  cantatas,  such  as  "The  Fairy 
Hill,"  for  children.  He  has  been  active  in  the  field  of  melodrama, 
writing  backgrounds  (which  he  sometimes  calls  "Musical  Symbol- 
ism") for  "Sandalphon"  and  other  poems.  His  many  pantomimes 
include  such  diverse  subjects  as  "The  Enchanted  Fountain,"  "Her 
Revenge,"  and  "In  Old  New  Amsterdam."  "The  Maid  of  Athens" 
and  "The  Burglar's  Bride"  are  burlesque  operas.  His  "Tragedy 
of  Death,"  partly  vocal  and  partly  melodramatic,  is  a  striking  work. 
It  shows  a  mother's  efforts  to  save  her  child  before  Death  can  take 
it  from  the  Garden  of  Souls  to  Heaven;  while  Undines  and  Fates 
participate  with  effective  choruses.  In  piano  works  and  songs, 
Loomis  shows  a  remarkable  originality.  His  hunt  for  novelty  is 
sometimes  too  restless,  but  his  work  is  always  interesting. 

J.  Remington  Fau-lamb  (1837-1908)  left  his  opera  "Leonella" 
in  manuscript.  He  studied  at  Paris;  was  consul  at  Zurich  under 
Lincoln;  and  received  a  medal  from  the  King  of  Wurttemberg  for  a 
Te  Deum  with  double  chorus  and  orchestra.  He  wrote  sacred  music, 
and  parts  of  later  operas. 

Other  composers  who  have  operas  in  manuscript  are  Arthur  Bird, 
Harry  Rowe  Shelley,  Alexander  Hull,  Johann  H.  Beck,  E.  F. 
Schneider,  W.  H.  Neidlinger,  Jules  Jordan,  Gaston  Borch,  and 
W.  Franke-Harling.  The  last  four  have  written  songs.  Hull  has 
composed  a  manuscript  symphony,  and  has  published  "Java"  for 
full  orchestra  and  piano.  He  has  under  way  the  operas  "Paolo 
and  Francesca"  and  "Merlin  and  Vivien."  His  songs  and  piano 
works  show  very  interesting  effects  of  modernism,  his  harmonies 
being  novel  and  attractive.  Bird  has  composed  the  comic  opera 
"Daphne,"  the  ballet  "Rubezahl,"  a  sjrmphony,  and  three  suites. 
Homer  Moore,  of  St.  Louis,  has  planned  an  American  operatic  tril- 
ogy, —  "The  New  World,"  "The  Pilgrims,"  and  "The  Puritans." 

Charles  Martin  Loeffler,  bom  at  Mulhausen  in  1861,  is  now  an 
American  citizen.  His  works  are  radically  modem,  being  full  of  the 
quickly-changing  harmonic  effects  that  have  been  called  "musical 
stippling,"  and  that  make  the  works  of  Debussy  so  chaotic  to  con- 
servative ears.  Loeffler's  works  include  a  suite  and  a  divertimento 


AMERICA  299 

for  violin  and  orchestra,  a  'cello  concerto,  and  the  orchestral  tone- 
poems,  "The  Death  of  Tintagiles,"  "La  Villanelle  du  Diable," 
"La  Bonne  Chanson,"  and  "A  Pagan  Poem."  "The  Death  of 
Tintagiles"  is  admirably  expressive,  and  "La  Bonne  Chanson"  a 
work  of  infinite  sweetness. 

Another  composer  of  foreign  birth  is  Gustav  Strube,  bom  at 
Ballenstedt  in  1867.  He  became  known  as  violinist  and  conductor 
in  Boston.  His  works  include  overtures  ("The  Maid  of  Orleans" 
and  "Puck"),  symphonies  (the  second  being  a  strong  work),  a  set 
of  orchestral  variations,  two  violin  concertos,  a  'cello  concerto, 
chamber  music,  and  the  symphonic  poems,  "Longing,"  "Fan- 
tastic Dance,"  "Echo  et  Narcisse"  and  "Die  Lorelei."  He  uses 
the  intricate  harmonic  style  of  the  modernists;  but  his  work  is 
direct  and  virile,  where  that  of  Debussy  is  often  shadowy  and 
vague. 

Another  foreigner  active  in  Boston  is  Andre  Maquarre,  a  Belgian 
by  birth.  He  is  first  flutist  in  the  Symphony  Orchestra.  He  has  com- 
posed operas,  but  is  known  in  America  by  orchestral  works,  such  as 
"Sur  les  Falaises." 

Otto  Urack,  'cellist  in  the  Boston  orchestra  until  recalled  by  the 
European  war  in  1914,  composed  a  melodious  symphony. 

Bruno  Oscar  Klein  (1858-1911)  was  a  German  who  composed  the 
opera  "Kenil worth"  and  smaller  works. 

Pietro  Tirindelli  is  another  foreign-bom  operatic  composer. 

Louis  Maas  (1852-1889),  bom  at  Wiesbaden,  was  inspired  by 
America  to  write  concertos,  overtures,  suites,  and  the  s3nnphony 
"On  the  Prairies." 

Rudolf  Friml,  bom  in  Prague  but  living  in  New  York,  has 
composed  several  ballets,  a  number  of  operas  (including  "The 
Firefly"),  various  songs,  and  instnmiental  pieces  of  novel  and 
pleasing  character. 

Other  foreigners  who  have  composed  orchestral  music  in  America 
are  W.  C.  Seeboeck,  Fritz  Stahlberg,  the  Chicago  conductor  Fred- 
erick Stock,  Arthur  Hartmann  (who  came  to  America  when  two 
months  old),  Anton  Hegner,  the  Dane  Carl  Busch,  the  Dutchman 
John  A.  Broekhoven,  and  the  Englishman  Horace  Wadham  Nicholl. 
Other  men  deserving  mention  for  various  compositions  are  Carl 
Baermann,  Richard  Pohlig,  Will  C.  Macfarlane,  Arthur  Claassen, 


800  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Henry  Eichheim,  Nicholas  J.  Elsenheimer,  Louis  Victor  Saar,  Fred- 
erick Brandeis,  Robert  Goldbeck,  Richard  Hoffman,  Karl  Miiller, 
Sebastian  Bach  Mills,  P.  A.  Schnecker,  Otto  Floersheim,  Julius 
Eichberg,  and  Emilio  Agramonte. 

Otis  Bardwell  Boise,  of  Ohio,  who  lived  abroad  and  in  Baltimore, 
produced  a  symphony,  two  overtures,  and  a  piano  concerto. 

Another  American  choosing  to  live  abroad  is  George  Templeton 
Strong,  bom  at  New  York  in  1855.  Of  his  symphonies,  the  "Sin- 
tram,"  No.  2,  has  been  highly  praised.  He  has  written  also  canta- 
tas, such  as  "  The  Haimted  Mill,"  and  symphonic  poems. 

Howard  A.  Brockway,  bom  at  Brooklyn  in  1870,  keeps  his  sym- 
phonies in  manuscript.  He  is  known  by  his  excellent ' '  Sylvan  Suite ' ' 
for  orchestra,  an  orchestral  Ballade,  and  many  violin  works,  includ- 
ing some  that  are  practically  concertos. 

Edgar  Stillman  Kelley,  bora  in  Wisconsin  in  1857,  studied  in  Chi- 
cago and  in  Germany.  His  setting  of  "Puritania"  is  remarkably 
pleasing,  and  better  than  the  usual  light  opera  work.  His  "Mac- 
beth" music,  made  over  into  a  suite,  is  more  eamest  and  dramatic; 
while  the  incidental  music  to  "Ben  Hur"  adds  much  to  that  striking 
play.  In  songs,  such  as  "  Eldorado  "  and  "  Israfel,"  Kelley  has  shown 
marked  melodic  gifts;  while  his  "Lady  picking  Mulberries"  is  a  suc- 
cessful adoption  of  the  Chinese  style.  During  a  recent  stay  abroad 
he  earned  very  favorable  notices  with  his  piano  quintet.  Op.  20,  and 
string  quartet.  Op.  25.  A  later  work  is  his  "New  England"  Sym- 
phony, the  movements  of  which  illustrate  appropriate  quotations 
from  the  "Log  of  the  Mayflower."  "Christmas  Eve  with  Alice"  is 
a  set  of  dainty  orchestral  pictures. 

Dudley  Buck  (1839-1900)  belonged  to  an  earlier  generation,  and 
composed  before  modernism  had  gained  its  hold.  His  works  include 
the  opera  "Deseret,"  orchestral  pieces,  cantatas  such  as  "The  Voy- 
age of  Columbus"  and  "The  Light  of  Asia,"  and  a  set  of  five  sacred 
cantatas  known  as  "The  Christian  Year."  His  style,  naturally,  was 
conservative. 

William  W.  Gilchrist,  bom  in  1846,  is  another  of  the  pioneers.  His 
psalms,  cantatas,  and  "Song  of  Thanksgiving"  have  orchestral  ac- 
companiment. 

Ernest  R.  Kroeger,  bom  at  St.  Louis  in  1862,  has  produced  a 
sjrmphony,  the  sjnnphonic  poem  "Sardanapalus,"  a  "Hiawatha" 


AMERICA  801 

overture  on  Indian  themes,  a  "Thanatopsis"  overture,  chamber 
music,  piano  pieces,  and  songs.  His  recent "  Masque  of  Dead  Floren- 
tines" is  a  large  work  portraying  famous  characters  of  the  past. 

Frank  Van  der  Stucken,  bom  in  Texas  in  1858,  is  of  Belgian  ex- 
traction. His  symphonic  prologue  "William  Ratcliffe"  and  his 
"Pax  Triumphans"  are  written  for  the  fullest  modem  orchestra. 

Adolph  Martin  Foerster,  bom  at  Pittsburg  in  1849,  has  composed 
the  orchestral  picture  "  Thusnelda,  "  a  Dedication  March,  two  string 
quartets,  some  good  violin  music,  and  many  smaller  works. 

Rossetter  Gleason  Cole,  bora  at  Clyde,  Michigan,  in  1866,  has 
composed  an  orchestral  Ballade  with  'cello,  and  many  lesser  works; 
but  he  is  best  known  by  his  melodrama  "King  Robert  of  Sicily.'* 

Charles  Crozat  Converse,  born  at  Warren,  Massachusetts,  in  1832, 
produced  an  American  overture  and  many  sacred  works. 

Harry  Rowe  Shelley,  bora  at  New  Haven  in  1858,  is  widely  known 
by  such  songs  as  "The  Minstrel  Boy"  and  "Love's  Sorrow."  He  has 
written  a  manuscript  opera,  "Leila,"  the  symphonic  poem  "The 
Crusaders,"  a  strong  cantata  "  The  Inheritance  Divine,"  a  "Baden- 
Baden"  suite,  and  two  spirited  symphonies. 

Carl  V.  Lachmund,  bora  at  Boonville,  Missouri,  in  1857,  is  best 
known  by  his  Japanese  Overture. 

Henry  Schoenefeld,  born  at  Milwaukee  in  1857,  won  a  success 
with  his  "  Characteristic  Suite."  His  overture  "  In  the  Sunny  South  " 
uses  plantation  themes.  Another,  "  The  American  Flag,"  illustrates 
a  poem  by  Drake.  His  other  works  include  a  violin  concerto,  a  piano 
concerto,  and  his  famous  "  Rural  Symphony." 

James  Cutler  Dunn  Parker,  bom  at  Boston  in  1828,  composed  an 
oratorio,  "  The  Life  of  Man,"  and  other  sacred  works. 

George  E.  Whiting,  bom  at  HoUiston,  Massachusetts,  in  1842,  is 
a  gifted  organist  and  organ  writer;  but  he  has  composed  also  a  sj-m- 
phony,  an  overture,  a  piano  concerto,  and  a  one-act  opera.  His  can- 
tatas, including  "  The  Tale  of  the  Viking,"  "  Henry  of  Navarre,"  and 
"The  March  of  the  Monks  of  Bangor,"  are  works  of  tremendous 
virility.  He  has  also  a  gift  for  charming  melody. 

Arthur  B.  Whiting,  his  nephew,  bom  at  Cambridge,  Massachu- 
setts, in  1861,  has  composed  a  concerto  and  a  fantasia  for  piano  and 
orchestra,  both  of  which  are  bold  and  striking.  His  concert  over- 
ture and  chamber  music  are  also  praiseworthy.  But  he  is  best  known 


LIBRARY 

•TATE  TFACHCIP';   COLLE«B 
SANTA    SHi.'fciAHA.   CA   ..s^ORNfA 


802  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

by  his  songs,  such  as  the  cycle  "Floriana"  and  the  "Barrack-Room 
Ballads." 

Rubin  Goldmark,  nephew  of  the  European  Goldmark,  was  bom 
at  New  York  in  1872.  For  orchestra  he  has  written  a  theme  and 
variations,  a  "Hiawatha"  overture,  and  the  symphonic  poem 
"Samson  and  Dalila."  His  string  quartet  won  a  prize;  while  an 
earlier  piano  trio  caused  Dvorak  to  say,  "There  are  now  two  Gold- 
marks." 

Henry  Holden  Huss,  bom  at  Newark  in  1862,  seems  to  favor  H 
as  an  initial;  for  he  married  Hildegard  Hoffmann.  He  has  produced 
a  piano  concerto,  a  violin  concerto,  songs  with  orchestra,  chamber 
music,  and  lesser  pieces. 

Edwin  Grasse,  the  blind  violinist,  was  bom  at  New  York  in  1884. 
He  has  composed  a  symphony,  a  suite,  and  many  violin  works. 

Another  violinist-composer  is  Eugene  Gruenberg,  known  in  Bos- 
ton as  a  teacher.  He,  too,  has  composed  a  symphony. 

Arthur  Farwell,  born  at  St.  Paul  in  1872,  is  devoted  to  Indian  mel- 
odies. They  even  figure  in  his  "  Cornell "  overture,  side  by  side  with 
college  songs.  They  are  more  in  place  in  his  other  orchestral  pic- 
tures, such  as  "The  Domain  of  Hurahan,"  "Dawn,"  and  the  "Na- 
vajo War  Dance."  His  songs  vary  in  style;  but  his  piano  pieces  are 
almost  always  based  on  Indian  themes. 

Among  other  American  orchestral  composers  (taken  in  alphabeti- 
cal order,  to  avoid  disputes  over  precedence),  John  Carver  Alden  has 
written  a  piano  concerto.  Maurice  Arnold  is  responsible  for  over- 
tures and  "Plantation  Dances."  Percy  Lee  Atherton  has  composed 
a  tone-poem  entitled  "Noon  in  the  Forest,"  and  several  symphonic 
movements.  Homer  W.  Bartlett  has  produced  a  violin  Concertstuck 
and  shorter  pieces.  Johann  H.  Beck,  of  Cleveland,  numbers  among 
his  works  the  manuscript  music-drama  "Salammbo"  and  several 
overtures.  John  Spencer  Camp,  of  Hartford,  is  responsible  for  can- 
tatas as  well  as  orchestral  works.  Philip  Greeley  Clapp  has  written 
the  tone-poem  "Norge"  and  asjonphony,  very  leamed,  but  too  dis- 
sonant. Hugh  A.  Clarke  presides  over  the  music  department  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  H.  Clough-Leighter  has  composed  an 
orchestral  cantata,  and  many  fluent  songs.  Arthur  M.  Curry  has 
produced  the  symphony  "Atala,"  based  on  Chateaubriand's  trag- 
edy.   Henry  M.  Dunham  has  composed  for  organ  and  orchestra. 


AMERICA  803 

Henry  F.  Gilbert  has  written  a  Comedy  Overture  and  other  works 
based  on  negro  themes.  A.  J.  Goodrich  is  known  as  a  theorist. 
WilHam  E.  Haesche,  of  New  Haven,  has  composed  a  symphony, 
a  "Wald-Idyll,"  and  the  symphonic  poem  "Frithjof."  Edward  B. 
Hill  has  set  pantomimes.  Ernest  Hutcheson,  the  pianist,  is  credited 
with  a  piano  concerto  and  the  tone-poem  "Merlin  and  Vivien." 
Harry  Patterson  Hopkins  is  a  symphonist.  Nathaniel  Irving  Hyatt 
is  the  composer  of  an  "  Enoch  Arden  "  overture.  Carl  V.  Lachmund's 
Japanese  Overture  was  praised  by  Theodore  Thomas.  Daniel  Greg- 
ory Mason  wrote  orchestral  music  of  much  interest  for  the  impres- 
sive Cape  Cod  Pageant.  Homer  Norris  has  composed  cantatas  and 
an  overture.  Ame  Oldberg,  in  charge  of  music  at  the  Northwestern 
University,  numbers  among  his  works  symphonies,  concertos,  and 
dignified  chamber  music.  Nathaniel  Clifford  Page  is  known  for  his 
incidental  music.  E.  A.  Parsons  has  composed  a  piano  concerto. 
Henry  Bickford  Pasmore  is  responsible  for  a  march,  an  overture,  a 
mass,  and  some  beautiful  songs.  John  Nelson  Pattison  wrote  the 
"Niagara"  symphony,  for  orchestra  and  miUtary  band.  Smith 
Newell  Penfield  is  an  overture  composer.  Ellsworth  C.  Phelps  has 
produced  a  "Hiawatha"  symphony  and  the  sacred  opera  "David." 
John  Powell,  of  Richmond,  is  known  by  a  violin  concerto.  Silas  G. 
Pratt  has  worked  industriously  in  the  largest  forms,  composing  pro- 
gramme symphonies  and  suites,  and  having  his  operas  "Zenobia" 
and  "Lucille"  given  with  success  in  Chicago.  Cornelius  Ruebner, 
music  professor  at  Colmnbia  College,  has  entered  tjie  symphonic 
field.  Ernest  Schelling,  the  pianist,  made  clever  use  of  "Dixie"  and 
"The  Suwanee  River"  in  his  fantasie  for  piano  and  orchestra.  Ed- 
ward Faber  Schneider,  of  Omaha,  has  written  an  Autumn  Symphony. 
Arthur  Shepherd  has  composed  the  prize-winning  Overture  Joyeuse, 
"The  Nuptials  of  Attila,"  and  the  large  cantata  entitled  "The  City 
in  the  Sea,"  all  of  which  show  an  interesting  handling  of  modem  har- 
monic complexity.  David  Stanley  Smith  includes  among  his  many 
orchestral  works  a  symphony  and  the  symphonic  sketch  "Prince 
Hal."  Albert  Augustus  Stanley  has  composed  a  symphony  entitled 
"The  Soul's  Awakening,"  and  the  sjmiphonic  poem  "Attis."  Hum- 
phrey J.  Stewart  has  produced  the  suite  "California  Scenes." 
Frank  Taft  has  won  success  with  a  "Marche  Symphonique."  Rich- 
ard Henry  Warren  is  an  organist  as  well  as  an  orchestral  composer. 


304  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Mortimer  Wilson  is  well  known  in  Atlanta.  In  addition  to  these, 
many  others  are  entering  the  field  as  graduates  from  our  foremost 
musical  conservatories. 

Among  the  women,  Mrs.  H.  H.  A.  Beach  is  the  leader  of  the  na- 
tives. Her  Gaelic  Sjnnphony  is  built  on  broad  lines,  while  her  mass 
with  orchestra  is  another  large  work.  She  has  published  "The  Rose 
of  Avontown"  and  other  cantatas,  and  is  well  known  through  her 
piano  works  and  expressive  songs. 

Mme.  Helen  Hopekirk's  piano  concerto  and  Concertstuck  are  of 
imusual  value,  and  show  rare  musicianship.  Her  violin  sonata  is 
another  worthy  work.  Her  "lona  Memories,"  for  piano,  and  many 
of  her  songs  also,  bear  witness  to  her  Scottish  birth. 

Mrs.  Clara  Kathleen  Rogers  (Clara  Doria)  is  another  orchestral 
composer  of  foreign  birth. 

Margaret  Ruthven  Lang  has  heard  two  of  her  three  overtures  per- 
formed. Her  published  works  consist  chiefly  of  piano  pieces  and 
songs,  the  latter  including  "My  Lady  Jacqueminot,"  "Eros," 
"Ghosts,"  "Prelude,"  "Tryste  Noel,"  "Northward,"  and  similar 
\ync  gems. 

Among  other  American  women,  Helen  Hood  has  composed  worthy 
chamber  music.  Edith  Noyes  Porter  has  worked  in  the  same  field, 
with  occasional  orchestral  excursions.  Mabel  Daniels  has  com- 
posed a  Ballade  for  baritone  and  orchestra,  and  won  prizes  with  her 
solo  songs.  Laura  Sedgwick  Collins  is  another  who  has  essayed  the 
classical  forms.  Marguerite  Melville  is  still  another  composer  of 
chamber  music.  Fannie  Dillon  is  said  to  have  large  works  in  manu- 
script. Julia  Rive-King  and  Fannie  Bloomfield  Zeisler  have  written 
piano  works.  Mrs.  Mary  Can*  Moore,  composer  of  songs,  has  in 
manuscript  the  opera  "Narcissa,"  dealing  with  the  adventures  of 
Narcissa  Prentiss,  who  married  Marcus  Whitman,  went  with  him  to 
the  Pacific  Coast  on  missionary  work,  and  was  massacred  there  by 
Indians.  Mary  Turner  Salter  has  written  many  remarkably  interest- 
ing songs,  of  much  musical  value,  a  recent  success  being  the  tragic 
"Cry  of  Rachel."  Gena  Branscombe's  songs,  such  as  the  cycle  "A 
Lute  of  Jade,"  show  unusual  poetic  beauty.  Patty  Stair,  the  pianist, 
has  excelled  in  both  humorous  and  serious  songs.  The  lyrics  of  Har- 
riet Ware  and  Lola  Carrier  Worrell  have  been  frequently  heard  at 
American  recitals.   Mary  Knight  Wood's  songs  are  freshly  sponta- 


AMERICA  305 

neous,  her  "Ashes  of  Roses"  being  a  popular  favorite.  Mrs.  C.  W. 
Krogmann  and  Mrs.  L.  E.  Orth  have  composed  songs  and  piano 
pieces  of  much  teaching  value;  while  Mrs.  Jessie  L.  Gaynor  excels 
in  songs  for  children.  Other  women  deserving  mention  are  Mrs. 
Clara  A.  Kom,  Harriet  P.  Sawyer,  Fanny  Knowlton,  Eleanor  Freer, 
Natalie  Curtis  (who  made  the  best  collection  of  Indian  times), 
Gertrude  Sans-Souci,  Fay  Foster,  and  Fanny  M.  Spencer,  composer 
of  hymns. 

The  late  Benjamin  Cutter  produced,  among  other  works,  an  ad- 
mirable mass.  James  H.  Rogers,  Frederick  R.  Burton,  Nathan  H. 
Allen,  Charles  Fonteyn  Manney,  James  C.  Macy,  Gerrit  Smith,  and 
C.  Whitney  Coombs  have  become  noted  in  the  cantata  field,  besides 
composing  shorter  pieces.  Willard  J.  Baltzell  has  produced  some 
chamber  music.  Louis  Campbell-Tipton  writes  advanced  violin 
works  in  the  Debussy  vein.  John  Alden  Carpenter  has  composed  a 
good  violin  sonata,  in  addition  to  serious  and  humorous  songs. 
Others  who  have  written  for  the  violin  are  Theodore  Spiering,  Ernest 
O.  Hiler,  and  Benjamin  P.  Whelpley.  Organ  composers  include 
John  Hyatt  Brewer,  George  A.  Burdett,  W.  H.  Dayas,  Henry  M. 
Dunham,  Percy  Goetschius,  Charles  A.  Havens,  the  late  Frank 
Lynes,  John  P.  Marshall,  Sumner  Salter,  Everett  E.  Truette,  ^amuel 
P.  Warren,  Mortimer  Wiske,  and  R.  Huntington  Woodman,  many 
of  whom  have  worked  in  other  fields  also.  A.  Lilienthal  has  re- 
ceived much  praise  for  his  chamber  music.  A.  W.  Kramer  excels 
in  the  short  forms.  Charles  F.  Dennee  has  worked  in  the  field  of 
musical  comedy.  Philo  Adams  Otis  is  known  through  his  excel- 
lent church  music. 

Wilson  G.  Smith  deserves  special  mention  for  his  "Hommages" 
to  various  masters,  and  other  piano  works.  Noble  Kreider  is  a  rising 
piano  composer  of  great  power.  Herman  P.  Chelius  has  published 
a  grand  Prelude  and  Fugue,  and  is  finishing  a  set  of  piano  tone-pic- 
tures. Frederick  Ayres  is  another  fugal  writer.  The  piano  com- 
posers include  also  the  late  Albert  Pease,  Francis  Hendriks,  Frank 
LaForge,  Albert  Ross  Parsons,  the  Canadian  Calixa  Lavallee,  Alvah 
Glover  Salmon,  J.  Frank  Brackett,  and  the  radical  John  Beach. 

Clayton  Johns  is  best  known  for  his  very  attractive  songs,  such  as 
"  I  cannot  help  loving  thee."  Sidney  Homer  has  produced  the  m- 
tense  "Prospice"  and  many  later  works  of  remarkable  strength. 


906  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Other  American  song  composers,  in  alphabetical  order,  are  James  C. 
Bartlett,  the  late  Fred  Field  Bullard  of  "Stein  Song"  fame,  Charles 
H.  Dana,  William  H.  Dana,  L.  R.  Dressier,  William  Arms  Fisher, 
Hallett  Gilberts,  Victor  Harris,  Frank  S.  Hastings,  Rupert  Hughes, 
Herbert  Johnson,  William  Spencer  Johnson,  John  A.  Loud,  H.  C. 
MacDougall,  A.  A.  Mack,  Malcolm  D.  McMillan,  George  L.  Osgood, 
H.  R.  Palmer,  Winthrop  L.  Rogers,  Walter  Morse  Rummel,  Arthur 
Ryder,  Lily  Strickland,  Arthur  W.  Thayer,  Everett  H.  Titcomb, 
Stephen  Townsend,  R.  S.  Willis,  and  G.  D.  Wilson.  Other  names 
deserving  mention  in  an  American  list,  for  various  reasons,  are  F. 
Addison  Porter,  Brainard,  Dial,  Alexander  Russell,  Carl  Engel, 
Benjamin  Lambord,  Henry  Waller,  William  Schuyler,  Chester  Ide, 
Caroline  Walker,  and  William  McCoy,  many  of  whom  have  had 
works  published  by  the  patriotic  Wa-Wan  Press. 

While  the  first  edition  of  the  present  book  was  in  press,  John 
Alden  Carpenter  entered  the  orchestral  field  with  a  large  work 
entitled  "Adventures  in  a  Perambulator."  It  pictures  the  impres- 
sions of  an  infant,  and  is  divided  into  six  movements  for  full  modem 
orchestra.  "En  Voiture"  forms  a  rather  dignified  introduction, 
with  rhythmic  suggestions  of  the  moving  perambulator.  "The 
Policeman"  is  shown  chatting  with  the  nurse  and  stalking  about 
with  heavy  steps.  "The  Hurdy-Gurdy"  is  suggested  most  humor- 
ously by  two  xylophones  against  the  orchestra,  and  they  revel  in 
popular  tunes  until  reprimanded  by  the  ponderous  policeman.  "  The 
Lake"  is  a  most  charming  pictxire  of  rippling  wavelets,  and  forms  an 
admirable  contrast  to  the  preceding  bits  of  humor.  "Dogs"  are 
heard  barking  on  various  instruments;  and  "Dreams"  bring  a 
quieter  conclusion.  The  score  shows  a  wonderful  mastery  of  or- 
chestral technique,  and  full  measure  of  inspiration.  This  one  work 
has  placed  Carpenter  in  the  front  rank  of  American  composers. 


PART  m 
MUSICAL  FORM 


XXXI 

MELODY  AND  APPRECIATION 

The  average  non-musical  auditor  is  generally  ready  enough  to  en- 
Joy  a  tune;  but  when  classical  music  is  given,  he  does  not  enter  into 
the  spirit  of  the  occasion.  A  taste  for  good  music  comes  largely  from 
listening  to  it;  so  that  even  the  non-musician  should  be  patient  with 
the  classics,  and  not  condemn  them  all  at  once.  Time  will  teach  him 
that  Mark  Twain's  remark  about  Wagner  is  of  general  scope,  and 
that  classical  music,  as  well  as  Wagner's,  is  not  as  bad  as  it  sounds. 

The  elements  entering  into  musical  appreciation  are  first  of  all  a 
perception  of  pitch.  This  would  seem  to  be  something  common  to 
every  one;  yet  it  is  not  necessarily  so.  Even  among  great  intellects 
there  is  sometimes  a  lack  of  the  simplest  musical  comprehension;  and 
such  men  as  Tennyson  and  Charles  Lamb  were  tone-deaf. 

Granting  an  appreciation  of  tone,  the  three  chief  elements  found 
in  music  are  rhythm,  melody,  and  harmony. 

The  first  of  these,  rhythm,  is  present  in  a  marked  degree  in  the 
so-called  popular  music.  The  prevalence  of  rag-time,  with  its  vary- 
ing accent  and  emphasis,  testifies  to  a  widespread  appreciation 
of  rhjrthm. 

One  of  the  chief  defects  of  popular  music,  in  comparison  with  clas- 
sical, is  its  extreme  simplicity.  It  appeals  to  the  cultivated  musician 
much  as  a  problem  in  arithmetic  would  appeal  to  the  student  of 
quaternions.  The  rhythm  of  almost  all  popular  music  is  absiu-dly 
simple.  It  does  not  follow  that  good  music  must  necessarily  have  a 
complex  rhythm;  but  the  simplicity  of  the  popular  song,  even  allow- 
ing for  the  rag-time  variations,  is  the  simplicity  of  weakness  and 
ignorance,  not  that  of  true  art.  If  a  composer  uses  straightforward 
effects,  he  does  so  because  they  suit  his  theme;  as,  for  example,  in 
Dvorak's  "Humoreske."  But  the  popular  composer  (?)  plods  ahead 
in  total  ignorance  of  anything  better,  and  produces  works  like  the 
college-song  atrocity  known  as  "Mrs.  Cragin's  Daughter." 

One  of  the  chief  points  that  the  student  must  note,  and  try  to 


810 


THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 


appreciate,  is  the  variety  of  rhythmic  effect  to  be  found  m  good 
music.  He  will  very  seldom  come  across  the  plain  unvarnished  see- 
saw that  pervades  popular  music. 

Daniel  Gregory  Mason  illustrates  this  point  by  citing  poetry.  He 
rightly  states  that  without  metre  music  would  be  formless;  but  on 
the  other  hand  he  is  just  as  correct  in  protesting  against  the  monoto- 
nous dum,  dum,  dum  that  arises  from  having  the  rhythm  too  lacking 
in  change.  Variety  of  effect  is  desired;  and  at  the  same  time  this  va- 
riety should  not  prevent  a  larger  sense  of  imity  from  characterizing 
an  entire  work.  In  poetry,  Keats  is  cited  as  an  example  of  the  avoid- 
ance of  monotony;  and  the  point  is  well  brought  out  by  the  following 
lines:  — 

"A  thing  of  beauty  is  a  joy  for  ever. 

Its  loveliness  increases;  it  will  never 

Pass  into  nothingness;  but  still  will  keep 

A  bower  quiet  for  us,  and  a  sleep 

Full  of  sweet  dreams,  and  health,  and  quiet  breathing." 

The  delicate  rhythm  of  these  lines,  and  their  skilful  avoidance  of 
anything  monotonous  in  accent,  is  plainly  evident.  Mason  illus- 
trates the  same  point  in  music  by  citing  the  original  and  the  final 
state  of  the  opening  melody  in  the  slow  movement  of  Beethoven's 
fifth  symphony.  An  examination  will  show  that  the  finished  work 
has  much  more  variety. 


A  glance  at  the  first  line  of  this  music,  which  is  the  original  idea 
that  Beethoven  wrote  down,  will  show  that  it  is  fairly  regular.  Two 
notes  on  the  third  beat  of  the  measure  begin  both  halves  of  the  mel- 
ody, and  a  note  on  the  first  beat,  followed  by  one  on  the  second,  end 


MELODY  AND  APPRECIATION  311 

them  in  each  case.  More  than  this,  the  second  half  is  practically  the 
same  as  the  first  half,  except  for  the  fact  that  it  is  given  a  tone  higher. 

Looking  at  the  theme  in  its  final  shape,  we  may  notice  much 
greater  variety  of  rhythm.  There  is  slightly  less  resemblance  be- 
tween the  two  whole  measm^s  in  each  half- theme;  then  the  second 
half  is  made  to  begin  with  three  notes  instead  of  two;  while  the  end- 
ing of  the  second  half,  still  on  the  first  two  beats  of  the  measm'e,  is 
made  to  consist  of  three  notes  that  seem  to  shift  the  accent  along  to 
the  second  beat.  All  these  changes  in  a  theme  of  only  f om*  bars  show 
that  Beethoven  was  a  careful  worker;  but  they  also  indicate  that  the 
best  music  has  variety  of  rhythm  as  well  as  a  large  unity  pervading 
the  whole.  The  little  changes  add  to  the  variety,  while  leaving 
enough  regularity  to  make  the  theme  still  very  swingy. 

The  music  of  the  great  composers  is  rhythmic  enough,  and  many 
examples  of  their  work  might  be  cited  to  prove  this.  One  could  tap 
his  feet  to  the  accents  of  Beethoven's  Seventh  Symphony,  or  nearly 
all  of  Wagner's  Prelude  to  "  The  Mastersingers,"  or  the  final  chorus 
of  Bach's  "St.  Matthew  Passion."  Even  the  second  movement  of 
Tschaikovsky's  "Pathetic  Symphony,"  which  has  the  unusual  num- 
ber of  five  beats  to  each  measure,  is  made  rhythmically  attractive  by 
the  skill  of  its  composer;  while  the  march  in  the  third  movement  is 
compelling  in  its  swinginess.  There  is  no  lack  of  rhythm  in  the  clas- 
sics, when  once  the  listener  has  shaken  himself  free  from  the  too 
simple  and  monotonous  effects  of  commonplace  music. 

Taking  up  the  question  of  melody,  the  student  will  find  its  appre- 
ciation governed  by  somewhat  similar  rules.  Much  of  the  popular 
article,  and  even  a  great  deal  of  fairly  good  music,  has  its  melody 
divided  off  m  phrases  that  suit  the  conventional  rhythm  of  equal 
parts.  While  this  division  is  often  useful,  it  should  not  be  the  only 
one,  any  more  than  a  succession  of  eight-syllabled  lines  in  iambic 
tetrameter  (known  as  "long  metre"  in  the  hymn-books)  should  be 
the  only  kind  of  poetry  to  receive  widespread  attention. 

In  place  of  melody,  good  music  sometimes  consists  rather  of  what 
might  be  called  melodiousness.  It  is  tuneful  and  melodic,  but  not 
limited  by  being  forced  to  suit  a  commonplace  rhythm.  Instead  of 
coming  in  cut-and-dried  lengths,  like  so  much  macaroni,  it  is  given 
to  us  in  suitable  and  pleasing  variety. 

As  an  example,  the  reader  may  look  again  at  the  final  form  of  the 


S12  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Beethoven  theme  printed  above.  It  is  not  exactly  a  tune,  but  it  is 
tuneful.  It  is  not  cast  in  any  cut-and-dried  shape;  for  after  the  four 
opening  bars  cited  above  we  find  added  rhythmic  variations  that 
allow  the  melody  to  take  a  free  and  attractive  shape. 

Many  passages  in  classical  music  show  a  marked  melodic  character, 
in  addition  to  a  clear  rhythm.  Such  passages  are  very  much  in  place. 
The  good  composer  does  not  strive  to  make  his  music  needlessly  ugly 
or  involved.  Melody  forms  a  valuable  part  of  his  assets.  What  he 
does  do  is  to  use  melodic  passages  in  balance  against  others,  or  in  con- 
trast with  them.  There  may  be  in  one  part  of  a  piece  a  tender  mel- 
ody, and  in  another  a  set  of  fiery  chords,  or  sombre  phrases,  or  rush- 
ing themes  of  imrest.  A  good  example  of  such  contrast  is  found  in 
the  "Funeral  March"  by  Chopin,  in  which  the  gloomy  and  pov/erful 
chords  of  the  march  are  put  in  contrast  with  the  smooth,  song-like 
section  that  forms  the  middle  part  of  the  work.  Composers,  then,  do 
not  often  follow  any  one  simple  style  of  melody,  but  aim  to  use  more 
than  one  style,  and  bring  out  in  their  works  the  beauty  that  comes 
from  variety,  and  the  strength  of  structure  that  depends  upon  artis- 
tic balance  and  contrast. 

The  listener  must,  therefore,  educate  himself  to  see  the  beauty  of 
different  kinds  of  music.  To  quote  a  few  examples  on  the  spur  of  the 
moment,  he  will  find  a  bright  and  dainty  opening  theme  in  the  finale 
of  Beethoven's  first  symphony;  an  infinitely  beautiful  serenity  in 
the  passage  beginning  the  second  symphony  of  Brahms;  a  half- 
pathetic  happiness  in  the  second  theme  of  the  first  movement  in 
Schubert's  "Unfinished"  Symphony;  a  wild,  almost  savage  gloom 
in  the  first  rapid  theme  of  Tschaikovsky's  fifth  symphony;  or  in- 
tense chords  that  seem  to  have  very  little  melody  at  the  start  of 
Brahms'  first  symphony. 

For  vai'iety,  one  may  inspect  such  a  song  as  Schubert's  "Wan- 
derer." It  begins  with  an  almost  forbidding  style,  when  the  wan- 
derer mentions  the  hard  conditions  of  "flood  and  field."  Then 
comes  a  tenderly  pathetic  passage  of  regret  at  his  many  trials  and 
few  bits  of  happiness.  This  is  followed  by  a  brightly  rhythmic  mel- 
ody as  the  traveller  remembers  with  joy  his  own  home-land;  but  it 
ends  in  sudden  suggestion  of  doubt  when  he  cries,  "0  land,  where 
art  thou?"  Then  once  more  is  heard  the  theme  of  regret.  After  this 
comes  a  ghostly  suggestion  of  an  answer  to  his  eternal  question  of 


MELODY  AND  APPRECIATION  813 

"Whither";  and  an  expressively  pathetic  final  phrase  with  the 
words  that  happiness  is  wherever  he  does  not  go. 

The  melodies  used  by  the  great  composers  are  sometimes  "  chopped 
off  in  definite  lengths";  but  they  are  usually  blended  into  a  work 
in  more  plastic  fashion.  The  themes  do  not  need  to  come  to  a  sharp 
end  on  the  keynote,  like  so  many  separate  bits  of  mosaic,  each  a 
single  entity  even  though  put  in  juxtaposition  to  make  a  design. 
The  melodies  that  a  composer  employs,  along  with  the  unmelodic 
passages  that  he  may  choose  for  contrast,  can  be  blended  into  one 
another  as  smoothly  as  the  colors  unite  to  form  the  many-hued 
spectrum  or  the  rainbow.  If  one  tries  to  follow  up  some  of  the 
themes  mentioned  in  the  last  paragraph,  but  one,  he  will  find  that 
they  melt  into  the  movements  where  they  occur  in  very  close-knit 
fashion  for  the  most  part.  The  Beethoven  theme  is  the  most  nearly 
separate  of  all,  though  too  short  to  stand  alone.  In  the  Brahms 
second  symphony,  the  melody  is  balanced  in  two  parts  of  two 
phrases  each,  but  instead  of  having  any  suggestion  of  ending,  it  is 
echoed  and  prolonged  until  some  mysterious  chords  replace  it.  The 
Schubert  theme  is  interrupted  angrily  in  its  first  appearance,  but 
allowed  to  finish  to  a  partial  cadence  (or  close)  later  on  in  the  work. 
Such  uniting  and  blending  of  melodies  into  a  larger  unity  pervading 
an  entire  movement  or  work  enables  composers  to  build  up  long 
pieces,  in  which  they  may  actually  shape  their  material  into  quite 
definite  designs,  —  either  the  known  forms  that  have  been  accepted 
by  common  consent,  or  the  freer  individual  designs  that  modem 
composers  have  agreed  to  permit.  Recent  writers  have  invented  a 
long  word  for  this  building  up  of  a  musical  structure.  They  call  it 
architectonics.  As  implied  above,  certain  methods  of  construction 
have  been  accepted  as  artistic,  and  used  by  the  great  composers. 
These  will  be  described  in  later  chapters,  along  with  the  principles 
governing  the  freer  and  more  recent  schools. 

The  composer  has  other  resources  than  the  mere  creating  or  re- 
peating of  melodies  and  themes.  The  process  known  as  develop- 
ment allows  him  to  use  the  material  of  a  melody  in  new  ways,  build- 
ing up  a  musical  structure  by  the  design-like  imitation  of  a  subject 
or  motive.  This  imitation  may  be  strict  or  free,  as  he  chooses;  but 
so  long  as  the  material  is  recognizable  as  being  derived  from  the 
original  theme,  he  may  feel  sure  that  his  work  will  appeal  to  the 


314  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

hearer's  intellectual  sense  of  fitness.  Such  development  may  take 
the  entire  theme  for  treatment,  or  a  single  phrase,  or  even  a  simple 
figure.  The  figure  is  the  shortest  recognizable  bit  of  music.  It  may 
consist  of  as  few  as  two  notes;  and  such  a  two-noted  figure  may  be 
found  on  the  second  and  third  beats  of  nearly  every  measure  in 
Schuett's  "R§verie,"  filling  out  the  melodic  pauses.  Beethoven's 
ninth  symphony  begins  with  a  two-noted  iambic  figure;  and  the 
scherzo  of  the  same  work  contains  a  three-noted  dactylic  figure. 
For  musical  treatment  or  development,  a  figure  should  usually  be 
longer  than  this,  though  it  is  quite  possible  for  a  composer  to  work 
up  two-note  effects. 

Still  another  method  of  treating  melodies  is  by  contrapuntal 
imitation,  which  has  been  previously  mentioned.  This  consists  of 
allowing  a  theme,  or  subject,  or  even  a  figure,  to  be  used  in  part- 
music,  appearing  first  in  one  voice  and  then  in  another,  and  mak- 
ing a  tonal  design  by  its  well-balanced  and  orderly  recurrences. 
Such  work  will  be  treated  in  the  chapter  on  "Contrapuntal 
Forms." 

Harmony  is  the  science  of  chords  and  chord-progressions.  Here, 
perhaps,  the  taste  of  the  non-musician  is  more  lacking  than  in  other 
ways,  and  less  amenable  to  training.  The  comparative  monotony  of 
harmony  in  popular  music  is  evident  when  one  considers  how  much 
of  it  consists  simply  of  the  "three  chords"  learned  on  the  banjo 
and  other  similar  instruments.  These  are  the  tonic,  on  the  first 
scale-degree;  the  dominant,  on  the  fifth;  and  the  subdominant,  on 
the  fourth.^  Here  again  the  good  composer  will  show  his  ability 
by  using  even  these  chords  in  a  more  tasteful  and  artistic  fashion 
than  is  found  in  the  work  of  the  hack  writer  who  grinds  out  popular 
trash.  Incidentally,  the  author  does  not  mean  to  imply  that  all 
popular  music  is  trash;  but  some  of  it  is,  and  the  public  is  seldom 
able  to  know  the  difference.  Examples  of  simple  chord-work  from 
the  classics  may  be  found  in  the  first  rapid  theme  of  Beethoven's 
seventh  symphony;  the  choruses  behind  the  scenes  in  the  first  act 
of  Gounod's  "Faust";  or  the  opening  theme  in  the  finale  of  the 
first  Brahms  symphony.  The  hearer,  then,  must  learn  to  discrimi- 
nate between  artistic  and  inartistic  harmony,  and  to  judge  whether 

*  For  information  about  chords,  scales,  etc.,  see  the  chapter  on  "  How  to  read 
music,"  in  Part  V  of  this  volume. 


MELODY  AND  APPRECL^TION  815 

the  chords  of  a  piece  are  brought  out  in  pleasing  succession  or 
merely  thrown  together  carelessly  and  without  plan. 

There  are  different  styles  of  harmony,  and  the  hearer  should 
learn  to  appreciate  them.  Just  why  certain  harmonies  produce 
certain  effects  on  the  brain  is  a  deep  psychological  question  that  has 
not  yet  been  thoroughly  answered.  Association  has  something  to 
do  with  the  judging  of  music  as  a  whole;  but  it  does  not  account  for 
everything.  The  more  rapid  rhjiJims  are  brighter  than  the  slow 
ones,  and  high-pitched  notes  more  cheerful  than  low  ones.  In 
harmony,  however,  no  such  clear  rule  is  found.  The  appreciation 
of  harmony  consists  in  a  perception  of  the  relationship  between 
successive  chords.  This  relationship  may  be  kept  simple,  or 
smoothed  into  delicate  adjustment,  or  even  made  abstruse.  A 
musical  example  will  show  the  difference  between  the  first  two 
styles.  The  opening  vocal  phrase  of  Bach's  song,  "0  heart  ever 
faithful,"  has  the  same  notes  as  the  first  line  of  Jensen's  "Murmur- 
ing breeze";  but  the  Bach  work  has  simple  and  direct  harmonies 
(the  three  chords  again),  while  the  Jensen  lyric  varies  the  tonic 
chord  by  chromatic  alterations.  There  is  a  marked  variety  in  the 
rhythm  of  the  two  voice  parts  and  accompaniments;  but  even  allow- 
ing for  that,  there  is  a  noticeable  difference  in  the  harmony  too. 

Changes  of  chords  may  be  slight  or  abrupt.  In  the  first  case, 
nearly  all  the  notes  of  one  chord  are  held  for  the  next;  while  in  the 
second,  there  is  very  little  connection.  As  long  as  the  hearer  is  able 
to  perceive  the  relationship,  whether  it  is  close  or  distant,  he  will 
continue  to  appreciate  the  music  in  a  greater  or  less  degree;  but  when 
the  chord-sequence  passes  beyond  the  range  of  his  perceptive  powers, 
it  will  become  a  chaos  of  unrelated  sounds,  a  mass  of  unmeaning 
discord.  Some  of  the  more  involved  classics  have  this  effect  on  the 
listener  who  has  not  cultivated  his  sense  of  harmony;  but  after  he 
educates  himself  by  continued  hearing  of  good  works,  he  begins 
to  find  order  emerging  from  the  apparent  harmonic  chaos.  There  is 
therefore  only  one  real  way  for  the  student  to  develop  his  taste 
for  good  harmony;  he  must  put  himself  in  a  musical  atmosphere, 
and  listen  to  the  best  pieces  until  he  learns  to  appreciate  them. 
This  growth  in  appreciation  is  something  that  follows  naturally 
on  the  frequent  hearing  of  good  music;  and  even  the  great  com- 
posers have  not  been  exempt  from  its  improving  influence,  a&  a 


S16  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

comparison  of  their  youthful  productions  with  their  more  mature 
ones  will  show. 

As  stated  above,  melody,  harmony,  and  rhythm  are  more  or  less 
inextricably  blended  into  one  organic  whole.  Especially  is  this  true 
of  melody  and  harmony;  so  that  a  melody  will  usually  suggest  to 
the  musician  the  harmonies  that  might  go  with  it. 

One  limitation  of  popular  music  is  noticeable  in  our  own  country, 
if  not  in  certain  others;  that  consists  in  the  too  continuous  use  of 
the  major  mode.  There  is  much  beauty  in  the  minor  mode.  Some- 
times it  is  devoted  to  effects  of  sadness  and  pathos,  while  at  other 
times  it  is  made  to  show  the  most  delicate  grace.  The  opening  theme 
of  Mendelssohn's  "Hebrides"  overture  is  of  the  latter  character, 
and  has  been  cited  as  a  perfect  reflection  of  its  subject.  The  under- 
lying rhythm  of  the  low  notes  gives  the  large  pulsation  of  the  waves; 
while  little  rippling  figures  above,  surging  to  different  heights,  give 
a  perfect  suggestion  of  the  wavelets  that  chase  one  another  on  the 
surface  of  the  larger  billows.  In  Mendelssohn's  Scotch  Symphony 
the  minor  mode  of  the  first  and  last  movements  is  made  to  show  a 
most  wonderful  variety  of  effects.  The  training  in  appreciation  of 
this  mode  is  a  necessary  part  of  every  auditor's  education. 

It  will  be  seen  from  all  these  considerations  that  the  composer 
has  a  far  vaster  field  to  work  in  than  the  manufacture  of  conven- 
tional popular  music.  The  great  composer  may  handle  many  styles 
of  melody,  balancing  one  against  another  in  actual  design;  he  may 
vary  melodic  work  by  contrasting  it  with  wholly  different  styles, 
such  as  development  or  contrapuntal  imitation;  and  he  may  give 
to  his  entire  work  a  variety  and  originality  of  harmony  that  can 
make  it  glow  with  ever-changing  beauty.  It  stands  to  reason  that 
the  only  way  to  learn  to  appreciate  good  music  is  to  hear  it.  But 
if  the  listener  knows  what  to  look  for,  his  task  will  surely  be  made 
easier;  and  this  section  is  planned  as  a  guide  for  him. 


XXXII 

FIGURES  AND  PHRASES 

The  French  have  an  apt  saying  that  "Architecture  is  frozen 
music."  This  presupposes  a  perception  of  the  fact  that  music,  in 
its  plastic  way,  is  subject  to  the  laws  of  form.  In  this  chapter  the 
student  will  find  a  description  of  the  smallest  elements  that  enter 
into  musical  form  —  figures  and  phrases. 

The  figure  being  the  shortest  recognizable  musical  unit,  we  are 
very  seldom  able  to  associate  it  with  completeness.  Figures  are 
the  smallest  units  in  the  musical  story,  where  phrases  are  clauses, 
and  periods  made  up  of  phrases  correspond  to  whole  sentences. 
But  while  the  writer  can  make  no  permissible  use  of  the  repetition 
of  a  word,  the  composer,  like  the  painter,  may  build  his  design  by 
duplicatmg  his  motive,  or  making  it  the  basis  of  a  larger  idea.  The 
comparison  of  periods  with  sentences  must  also  be  supplemented 
by  the  statement  that  expression  in  music  is  much  more  concise 
and  intense  than  in  literature. 

The  musical  figure,  when  used  to  build  up  a  phrase,  or  a  theme, 
or  even  a  long  section  of  development,  may  be  treated  and  varied 
in  certain  different  ways,  which  do  not  prevent  its  remaining  recog- 
nizable in  the  musical  design.  These  ways  may  be  enumerated  as 
follows:  — 

1.  By  transposition.  The  figure  may  reappear  intact  on  a  new 
scale  degree,  with  the  same  sized  intervals  of  time  and  of  location 
on  the  staff.  Sometimes  a  transposed  figure  has  intervals  unchanged 
in  actual  size,  but  an  alteration  may  come  through  the  different 
relative  position  of  the  semitones  in  a  scale.  Thus  a  figure  G-E-D-C 
may  be  transposed  to  become  A-F-E-D,  with  slightly  different  in- 
tervals, or  C-A-G-F,  with  no  change.  The  use  of  continual  and 
regular  transpositions,  causing  the  repeat  of  a  figure  in  changing 
locations,  is  called  a  sequence. 

2.  By  expansion.  The  intervals  of  a  figure  may  be  increased 
more  than  would  result  from  any  altered  scale  position.   Usually 


318  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

the  outer  notes  of  a  figure  (upper  and  lower)  are  the  ones  to  be 
altered.  Even  a  two-note  figure  may  be  altered  in  this  way.  For 
example,  in  Liza  Lehmann's  song  "The  Cuckoo,"  that  bird  calls 
in  notes  a  third  apart;  but  once  or  twice,  for  purposes  of  harmony, 
the  interval  is  changed  into  a  fourth. 

3.  By  contraction.  As  a  reverse  of  the  preceding  method,  the  in- 
tervals of  a  figure  may  be  made  smaller. 

4.  By  augmentation.   A  figure  may  be  given  in  notes  of  larger 
value  than  before. 

5.  By  diminution.  A  figure  may  be  given  in  notes  of  smaller 
value. 

6.  By  repetition.  Certain  notes  of  the  figure  may  be  repeated  in 
the  necessary  number  of  smaller  notes. 

7.  By  omission.   Part  of  a  figure  may  be  given  instead  of  the 
whole.  For  example,  in  the  allegretto  of  the  second  Brahms  sym- 


phony there  is  a  very  rhythmic  figure. 


'  s 


^-f^-i>H-P-H*- 


m 


t^-:^=±L^ 


which  gradually  trails  off  into  nothingness  by  the  repetition  of 
the  C  alone,  on  the  second  beat  of  two  or  three  measures,  while  the 
accompaniment  softens  and  dies  away. 

8.  By  change  of  order.  The  sequence  of  the  notes  may  be  altered. 
This  is  not  a  common  procedure,  as  it  is  apt  to  make  the  figure  un- 
recognizable. 

9.  By  reversion.  A  figure  may  be  played  through  backwards. 

10.  By  inversion,  or  contrary  motion.  A  figure  may  be  inverted, 
having  its  upward  intervals  changed  to  downward  ones,  and  vice 
versa.  An  example  of  inversion  with  reversion  and  contraction  is 
found  in  the  finale  of  the  first  Brahms  symphony,  where  the  figure 


^ 


becomes 


p=^=  ""-""""  m^=t=*=itt 


11.  By  elaboration.  A  figure  may  be  made  more  intricate  by  the 
addition  of  new  notes. 

12.  By  simplification.  This  is  the  reverse  of  the  preceding. 

13.  By  ornamentation.    Turns,  trills,  and  other  embellishments 
may  be  put  into  the  figure. 

14.  By  rhythmic  imitation.  The  rhythm  of  a  figure  may  be  imi- 
tated on  a  single  note,  or  by  an  instrument  of  no  pitch,  like  the  bass 


FIGURES  AND  PHRASES 


319 


drum  or  triangle.  The  latter  starts  a  theme  in  Liszt's  E-flat  piano 
concerto  by  giving  its  rhythm. 

15.  By  rhythmic  alteration.  This  might  come  under  repetition, 
or  elaboration,  or  simplification,  but  may  be  classed  as  a  separate 
method.   Thus  in  the  Brahms  allegretto  mentioned  above, 

becomes 

becomes 

As  already  shown  by  example,  combinations  of  any  of  the  fore- 
going processes  may  be  employed. 

It  is  by  means  of  some  or  all  of  these  devices  that  a  composer 
creates  the  musical  structure  known  as  development,  in  which  the 
figures  of  one  or  more  themes  are  used  in  various  ways  to  build  up 
an  impressive  tonal  edifice.  But  figure  treatment  has  many  more 
uses  than  this.  It  may  be  called  upon  for  the  creation  of  the  themes 
themselves,  though  not  all  melodies  show  figure  repetition.  Fig- 
ures may  also  be  interwoven  into  the  accompaniment  of  themes. 

The  student  may  now  get  a  clearer  understanding  of  figure  treat- 
ment by  inspection  of  certain  works. 

First  of  all  let  him  take  the  opening  movement  of  Beethoven's 
fifth  symphony.  The  writer  has  that  work  in  the  Litolff  edition, 
arranged  for  piano  solo  by  Winkler,  but  the  number  of  bars  will 
be  the  same  in  any  good  edition. 

The  first  two  bars  show  the  figure  on  which  much  of  this  move- 
ment is  based.  It  is  a  virile  figure,  having  been  explained  by  Bee- 
thoven as  the  knocking  of  Fate  at  the  door,  —  although  on  an- 
other occasion  he  claimed  that  he  had  heard  this  rhythm  pounded 
out  when  a  belated  and  intoxicated  reveller  had  returned  home  to 


seek  admission.  The  figure  runs  thus: —    "tnr^W'^ 


zt 


In  later  use  the  last  note  is  sometimes  held  for  its  full  value,  and 
sometimes  made  an  eighth-note  to  permit  of  a  recurrence  of  the 
figure  immediately  after. 

In  bars  3-5,  the  figure  is  repeated,  transposed  downward.  In 
bars  6-9  three  occurrences  of  the  figure,  the  second  contracted,  and 
the  last  two  transposed,  make  the  first  phrase  of  the  chief  theme. 


320  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Bars  10-13  are  similarly  formed,  the  figure  being  now  expanded  in 
the  first  case,  as  well  as  contracted  in  the  second.  Bars  14-19  show 
first  an  altered  figure,  the  third  note  being  now  between  the  second 
and  fourth  in  pitch,  and  then  an  inversion  of  the  altered  figure;  the 
alteration  appearing  three  times  and  the  inversion  twice.  The  next 
two  bars  have  a  chord  each,  ending  the  first  theme  with  what  is 
known  as  a  half -cadence,  —  a  close  on  the  dominant  chord  instead 
of  the  tonic.  In  bars  21-24  the  figure  is  repeated  separately,  as  at 
first.  Then  for  two  groups  of  four  bars  each  it  appears  (in  various 
positions)  in  three  downward  recurrences,  the  last  one  contracted, 
and  one  inverted  and  expanded  occurrence.  From  bar  33  to  bar  44 
it  is  worked  into  a  long  upward  progression,  the  third  note  of  the 
inverted  figure  being  altered,  and  the  later  measures  of  this  group 
showing  a  sequence.  Bars  44-56  show  three  four-measure  groups 
of  downward  progressions.  A  repetition  of  the  figure,  from  bar  59, 
serves  to  usher  in  a  second  theme,  starting  in  bar  63.  This  is  not 
built  of  the  original  figure  at  all;  but  we  see  the  latter  forcing  its 
way  into  the  accompaniment,  and  not  letting  itself  be  forgotten. 
It  appears  in  the  left-hand  part  in  bars  65,  69,  73,  77,  81,  84,  86, 
88,  90  and  92.  Its  rhythm  is  slightly  suggested  by  the  running  pass- 
age from  bar  95  to  bar  110.  In  the  latter  bar  it  comes  back  unmis- 
takably, and  from  then  on  is  used  to  build  up  the  close  of  the  first 
section,  which  is  marked  for  repeat  after  bar  124. 

In  the  first  movement  of  a  symphony,  the  exposition  of  the  themes 
should  be  followed  by  a  section  of  development.  This  is  found  to 
be  the  case  here,  though  the  four-note  figure  has  been  used  so  con- 
stantly that  almost  all  the  movement  seems  to  be  a  development  of 
it.  Bars  125-128  announce  the  figure  (first  transposed,  then  con- 
tracted also)  as  a  sort  of  introduction  to  this  section.  The  figure  is 
then  employed  in  various  ways.  For  a  time  the  chief  theme  is  sug- 
gested; then  in  bar  141  a  downward  progression  begins,  still  built 
of  the  figure  material;  while  from  bar  159  to  bar  167  inclusive  the 
figure  is  imitated  in  altered  shape,  without  repeated  notes;  and 
from  there  on  to  bar  179  the  figure  is  rhythmically  imitated  in 
chords,  with  more  or  less  change.  From  that  point  on  other  material 
predominates,  but  in  bar  240  the  figure  is  introduced  prominently 
once  more,  and  reiterated  as  a  signal  for  the  end  of  the  development 
and  the  beginning  of  the  usual  restatement  of  the  original  themes. 


FIGURES  AND  PHRASES  321 

The  restatement,  or  recapitulation,  or  reprise,  begins  clearly  on 
the  second  beat  of  bar  248.  This  section  is  much  like  the  first  part 
of  the  work.  It  runs  to  the  first  beat  in  bar  374.  Here  the  work 
might  have  ended,  but  it  keeps  on,  in  the  form  of  a  long  coda,  or 
musical  postscript. 

The  coda  starts  with  rhythmic  imitation  of  the  four-note  figure, 
in  loud  chords,  at  first  with  changing  harmonies  and  alterations  in 
the  bass.  This  stops  to  allow  a  faint,  questioning  inversion  of  the 
figure,  unaccompanied,  in  bar  387;  but  the  question  is  answered  only 
by  more  of  the  savage  chords.  Then  follow  various  versions  of  the 
other  thematic  material,  imtil  in  bar  469  the  rhythm  of  the  original 
figure  interrupts  insistently,  and  finally  brings  the  work  to  its  clos- 
ing phrase. 

The  movement  is  over  five  hundred  measures  long.  At  least 
three  fourths  of  this  famous  classic  will  be  found  to  consist  of  the 
four-note  figure,  in  its  original  or  altered  shapes.  It  will  thus  be 
clear  that  figure  treatment  may  be  made  into  a  most  valuable  asset 
by  the  composer.  It  need  not  hamper  his  inspiration;  and  this  Bee- 
thoven movement  happens  to  be  rated  as  one  of  the  most  powerful 
and  dramatic  works  in  the  whole  musical  repertoire. 

The  reader  who  wishes  to  investigate  this  subject  further  is  re- 
ferred to  the  first  movement  of  Beethoven's  sixth  symphony,  known 
as  the  "Pastoral  Symphony."  The  first  four  bars  of  that  work 
show  a  complete  musical  phrase;  and  the  figures  that  make  up 
nearly  all  the  rest  of  the  movement  are  simply  different  parts  of 
this  passage,  treated  with  the  usual  variety  of  method  to  which  a 
composer  is  entitled. 

Longer  than  the  figure  is  the  phrase,  or  simple  musical  thought. 
The  first  four  bars  in  the  "Pastoral  Symphony"  form  a  phrase, 
giving  the  effect  of  a  single  idea,  but  being  too  long  to  be  classed  as 
a  figure.  This  is  followed  by  another  phrase,  finishing  on  the  first 
beat  of  the  sixteenth  measure. 

The  beginner  will  recognize  phrases  best  by  assuming  that  they 
correspond  to  double  lines  of  poetry  in  songs.  This  is  not  always 
the  case,  but  it  is  generally  true  of  short  songs.  Take,  for  instance, 
the  familiar  "Drink  to  me  only  with  thine  eyes."  The  stanzas  in 
this  are  eight  lines  long,  and  two  lines  go  to  the  formation  of  each 
musical  phrase.   The  phrase  of  the  first  two  lines  is  repeated  for  the 


322  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

next  two;  the  third  pair  has  a  new  phrase;  but  the  fourth  pair  uses 
the  original  phrase  once  again. 

The  composer  may  balance  phrases  in  instrumental  compositions 
if  he  desires.  He  may  follow  one  phrase  of  conventional  length  with 
another  of  the  same  length,  or  he  may  make  the  second  phrase  much 
longer  than  the  first,  which  must  be  kept  fairly  short.  He  is  not 
compelled  to  write  in  the  style  of  balanced  phrases  unless  he  chooses; 
but  if  he  does  adopt  this  style,  he  may  produce  attractive  works 
in  it. 

A  section  made  out  of  two  such  balanced  phrases  is  known  to 
musicians  as  a  period.  It  is  sometimes  called  a  theme,  but  that 
term  has  other  applications,  so  that  the  word  period  is  adopted  in 
this  work,  for  the  sake  of  clearness. 

Periods  may  vary  from  the  simplest  to  the  most  complex.  The 
first  half  of  "Drink  to  me  only  with  thine  eyes,"  or  of  "The  Last 
Rose  of  Summer,"  shows  a  period  in  which  both  phrases  are  alike. 
Not  much  different  is  the  first  half  of  "Annie  Laurie,"  in  which  the 
second  phrase  is  the  same  as  the  first  except  for  an  alteration  of  the 
final  note,  which  brings  an  effect  of  completeness.  In  "My  Old 
Kentucky  Home,"  the  second  phrase  is  changed  only  slightly  more. 
A  little  more  difference  is  found  between  the  first  two  phrases  of 
"Yankee  Doodle."  Most  well-known  songs  show  this  resemblance 
between  their  first  and  second  phrase.  In  piano  music,  the  resem- 
blance need  not  be  so  close;  and  we  may  find  in  Mendelssohn's 
"Hunting  Song,"  after  the  obviously  separate  introduction,  a  four- 
bar  phrase  followed  by  a  second  phrase  that  lasts  through  twenty 
bars.  Incidentally,  phrases  used  in  forming  periods  are  almost  never 
less  than  four  bars  in  length,  and  often  longer. 

Any  piece  may  have  an  introduction,  varying  in  length  or  scope. 
In  the  "Hunting  Song"  it  is  a  little  prelude-like  phrase  of  less  than 
five  bars;  while  in  Beethoven's  "Sonata  Pathetique"  it  is  a  large 
section,  forming  a  complete  contrast  with  the  rapid  themes  that 
follow  it. 

Any  piece  may  also  have  a  coda,  or  musical  postscript  bringing 
it  to  a  close  (and  sometimes  a  climax)  after  the  demands  of  the  form 
have  already  been  satisfied.  The  coda  is  free  in  shape,  but  estab- 
lishes the  key  of  the  piece  to  which  it  belongs,  and  brings  it  to  a 
clear  ending. 


FIGURES  AND  PHRASES  323 

The  very  short  mtroductions  to  some  of  Mendelssohn's  "Songs 
without  Words,"  sounding  like  piano  phrases  before  the  start  of  an 
actual  song,  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  preludes.  When  they  recur 
at  the  end  of  such  a  piece,  they  are  then  called  postludes.  Both  are 
found  in  the  piece  known  as  "Consolation." 

It  will  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  songs  cited  that  more  than  one 
period  is  used  ordinarily.  It  is  possible  to  have  a  piece  consist  of  a 
single  period.  The  German  folk-song  known  as  "  The  Broken  Ring," 
or  sometimes  as  "The  Mill  in  the  Valley,"  is  a  single-period  form. 
Its  second  phrase  is  lengthened  by  repetition  in  a  somewhat  altered 
form;  and  the  song  consists  of  only  two  phrases.  A  certain  piano 
prelude  by  Scriabine  shows  a  single-period  structure;  but  it  is 
lengthened  by  an  introduction  and  a  coda. 

Most  of  the  songs  cited  end  with  a  phrase  from  the  first  part. 
"Annie  Laurie"  is  an  exception,  having  its  second  period  inde- 
pendent of  the  material  of  the  first;  but  such  instances  are  com- 
paratively rare  in  popular  songs. 

The  songs  mentioned  show  a  two-period  form;  but  more  than 
two  periods  may  be  used  in  some  cases,  or  the  two  may  be  differ- 
ently arranged.  It  is  also  permissible  for  a  composer  to  balance  a 
period  at  certain  times  by  a  passage  of  contrasted  style.  The  ordi- 
nary period  has  two  phrases,  called  antecedent  and  consequent,  the 
second  one  seeming  to  answer  and  complete  the  first.  But  music 
does  not  need  to  be  confined  to  this  structure;  and  a  period  may 
sometimes  be  followed  by  a  free  episode.  The  forms  in  common  use 
are  described  in  the  next  chapter. 


xxxm 

THE  SONG-FORMS 

Composers  have  a  very  prevalent  habit  of  repeating  themselves 
as  much  as  possible.  They  write  a  theme,  and  alternate  it  with 
other  music,  but  often  insist  on  bringing  back  the  original  theme 
again,  partly  to  give  a  finished  and  balanced  effect  to  their  work. 
They  are  very  fond  of  doing  this  in  the  song-forms;  the  rondos  are 
named  from  the  procedure;  and  even  in  the  freer  sonata  form  the 
themes  are  followed  by  a  development  of  their  material,  which  in 
turn  is  succeeded  by  a  repeat  of  the  themes. 

The  shortest  song-form  in  common  use  consists  of  two  periods, 
each  having  a  first  phrase,  known  as  the  antecedent,  and  a  second 
phrase,  known  as  the  consequent.  In  the  two-period  independent 
form,  the  phrases  of  the  second  period  are  made  of  wholly  new  mate- 
rial. In  the  two-period  form  with  partial  return,  the  consequent  of 
the  second  period  is  derived  from  a  phrase  of  the  first,  with  no 
change  or  only  slight  alterations.  The  partial-return  form  is  much 
more  popular  than  the  independent  form,  because  of  the  tendency 
shown  by  composers  to  end  as  they  began.  Even  when  they  use 
the  two  independent  periods,  they  may  suggest  the  original  section 
by  employing  some  of  its  material  in  a  coda. 

The  best  single  volume  for  the  study  of  the  song-forms  is  the 
collection  of  Mendelssohn's  "Songs  without  Words."  In  these,  an 
example  of  the  two-part  independent  form  is  seen  in  no.  6,  the  first 
Venetian  Gondola  Song.  As  its  title  would  imply,  it  is  soothingly 
rhythmic,  being  in  6/8  time.  An  introduction  defines  the  rhythm. 
The  first  period  begins  on  the  last  beat  of  the  seventh  measure.  Its 
antecedent  is  four  measures  long,  while  the  consequent  is  prolonged 
to  six  measures,  and  ends  on  a  cadence  in  the  dominant  key.  A 
longer  section  of  new  material  follows,  having  an  antecedent  of 
eight  measures  and  a  consequent  of  nine.  The  piece  could  end  at 
that  point;  but  the  composer,  following  the  prevalent  impulse  of 
letting  some  of  the  opening  material  return,  added  a  coda  based 
on  the  phrases  of  the  first  period. 


THE  SONG-FORMS  325 

The  periods  of  a  song-form  are  sometimes  very  clean-cut,  and 
easy  to  recognize;  but  the  good  composers  often  blend  them  into 
one  another  to  some  extent.  Introductions  and  codas  relieve  any 
plainness  of  design  at  the  beginning  or  end;  while  between  any  two 
periods  there  may  always  be  a  little  passage  linking  them  together. 
This  is  called  a  transition  passage  when  introducing  new  material, 
or  a  returning  passage  when  it  is  followed  by  matter  previously 
given. 

The  three-part  song-forms  consist  of  a  period,  a  contrasting  sec- 
tion, 'and  a  return  of  the  first  period,  either  unchanged,  or  partly 
altered,  or  even  partly  suppressed.  The  contrasting  section  may 
be  either  a  second  period  (called  a  countertheme)  or  a  bit  of  free 
writing  known  as  an  episode.  Theorists  hold  that  a  countertheme 
must  have  antecedent,  consequent,  and  a  full  cadence,  or  close.  The 
episodes  are  sometimes  much  like  counterthemes  (as  in  Chami- 
nade's  "Scarf  Dance"),  but  sometimes  very  free;  so  that  the  present 
writer  has  suggested  classifying  them  imder  the  two  heads  of  epi- 
sode and  free  episode.  An  introduction  may  begin  any  piece,  and 
a  coda  finish  it.  We  may  also  find  transition  or  returning  passages. 

In  the  two-period  forms,  either  or  both  periods  could  be  repeated 
separately  if  desired.  In  the  three-part  form,  the  first  part  (period) 
may  be  repeated  by  itself,  the  second  and  third  parts  may  be  re- 
peated together,  or  both  repeats  made  if  desired. 

When  the  first  period  returns  to  form  the  third  section,  it  may 
be  repeated  unchanged.  Usually,  however,  some  change  is  neces- 
sary to  bring  a  cadence  in  the  key  of  the  piece;  and  for  this  purpose, 
or  else  simply  at  the  composer's  wish,  the  consequent  may  be  altered, 
the  antecedent  being  generally  kept  intact.  If  only  a  single  phrase 
returns,  instead  of  the  original  two-phrased  period,  then  the  piece 
is  in  three-division  form  with  abbreviated  return. 

Looking  at  Mendelssohn's  "Consolation,"  the  ninth  "Song 
without  Words,"  we  find  a  prelude  of  two  and  a  half  measures, 
used  again  as  a  postlude.  Then  follows  an  eight-bar  period,  with  four- 
bar  antecedent  and  consequent,  the  period  ending  in  the  first  half 
of  measure  11.  A  six-bar  episode  follows,  rather  free  because  con- 
sisting of  only  one  phrase  and  having  no  cadence.  Then  comes  a 
return  of  the  original  period,  with  antecedent  the  same  but  conse- 
quent altered.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  last  note  of  the  period  and 


826  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

the  first  note  of  the  postlude  are  played  at  the  same  time.  This  is 
one  of  several  little  devices  for  making  a  piece  unified  in  effect. 
Such  overlapping  is  called  compression. 

The  "Funeral  March,"  no.  27,  is  another  three-part  song-form. 
A  prelude  of  four  bars  precedes  the  first  period,  which  begins  at  the 
end  of  the  fourth  full  measure.  This  period  has  four-bar  phrases 
for  antecedent  and  consequent.  It  is  then  repeated,  being  written 
out  with  fuller  harmony  than  at  first.  An  episode  follows,  with  two 
four-bar  phrases,  but  no  cadence,  and  four  extra  measures  giving 
the  rhythm  and  style  of  the  prelude.  These  serve  as  a  returning 
passage  to  bring  back  the  original  period,  now  set  with  still  broader 
harmony,  and  prolonged  four  measures  by  a  delayed  cadence.  Four 
measures  of  postlude  follow,  echoing  the  rhythm  of  the  prelude. 

Variety  is  shown  also  by  the  "Spinning  Song,"  no.  34.  An  in- 
troduction of  almost  two  bars  is  followed  by  a  period  of  two  four- 
bar  phrases,  ending  in  the  dominant.  A  nineteen-bar  episode  is 
followed  by  a  return  of  the  period,  this  time  with  an  altered  conse- 
quent of  eight  bars,  ending  in  the  proper  key.  Episode  and  return 
of  period  are  repeated,  but  now  the  episode  is  in  minor  instead  of 
major,  for  variety.  A  sixteen-bar  coda  ends  the  piece. 

The  use  of  a  countertheme  is  shown  in  "The  Return,"  no.  41  of 
the  set.  It  has  a  four-bar  prelude  and  postlude,  starting  with  a 
repeated  octave  figure  that  is  skilfully  echoed  in  the  main  body  of 
the  work.  The  first  period,  beginning  with  three  occurrences  of  the 
same  eighth-note  chord,  consists  of  two  four-bar  phrases,  ending 
in  the  dominant  key.  The  countertheme,  beginning  with  the  third 
chord  in  the  twelfth  full  measure,  is  also  built  of  two  four-bar  phrases, 
ending  with  a  cadence  in  the  relative  minor  of  the  dominant.  The 
first  period  returns,  with  its  consequent  altered  and  extended  to 
seven  measures  in  length. 

The  abbreviated  three-division  form  may  be  illustrated  by  no. 
19,  called  "On  the  Seashore."  The  fu-st  period  begins  in  the  last 
half  of  the  third  bar,  and  has  a  four-bar  antecedent  followed  by  a 
four-bar  consequent.  After  a  thirteen-bar  episode,  the  return  shows 
only  a  single  phrase  instead  of  a  two-phrased  period.  This  phrase 
is  lengthened  to  six  bars,  but  it  is  indubitably  not  a  period. 

A  similar  abbreviated  return  is  found  in  Schuett's  "Reverie." 
In  that  piece,  cited  for  its  constant  use  of  a  two-noted  figure,  an 


THE  SONG-FORMS  327 

eight-bar  antecedent  and  a  consequent  of  the  same  length  are  re- 
placed, in  the  return,  by  a  single  ten-measure  phrase  using  the  same 
material. 

A  summary  of  the  song-forms  will  give  the  following  table:  — 

Two-division  independent  form.  A  period,  followed  by  another 
period  made  of  independent  material.  Either  period  may  be  re- 
peated by  itself. 

Two-division  form  with  partial  return.  A  period,  followed  by 
another  period  having  a  new  antecedent,  but  the  consequent  re- 
peated or  derived  from  a  phrase  in  the  first  period.  Either  period 
may  be  repeated  by  itself. 

Three-division  form  with  countertheme.  A  period,  followed  by  an- 
other period  of  new  material,  which  is  in  turn  succeeded  by  a  recur- 
rence of  the  first  period,  at  times  with  altered  consequent.  The  first 
period  may  be  repeated  alone  if  desired,  or  the  second  and  third 
parts  repeated  together,  or  both  repeats  made  if  required.  In  rare 
examples  a  countertheme  may  be  repeated  alone. 

Three-division  form  with  episode.  The  same  as  the  preceding, 
but  instead  of  a  countertheme  (having  antecedent,  consequent,  and 
cadence)  there  is  an  episode,  lacking  some  or  all  of  these  points,  and 
being  in  a  more  or  less  free  style. 

Three-division  abbreviated  form.  The  same  as  either  of  the  two 
preceding  forms,  but  having  the  return  of  the  first  period  altered 
into  a  single  phrase  instead  of  a  complete  period. 

Larger  pieces  are  made  from  these  simple  song-forms  by  uniting 
them  in  a  three-division  cycle,  just  as  the  single  periods  of  a  three- 
division  song-form  are  grouped.  In  other  words,  many  pieces  are 
made  on  the  plan  of  a  complete  song-form  followed  by  another 
complete  song-form,  which  in  turn  is  followed  by  a  recurrence  of  the 
first  song-form,  either  wholly  or  in  part.  Such  a  piece  is  known  as 
a  song-form  with  trio,  and  the  second  song-form  is  called  the  trio. 
In  the  old  days,  when  groups  of  similar  instruments  appeared  in 
alternating  selections,  it  was  often  really  a  trio.  Thus  in  some  of 
Lully's  music  we  find  three  flutes  giving  a  piece  in  contrast  to  the 
more  constant  violin  work.  The  name  has  been  kept,  and  has  come 
to  be  used  for  a  contrasting  section  of  song-form.  The  trio  is  gen- 
erally marked  by  a  change  of  key,  usually  being  in  the  subdomi- 
nant,  though  sometimes  it  is  in  the  dominant. 


328  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Either  the  first  song-form  or  the  trio  may  be  of  several  shapes. 
But  it  manifestly  would  not  do  to  have  a  single-period  form  for 
both  the  song-form  and  the  trio,  as  that  would  result  in  a  simple 
three-part  song-form.  The  single-period  form  is  more  often  foimd 
in  the  trio  than  in  the  first  section,  though  it  is  not  very  frequent 
in  either  case. 

Song-form  with  trio  is  probably  the  most  familiar  of  all  the  forms 
to  the  general  public.  About  all  the  popular  dances  and  marches 
are  written  in  this  form.  As  a  rule,  such  pieces  show  rather  long 
antecedents  and  consequents.  The  waltz  is  apt  to  have  each  phrase 
consist  of  sixteen  measures  instead  of  the  usual  eight.  A  very  little 
training  should  enable  even  the  non-m^usical  reader  to  analyze  the 
popular  examples  of  the  form,  and  pick  out  the  periods,  or  recog- 
nize the  trio,  with  fair  certainty. 

In  song-form  with  trio,  as  always,  there  may  be  introduction  or 
coda  or  both.  There  may  also  be  transition  or  returning  passages 
at  any  desired  point. 

If  the  first  song-form  does  not  return  as  a  whole  after  the  trio, 
the  piece  is  described  as  a  song-form  and  trio  with  abbreviated 
return.  The  abbreviation  may  be  made  to  avoid  monotony  if  the 
periods  are  too  long  or  too  similar.  Another  device  to  give  variety 
is  found  in  Scharwenka's  "Polish  Dance"  and  Meyer-Helmund's 
"Dance."  In  both  works,  when  the  return  of  the  first  song-form 
is  nearly  over,  a  bit  of  the  trio  is  interpolated  before  the  close  of  the 
piece. 

In  the  old  gavottes,  the  trio  was  often  of  musette-like  character, 
having  a  drone-bass  effect  as  of  bagpipes.  This  style  of  trio  may 
be  found  in  the  Meyer-Helmund  "Dance,"  where  it  is  in  admirable 
contrast  with  the  rest  of  the  piece. 

Schubert's  first  Military  March  may  be  cited  as  a  clear  example 
of  song-form  with  trio.  The  opening  song-form  begins  with  a  fan- 
fare-like introduction  of  six  measures.  The  first  period,  which  fol- 
lows, consists  of  sixteen  bars  in  two  equal  phrases.  It  is  repeated. 
After  its  second  ending  come  four  bars  of  fanfare  suggestion  as 
transition.  Then  a  countertheme  follows,  with  a  four-bar  antece- 
dent and  a  twelve-bar  consequent,  ending  in  a  perfect  cadence  on 
the  dominant.  This  brings  a  return  of  the  first  period,  with  conse- 
quent very  slightly  altered.  Coimtertheme  and  return  are  repeated 


THE  SONG-FORMS  329 

together.  The  trio,  which  follows,  consists  of  an  opening  period  with 
eight-bar  antecedent  and  ten-bar  consequent,  followed  by  a  second 
period  of  two  eight-bar  phrases.  The  first  period  is  repeated.  The 
second  is  also  repeated,  with  a  postscript  of  eight  bars  that  seem 
like  a  returning  passage,  though  ordmarily  such  a  passage  would 
occur  after  the  repeat  instead  of  in  it.  The  first  song-form  is  then 
replayed.  In  passing,  any  repeats  in  the  first  song-form  of  such  a 
piece  are  to  be  disregarded  when  the  song-form  returns  after  the 
trio. 

So  many  minuets  are  in  this  shape  that  some  teachers  speak  of 
it  as  minuet  form  instead  of  song-form  with  trio.  The  latter  title 
is  better,  as  some  might  think  the  former  term  would  apply  only 
to  minuets. 

Schumann  included  in  his  first  symphony  a  scherzo  movement 
with  two  trios.  The  term  scherzo  applies  to  a  style,  and  not  a  form, 
meaning  playfully  or  jestingly;  but  this  movement  is  really  a  song- 
form  with  two  trios.  The  song-form  at  the  beginning  is  of  three- 
division  form.  The  first  period  has  sixteen  bars  in  two  equal  phrases. 
The  countertheme  has  two  seven-bar  phrases  with  a  bar  of  linking- 
material  between  them  and  a  bar  of  returning  passage  at  the  end. 
This  is  followed  by  the  return  of  the  first  period,  now  given  richer 
harmony,  but  otherwise  imchanged. 

The  first  trio  is  not  perfectly  regular,  though  clear  at  the  start. 
It  begins  with  a  period  of  two  similar  fifteen-bar  phrases,  each  fol- 
lowed by  a  bar's  rest  to  fill  out  the  rhythm.  Its  style  of  echoing 
chords  is  continued  for  two  more  phrases,  each  eight  bars  long;  but 
we  cannot  call  this  a  period,  as  more  new  material  follows.  It  has 
to  be  considered  as  part  of  an  episode.  The  first  period  of  the  trio 
does  not  return  clearly.  Its  harmonies  are  suggested,  and  a  long 
new  consequent  attached  to  the  altered  antecedent.  The  second 
and  third  part  of  this  trio  are  repeated  together. 

The  first  song-form  then  returns.  While  its  parts  were  repeated 
in  the  original  appearance,  the  repeats  are  now  omitted,  to  avoid 
monotony. 

The  second  trio  begins  with  an  eight-bar  phrase,  repeated  to  form 
its  own  consequent.  Again  the  succeeding  material  is  episodical  in 
spite  of  its  clear  phrases,  because  there  are  too  many  sections  here 
to  make  a  song-form  unless  we  call  this  part  an  episode.  Again  the 


330  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

return  is  not  suggested  clearly,  being  one  of  style  rather  than  form. 
An  extra  phrase  after  the  second  repeat  is  evidently  a  returning 
passage. 

The  song-form  of  the  beginning  comes  back.  It  is  now  given  with- 
out repeat,  and  without  return  after  the  countertheme,  which  now 
leads  directly  into  the  coda. 

Contrasts  of  style  as  well  as  material  make  this  movement  very 
attractive.  The  first  song-form  is  strong  and  rhythmic;  the  first 
trio  a  dainty  web  of  echoing  chords;  and  the  second  trio  in  brisk, 
running  style. 

Examples  of  song-form  with  two  trios  are  found  in  Mendelssohn's 
works;  and  the  student  will  find  pleasure  in  analyzing  for  himself 
the  familiar  "Wedding  March"  and  the  "Priests'  March"  from 
"Athalie,"  which  are  both  in  this  form. 


XXXIV 

THE  RONDOS 

The  rondos  resemble  the  song-forms  in  certain  ways.  They  con- 
sist of  a  chief  theme,  or  main  section,  which  alternates  with  one  or 
more  other  sections.  The  main  section,  however,  is  not  necessarily 
a  single  period.  It  may  be  a  complete  song-form  in  itself,  or  may  be 
entirely  free  in  shape.  In  the  old  rondos  of  Haydn  and  Mozart,  and 
even  in  those  of  Beethoven,  the  themes  are  usually  clean-cut,  and 
each  section  is  in  some  fairly  definite  form.  Even  when  this  is  the 
case,  the  rondo  differs  from  the  song-forms,  for  in  rondos  the  first 
section,  or  chief  theme,  is  emphasized  and  made  more  prom- 
inent than  in  song-forms,  all  the  other  sections  being  brought  into 
definite  contrast  with  it.  But  in  many  cases  the  rondo  shows  more 
freedom  of  shape  than  the  song-forms.  When  this  characteristic 
is  found,  it  will  be  seen  that  a  rondo  may  have  its  sections  blended 
into  a  much  more  unified  whole  than  can  be  obtained  from  the 
song-forms. 

The  so-called  first  rondo  consists  of  a  main  section,  a  side  section, 
and  a  return  of  the  main  section.  The  side  section  and  main  section 
may  be  repeated  together,  just  like  the  second  and  third  parts  of  a 
three-division  song-form;  and  in  this  case  the  shape  is  called  first 
rondo  extended  by  repeats.  A  coda  may  always  occur  at  the  end  of 
a  rondo,  or  an  introduction  at  the  beginning;  and  the  unified  charac- 
ter of  the  rondo  often  makes  transition  and  returning  passages 
practicable. 

As  an  example  of  first  rondo,  the  slow  movement  of  Beethoven's 
first  piano  sonata  (Op.  2,  no.  1)  may  be  inspected  by  the  student. 
It  shows  a  fairly  clear  structure.  The  first  sixteen  measures  form  a 
first  section.  New  material  makes  a  clear  side  section.  Then  the 
first  section  returns,  quite  clearly,  and  is  prolonged  into  a  coda. 
Some  analysts  have  called  this  movement  a  song-form;  but  the 
evidence  seems  contrary  to  their  verdict.  The  first  sixteen  bars 
seem  more  like  a  two-period  form  than  a  single  period;  and  if  the 


332  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

two-period  structure  is  admitted,  then  the  side  section  is  too  epi- 
sodical to  be  a  trio. 

A  clear  example  of  first  rondo  form  may  be  foimd  in  the 
adagio  movement  of  Mozart's  sonata  in  D,  no.  15  in  the  Litolff 
collection. 

dementi's  Rondo  in  the  key  of  F  is  another  very  clear  example. 
The  piece  is  divided  into  two  well-marked  sections,  both  in  a  free, 
running  style.  After  the  second  section  is  finished,  a  D.C.  mark 
brings  the  return  of  the  first  section. 

Any  section  of  a  rondo  may  be  repeated  by  itself.  Sometimes 
the  first  theme  is  repeated  on  its  first  appearance;  but  that  is 
scarcely  necessary,  as  its  recurrence  in  the  form  will  insure  its  re- 
ceiving sufficient  attention. 

The  first  rondo  may  often  approach  very  near  to  the  three-divi- 
sion song-form.  "Anitra's  Dance,"  from  Grieg's  "Peer  Gynt" 
suite,  and  Poldini's  "Poup6e  Valsante,"  have  been  chosen  to  illus- 
trate this  point. 

In  "Anitra's  Dance,"  the  first  section,  coming  after  a  brief  intro- 
duction, is  a  sixteen-bar  period,  repeated.  The  side  section  may 
with  perfect  propriety  be  called  a  long  episode.  The  first  period 
returns  in  due  order,  and  the  episode  is  repeated  with  the  return 
of  theme.  The  general  unity  of  style  in  the  piece  suggests  the 
rondo  idea,  even  though  the  divisions  are  not  unlike  those  of  the 
song-form.  Incidentally,  the  student  will  note  that  the  returned 
theme  has  a  prolonged  antecedent,  instead  of  an  altered  consequent, 
to  make  it  end  in  the  proper  key.  This  is  a  very  unusual  procedure. 

In  Poldini's  "Dancing  Doll,"  the  same  structure  is  apparent,  — 
a  short  introduction,  a  single  period  repeated,  an  episodical  side 
section,  and  a  return  of  theme,  the  last  two  divisions  being  repeated 
together.  This  work  has  a  long  coda,  based  on  the  thematic  mate- 
rial already  used.  This  coda  is  rather  too  large  for  a  simple  song- 
form,  and  its  use  of  the  earlier  material  gives  the  piece  a  rondo 
suggestion. 

Chopin's  Nocturne  in  G,  Op.  37,  no.  2,  is  an  example  of  the  first 
rondo  extended  by  recurrences,  if  not  literal  repeats.  The  first  sec- 
tion, of  about  two  pages  in  the  usual  editions,  is  not  in  periodic 
shape,  but  is  based  almost  wholly  on  the  material  of  the  first  three 
or  four  measures.  The  side  section,  sostenuto,  is  of  song-like  charac- 


THE  RONDOS  333 

ter,  and  more  definite  period  structure.  The  first  section  returns, 
somewhat  shortened.  The  second  section  is  again  heard.  Then 
comes  a  still  briefer  suggestion  of  the  first  section,  followed  by  a 
phrase  of  the  second  as  coda.  The  successive  shortenings  are  not 
called  for  by  the  rules  of  strict  form,  but  the  composer  makes  use  of 
them  to  avoid  monotony.  Such  shortenings  may  be  found  in  the 
scherzo  of  Schumann's  first  symphony;  while  in  the  scherzo  of  his 
fourth  symphony,  the  final  appearance  of  the  first-period  material 
is  suppressed,  to  make  way  for  a  long  transition  to  the  following 
movement. 

The  allegretto  of  Brahms's  second  symphony  may  be  taken  as 
another  example  of  first  rondo  extended  by  recurrence  of  side  sec- 
tion and  chief  theme.  The  first  theme  occurs  in  triple  rhythm.  Then 
a  chattering  eighth-note  suggestion  of  the  theme  leads  into  new 
material,  thus  forming  a  side  section,  which  is  in  even  rhythm. 
The  chattering  version  then  leads  back  to  the  second  entrance  of 
the  first  theme,  now  shortened  and  varied.  Then  comes  the  side 
section  material  again,  altered  into  rapid  triple  rhythm.  The  chat- 
tering figures,  also  in  triple  time,  lead  to  a  final  resumption  of  the 
first  section,  which  is  followed  by  a  short  coda.  The  student  will 
find  this  movement  an  admirable  example  of  the  variety  that  may 
be  given  to  thematic  material.  Where  a  lesser  composer  would  have 
repeated  his  themes  almost  intact,  Brahms  used  altered  rhythms, 
new  keys,  and  unexpected  modulations  with  the  most  consummate 
skill,  keeping  his  effects  fresh  and  interesting  without  obscuring  the 
main  lines  of  the  form. 

The  second  rondo  consists  of  main  section,  first  side  section,  main 
section  again,  second  side  section  (new  material),  and  main  section 
for  the  third  time.  It  will  be  seen  that  when  the  chief  theme  occurs 
a  number  of  times,  it  should  be  made  of  interesting  material,  or  it 
will  become  monotonous.  In  the  second  rondo,  this  defect  may  be 
avoided  by  having  the  sections  fairly  long,  and  the  side  sections  in 
strong  contrast  with  the  chief  theme. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  structure  of  the  second  rondo  (A-B-A- 
C-A)  has  no  parallel  among  the  song-forms.  When  the  sections  of 
such  a  rondo  consist  of  single  periods,  some  teachers  speak  of  the 
shape  as  the  five-part  song-form.  But  of  course  some  of  the  rondo 
sections  may  be  longer  than  a  single  period,  in  which  case  there  is 


334  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

no  disagreement  about  the  name.  In  the  five-part  song-form,  the 
simplest  second  rondo,  all  sections  are  of  about  equal  importance. 

An  example  of  this  five-part  single-period  structure  may  be  found 
in  Moszkowski's  Spanish  Dance,  Op.  12,  no.  1.  The  others  of  this 
set  are  song-forms  with  trio,  but  in  the  first  dance  the  five-period 
arrangement  is  clearly  present.  Other  examples  are  f  oirnd  in  the  final 
movements  of  Mozart's  first  two  piano  sonatas  (Litolff  edition). 

Beethoven's  "Fiir  Elise"  is  a  clear  example  of  second  rondo.  In 
this  piece  the  first  section  consists  of  a  short  three-division  song- 
form.  Then  follow  in  order  the  first  side  theme,  the  first  return,  the 
second  side  theme,  and  the  final  return  of  theme.  There  are  re- 
turning passages  after  the  side  themes. 

The  slow  movement  of  Beethoven's  "Sonata  Path6tique"  is 
another  very  clear  example  of  second  rondo.  The  student  should 
find  no  difficulty  in  noticing  its  divisions. 

Grieg's  "Norwegian  Bridal  Procession"  is  again  in  single-period 
divisions,  with  the  first  side  section  repeated. 

Mozart's  Rondo  in  A-minor  illustrates  the  use  of  embellishments. 

An  unusual  structure  is  found  in  Berthold  Tours'  Gavotte  Mod- 
erne.  Such  a  dance  is  usually  a  song-form  with  trio.  The  trio  is 
found  in  proper  shape  in  this  piece;  but  instead  of  the  song-form  at 
the  start,  there  is  a  little  rondo.  This  consists  of  an  eight-bar  theme, 
an  eight-bar  episode,  a  four-bar  partial  return  of  the  theme,  a 
second  side  theme  of  nine  measures,  and  a  full  return  of  theme. 
Rondo  with  trio  is  not  a  recognized  form.  The  musician  will  say  that 
it  does  not  exist;  just  as  the  farmer,  on  seeing  a  giraffe  for  the  first 
time,  refused  to  believe  his  eyes,  and  exclaimed,  "There  ain't  no 
such  animal."  But  composers  often  rise  superior  to  rules,  and  pro- 
duce many  unusual  forms. 

The  so-called  third  rondo  is  like  the  second,  with  an  additional 
return  of  the  first  side  section  and  the  main  section,  to  finish  the 
work.  This  is  not  frequently  used. 

The  old  rondo,  as  exemplified  by  C.  P.  E.  Bach,  and  others  of  his 
period,  consisted  of  a  chief  theme  that  occurred  a  number  of  times, 
in  contrast  with  any  convenient  nimiber  of  side  themes.  In  this  con- 
nection, the  use  of  the  term  rondo  instead  of  five-part  song-form  is 
justified  by  the  early  composers,  who  always  gave  such  works  the 
former  title. 


THE  RONDOS  835 

Anything  that  cannot  be  classed  elsewhere  is  apparently  put 
among  the  rondos,  if  possible.  Thus  Mozart's  "Alia  Turca"  move- 
ment seems  at  first  sight  to  be  much  like  a  song-form  and  trio.  But 
an  extra  theme  is  added,  both  after  the  song-form  and  the  trio, 
which  makes  the  piece  a  somewhat  irregular  first  rondo. 

Another  sort  of  rondo  is  illustrated  by  Binding's  "Rustle  of 
Spring."  It  will  be  seen  on  examination  that  this  is  based  wholly  on 
two  periods.  They  are  given  first  with  the  melody  in  the  left  hand, 
and  a  running  embroidery  of  tones  in  the  right.  Then  they  appear 
as  massive  chords  for  the  right  hand.  Then  they  return  as  at  first, 
in  the  left  hand.  Even  if  it  is  admitted  that  the  periods  of  a  two- 
part  song-form  may  sometimes  be  repeated  together  instead  of  sep- 
arately, there  are  too  many  repeats  in  the  Sinding  piece  to  allow  it 
to  be  classed  as  a  song-form.  The  work  is  called  a  rondo  on  two 
themes.  It  does  not  follow  that  all  rondos  on  two  themes  are  like 
this  one  in  shape;  but  all  such  pieces  will  be  made  up  of  a  treatment 
of  two  themes,  or  sections,  that  cannot  well  be  classified  with  the 
more  usual  rondos.  The  rondo  on  three  themes  exists  also. 

In  all  rondos,  the  chief  idea  is  a  recurrence  of  one  main  theme  or 
section,  with  one  or  more  side  sections  in  contrast  with  it.  While 
some  rondos  show  a  periodic  structure,  there  are  also  rondos  in 
which  the  sections  are  of  freer  style,  and  blended  into  one  another 
so  as  to  give  a  more  unified  effect  than  would  be  possible  in  the  song- 
forms. 


XXXV 

THE  SONATA-ALLEGRO  FORM 

The  works  of  Domenico  Scarlatti,  Galuppi,  Paradisi,  Kuhnau, 
and  C.  P.  E.  Bach  brought  about  a  gradual  development  of  the 
sonata,  until  it  took  shape  in  the  hands  in  Haydn  and  Mozart. 
The  distinctive  quality  of  the  sonata  consists  in  the  shape  of  its  first 
movement;  and  as  this  first  movement  is  generally  an  allegro,  the 
shape  is  mentioned  here  as  sonata-allegro  form.  The  sonata  con- 
sists of  various  movements,  whose  contrasts  of  style  admit  of  much 
artistic  excellence.  The  same  excellence  is  found  in  the  form  used 
in  the  first  movement. 

The  sonata-allegro  form  is  first  of  all  divided  into  three  main 
parts.  These  are  the  exposition,  or  first  playing  of  the  themes  used; 
the  development,  or  building  up  of  a  tonal  structure  from  the  mate- 
rial in  the  themes;  and  the  recapitulation,  or  return  of  themes.  If 
desired,  a  middle  part,  of  new  material,  may  be  substituted  for  the 
development;  but  composers  do  not  usually  make  this  substitu- 
tion without  some  good  reason. 

The  themes  used  in  a  sonata  may  be  much  freer  than  those  of  a 
song-form.  It  is  this  variety  of  material  in  sonata  themes  that 
makes  the  piano  sonatas  of  Beethoven  so  great.  There  is  practically 
no  limit  to  the  power  and  expression  that  the  composer  may  put 
into  such  themes. 

The  principle  of  contrast  is  introduced  in  the  exposition;  for  the 
themes,  three  in  number,  may  be  of  different  styles.  In  general,  the 
chief  theme,  or  first  theme,  is  expected  to  be  bold  and  resolute  in 
character,  while  the  second  theme  should  be  more  lyrical  and  ten- 
der. Between  the  two  is  a  short  tributary  passage,  of  modulatory 
character.  After  the  second  theme  comes  a  short  closing  theme, 
usually  of  brilliant  style.  The  exposition  is  always  marked  for  re- 
peat, so  that  the  themes  may  be  clearly  suggested  to  the  hearer; 
but  the  modem  tendency  is  to  do  away  with  many  repeats.  In 
piano  sonatas  the  exposition  is  still  usually  given  twice,  though  in 
symphonies  the  repeat  is  optional  with  the  conductor. 


THE  SONATA-ALLEGRO  FORM  337 

The  development  admits  of  artistic  possibilities  of  a  different 
sort.  In  that  section  the  material  of  the  themes  may  be  worked  up 
into  the  most  striking  and  beautiful  tonal  designs. 

The  recapitulation,  or  reprise,  gives  the  movement  the  balance 
that  comes  from  any  return  of  theme  after  other  material  has  been 
used.  Here  there  may  be  some  variety,  not  only  in  the  tributary 
passage,  but  to  some  extent  in  the  themes  themselves. 

Development  and  recapitulation  were  repeated  together  in  the 
old  sonatas. 

The  so-called  modem  sonata,  or  free  sonata,  does  not  respect 
the  divisions  or  key-schedules  of  sonata-allegro  form;  but  it  should 
still  reflect  the  earnest  spu*it  of  the  sonata,  which  balances  intellec- 
tual and  emotional  effects  in  artistic  fashion. 

The  schedule  of  divisions  and  keys  for  the  sonata-allegro  form  in 
any  major  key  is  as  follows:  — 

1.  Chief  theme,  in  the  tonic  key,  generally  ending  in  a  cadence. 
After  this  comes  the  tributary  passage,  modulating  finally  into  the 
dominant,  and  usually  ending  with  a  haff  cadence  in  that  key.  (A 
half  cadence  consists  of  the  tonic  chord  followed  by  the  dominant.) 

2.  Second  theme,  or  side  theme,  in  the  dominant  key,  ending  in  a 
full  cadence. 

3.  One  or  more  short  closing  themes,  each  ending  in  a  full  cadence. 

4.  Development  of  themes.  Sometimes  the  end  of  the  develop- 
ment will  be  marked  by  a  fairly  clear  returning  passage.  The  de- 
velopment may  be  modulatory. 

5.  Return  of  chief  theme,  in  tonic  key.  Tributary  passage  this 
time  must  end  in  the  tonic  key. 

6.  Second  theme,  in  tonic  key. 

7.  Closing  theme  or  themes,  in  tonic  key. 

The  movement  may  have  an  introduction  or  a  coda.  It  may  also 
have  transition  or  returning  passages  wherever  needed,  as  at  the 
end  of  the  exposition. 

In  the  return  of  themes,  they  need  not  always  begin  on  their 
proper  key;  but  if  not,  they  must  modulate  to  it  soon  after  starting. 

The  sonata-allegro  form  in  minor  has  the  added  possibility  of 
contrast  between  the  minor  and  major  modes.  The  divisions  are  as 
before,  but  the  schedule  of  keys  is  different.  The  structure  is  as 
follows;  — 


SS8  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

1.  Chief  theme,  in  the  tonic  minor.  Tributary  passage,  leading 
to  a  half  cadence  in  the  relative  major. 

2.  Second  theme,  in  the  relative  major. 

3.  Closing  theme  or  themes,  in  the  relative  major. 

4.  Development,  free  in  style  and  key. 

5.  Return  of  chief  theme,  in  tonic  minor. 

6.  Return  of  side  theme,  in  tonic  minor  or  major. 

7.  Closing  theme  or  themes,  in  tonic  minor. 

If  there  is  a  coda,  division  7  may  be  in  the  tonic  major,  allowing 
the  coda  to  establish  the  tonic  minor  key. 

Another  form  of  sonata  allegro  in  minor  allows  divisions  2  and  3 
to  occur  in  the  dominant  minor,  instead  of  the  relative  major.  In 
the  return,  divisions  6  and  7  will  then  occur  in  the  tonic  minor. 

To  illustrate  the  sonata  allegro  in  major,  the  Mozart  Sonata  in 
F  (no.  3  in  the  Litolff  collection),  may  be  analyzed  here:  — 

Chief  theme,  in  F,  measures  1-22.  Tributary,  here  a  theme,  lead- 
ing from  D-minor  to  a  half  cadence  in  C,  measures  22-40. 

Second  theme,  in  C,  measures  41-86.  From  measure  56  some 
tributary  modulation  appears,  but  the  ending  is  on  the  proper  key. 

Closing  theme  in  C,  measures  86-93.  All  three  themes  repeated. 

Middle  part,  of  new  material,  in  different  keys,  ending  on  the 
dominant  seventh  chord  of  F,  measures  94-132. 

Recapitulation.  Chief  theme,  in  F,  measures  133-154.  Side 
theme,  ending  this  time  in  F,  measures  154-176. 

Second  theme,  now  in  F,  measures  177-222.  Tributary  work 
begins  at  measure  192. 

Closing  theme,  now  in  F,  measures  222-229. 

The  first  movement  of  Haydn's  Sonata  in  D  (no.  7  in  "Ten  Cele- 
brated Sonatas")  is  analyzed  here  as  another  example  of  the  form 
in  major:  — 

Chief  theme,  an  8-bar  period,  ending  in  a  full  cadence.  Tributary, 
8  bars  ending  with  a  half  cadence  in  the  tonic. 

Second  theme,  19  measures  long,  in  A. 

Closing  theme,  a  little  over  five  bars,  in  A. 

Development,  20  measures. 

Return  of  chief  theme,  in  D,  somewhat  altered  and  extended. 
Tributary  passage  altered  to  6  measures. 

Second  theme,  much  as  before,  but  now  in  D. 


THE  SONATA-ALLEGRO  FORM  339 

Closing  theme  as  before,  but  now  in  D. 

As  a  clear  example  of  the  sonata  allegro  in  the  usual  minor  form, 
the  opening  movement  of  Beethoven's  first  sonata  (Op.  2,  no.  1)  is 
now  analyzed:  — 

Chief  theme,  in  F-minor,  measures  1-8.  Tributary,  with  half 
cadence  in  A-flat-major,  measures  8-20. 

Second  theme,  in  A-flat-major,  measures  20-41. 

Closing  theme,  in  A-flat-major,  measures  41-48.  All  repeated. 

Development,  founded  largely  on  the  main  figure  of  the  chief 
theme,  and  modulatory,  measures  49-93.  Returning  passage, 
measures  93-100. 

Return  of  chief  theme,  F-minor,  measures  101-108.  Tributary 
passage,  with  modulations  altered,  measures  108-119. 

Second  theme,  now  in  F-minor,  measures  119-140. 

Closing  theme,  extended,  now  in  F-minor,  measures  140-152. 

The  first  movement  of  Beethoven's  "Sonata  Pathetique"  is  an 
excellent  example  of  Beethoven's  union  of  form  with  expressive 
power.  Knowing  his  love  of  liberty  and  his  high  conception  of  hu- 
manity, this  movement  seems  almost  like  a  tone-picture  of  man's 
struggle  with  adversity. 

The  introduction  that  begins  the  work  is  gloomy  and  tragic  in 
the  extreme.  Then  come  the  themes,  powerful  enough  to  suggest 
almost  any  sort  of  effort  or  combat.  The  seventeen-bar  chief  theme 
and  the  twenty-three-bar  tributary  are  literally  full  of  fight.  The 
thirty-eight  bars  of  the  side  theme  are  less  tumultuous,  but  the  long 
thirty-three-bar  closing  theme  soon  grows  combative  again.  Strug- 
gle, sadness,  and  renewed  effort  are  what  the  themes  seem  to  typify. 
A  retuniing  passage  leads  to  the  repeat,  and  a  transition  passage 
to  the  development.  When  the  latter  begins,  four  measures  of  the 
sad  introduction  are  heard.  Then  renewed  struggle  is  suggested 
by  the  development,  starting  with  the  opening  figure  of  the  chief 
theme.  The  recapitulation  follows,  with  a  transition  to  the  coda. 
The  latter  begins  with  the  introduction  figure,  which  is  here  made 
suggestive  of  utter  weakness  by  the  omission  of  an  accented  chord. 
Just  at  the  finish,  however,  the  true  Beethoven  spirit  of  defiance 
shows  itself;  and  the  movement  ends  with  one  more  rush  of  the 
chief-theme  figure,  like  a  last  command  to  fight  on,  even  against 
fate  itself. 


340  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

The  finale  of  Beethoven's  first  piano  sonata  (Op.  2,  no.  1)  is  a 
good  example  of  the  sonata-allegro  form  with  the  themes  appearing 
in  the  dominant  minor  instead  of  the  relative  major.  The  move- 
ment being  in  F-minor,  the  second  and  closing  themes  appear  first 
in  C-minor,  and  return  later  in  F-minor.  Such  constant  minor  effects 
would  be  apt  to  produce  monotony  if  unrelieved;  so  Beethoven  put 
in  a  middle  part  instead  of  a  development,  and  wrote  it  fluently 
in  major  for  purposes  of  contrast.  After  it  ends,  a  returning  pas- 
sage leads  to  the  recapitulation. 

The  sonatas  of  Mozart  and  Haydn  show  clearness  of  form,  and  a 
light  but  pleasing  cheerfulness.  Those  of  Beethoven  have  much 
more  dramatic  power.  Weber's  sonatas  were  highly  prized,  but  are 
not  often  heard  now.  Liszt's  sonata,  and  those  of  MacDowell,  are 
free  in  form,  and  in  the  modem  style.  The  last  five  sonatas  of  Bee- 
thoven, too,  are  free  in  shape.  They  are  tremendously  broad  piano 
rhapsodies  in  style  and  spirit,  and  have  been  aptly  spoken  of  as 
"veiled  symphonies."  But  while  the  later  Beethoven  and  the  mod- 
em radicals  dispensed  with  strict  form,  it  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  their  genius  entitled  them  to  liberty  of  thought  and  expression. 
The  student  of  to-day  will  do  well  to  study  form  thoroughly,  and 
appreciate  all  its  possibilities.  He  should  be  able  to  master  form 
before  he  discards  it,  if  he  wishes  to  excel  in  composition. 


XXXVI 

OTHER  SONATA  MOVEMENTS 

The  piano  sonata,  and  the  orchestral  forms  that  are  built  on  the 
same  lines,  consist  usually  of  three  or  four  movements,  the  latter 
being  the  more  com^mon  nimiber  in  a  large  work.  The  first  move- 
ment is  generally  in  sonata-allegro  form,  and  somewhat  intellectual 
in  character.  The  second  movement  is  often  a  slow,  expressive 
affair,  lyrical  and  emotional  in  character.  The  third  movement  is 
often  light  and  playful,  or  at  least  animated  in  style,  —  a  minuet 
in  the  Haydn-Mozart  works,  or  a  scherzo  in  more  recent  composi- 
tions. The  fourth  movement,  or  finale,  is  usually  brilliant.  All 
these  movements  except  the  first  may  be  in  any  one  of  several  differ- 
ent forms.  Sometimes  it  is  rather  a  puzzle  to  find  for  the  finale  mate- 
rial that  will  make  it  a  worthy  conclusion  to  a  work  without  causing 
any  repetition  of  form  or  style. 

The  first  movement  itself  may  be  free  in  style.  This  is  unusual, 
but  examples  are  readily  foimd,  as  is  shown  by  Beethoven's  so- 
called  "Moonlight  Sonata."  This  work,  entitled  "Sonata  quasi 
xma  Fantasia,"  has  a  free,  fantasia-like  movement  at  the  beginning. 
Its  bright  allegretto  and  rushing  finale  suggest  that  the  opening 
fantasia  corresponds  to  the  slow  movement,  and  that  the  sonata  is 
really  written  without  any  first  movement. 

The  second  and  third  movements  may  sometmies  change  places. 

In  a  three-movement  work,  the  scherzo  movement  is  suppressed, 
the  slow  movement  thus  coming  between  two  quick  ones. 

The  slow  movement  of  a  sonata,  symphony,  etc.,  may  be  in  one 
of  many  forms.  It  may  use  one  of  the  song-forms,  with  or  without 
trio;  it  may  be  a  first  or  second  rondo;  it  may  be  a  theme,  perhaps 
andante,  with  variations;  it  may  be  a  sonata-allegro  form  again;  or 
it  may  be  a  sonata  rondo,  or  sonatina,  or  sonatina  rondo. 

Of  these  different  shapes,  the  song-forms,  rondos,  and  sonata 
form  have  been  described  already.  A  song-form  is  found  in  the  slow 
movement  of  Mendelssohn's  violin  concerto.  The  slow  movements 


S42  THE   BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

of  a  Beethoven  and  a  Mozart  sonata  have  been  cited  previously  as 
first  rondos.  The  slow  movement  of  Beethoven's  "Sonata  Pathe- 
tique"has  been  mentioned  as  a  second  rondo.  The  5/4  movement 
of  Tschaikovsky's  "Symphonie  Pathetique"  is  an  example  of  a 
large  song-form  with  trio;  and  minuets  are  regularly  in  this  form. 
The  slow  movement  of  Beethoven's  first  symphony  is  an  illustration 
of  the  use  of  sonata  allegro. 

The  so-called  sonata  rondo  varies  the  sonata-allegro  form  by  the 
principle  of  the  rondo,  i.e.,  the  frequent  appearance  of  the  chief 
theme.  There  is  usually  no  repeat  in  a  sonata  rondo.  The  theme 
appears  twice  more  than  in  sonata  form,  —  once  at  the  end  of  the 
exposition,  and  once  at  the  end  of  the  recapitulation.  The  divisions 
of  the  sonata  rondo  are  therefore  chief  theme,  second  theme,  closing 
theme,  chief  theme,  development,  chief  theme,  second  theme,  clos- 
ing theme,  and  chief  theme.  An  example  of  the  sonata  rondo 
may  be  found  in  the  finale  of  Beethoven's  "Sonata  Pathetique." 

The  sonatina  form  is  a  short,  primitive  sonata  allegro.  It  begins 
with  two  themes,  a  chief  theme  and  a  side  theme,  contrasted  and 
joined  like  those  of  the  sonata  allegro,  but  rather  lighter  in  style. 
Usually  there  is  no  development.  The  recapitulation  consists  of 
the  two  themes,  this  time  both  in  the  tonic  key.  The  sonatina  may 
have  two  or  three  movements.  Clementi  wrote  a  number  of  works 
in  this  form,  which  the  student  may  inspect  for  purposes  of  analy- 
sis. The  sonatina  form  may  be  used  for  a  sonata  movement. 

The  sonatina  rondo  consists  of  theme,  second  theme  in  the  proper 
related  key,  theme,  second  theme  in  the  tonic,  and  theme  again. 
This  form  also  may  be  used  in  a  sonata  movement. 

Variations  of  a  theme  have  been  a  favorite  form  with  the  great 
composers.  Beethoven,  Brahms,  Elgar,  Reger,  Tschaikovsky,  and 
others  have  made  a  separate  work  of  this  form,  the  Brahms  varia- 
tions on  a  Haydn  theme  being  especially  beautiful.  Beethoven 
used  variations  in  the  finale  of  his  "  Eroica  Symphony,"  in  the  slow 
movement  of  his  piano  sonata  (Op.  14,  no.  2),  and  in  the  slow  move- 
ment of  his  "Kreutzer  Sonata"  for  violin  and  piano.  Variations 
enable  a  composer  to  show  his  mastery  over  different  styles  of  writ- 
ing. There  is  always  danger  of  their  growing  into  a  mere  technical 
display;  and  the  composer  must  guard  against  this  fault. 

The  minuet  movement  of  the  old  symphonies  was  regularly  in 


OTHER  SONATA  MOVEMENTS  84S 

the  shape  of  song-form  with  trio.  The  minuet  in  Beethoven's  first 
symphony  is  a  case  in  point.  Beethoven  substituted  the  scherzo 
for  the  minuet,  and  in  his  later  s5miphonies  made  it  very  brusque 
and  strong.  In  the  scherzo  the  dance-Uke  character  of  the  themes 
is  absent,  the  treatment  is  fairly  free,  and  development  is  permis- 
sible. But  many  scherzo  movements  keep  to  the  song-form  and  trio 
structure.  Schumann  has  been  quoted  as  using  the  song-form  with 
two  trios  in  the  scherzo  of  his  first  sjmiphony.  The  scherzo  is  now 
treated  as  an  independent  piano  piece,  and  works  in  this  form  by 
Kullak  and  Chopin  may  be  investigated  by  the  student. 

Brahms  replaced  the  scherzo  by  the  intermezzo.  This  is  still 
much  like  a  song-form  with  trio.  The  first  part  generally  consists 
of  two  themes,  as  in  the  song-form.  A  trio  follows,  in  contrasted 
style.  The  earlier  themes  do  not  return  as  a  whole,  but  are  replaced 
by  a  coda  containing  reminiscences  of  them. 

The  minuet  is  properly  in  3/4  rhythm;  but  the  scherzo  and  inter- 
mezzo may  be  in  any  suitable  rhythm,  although  most  scherzos  are 
in  3/4  rhythm. 

The  finale  is  usually  a  brilliant  movement.  Yet  every  rule  has 
exceptions,  and  we  find  Tschaikovsky  ending  his  "Symphonic 
Pathetique"  with  a  very  mournful  slow  movement.  But  this  is 
only  one  of  the  cases  that  prove  the  rule. 

In  the  time  of  Haydn  and  Mozart,  the  finale  was  often  a  light, 
jovial  movement  in  rondo  form.  Even  Beethoven  followed  the  ear- 
lier custom  in  the  finale  of  his  first  symphony.  This  style  of  ending 
was  evidently  taken  from  the  old  suite,  which  closed  with  a  rollick- 
ing gigue,  or  jig. 

In  Beethoven's  second  symphony  he  ended  the  work  with  more 
power;  while  in  his  third,  he  used  variations  that  were  built  up  into 
a  grand  climax.  The  fifth  symphony  finale  is  another  tremendously 
powerful  movement,  before  which  the  rondos  of  Haydn  and  Mozart 
may  hide  their  diminished  heads.  The  finale  of  Beethoven's  seventh 
symphony  is  a  riot  of  speed  and  liveliness.  The  eighth  closes  more 
conventionally,  but  the  ninth  again  ends  powerfully,  having  varia- 
tions that  bring  in  the  choral  work  described  in  a  previous  chapter. 

Besides  variations,  the  sonata  form  is  sometimes  used  in  the  finale, 
or  even  the  sonata  rondo,  as  already  illustrated.  The  finale  of  Bee- 
thoven's sonata  Op.  7  is  a  sonata  rondo.  The  finales  of  Op.  2, 


344  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

no.  1,  and  of  the  fifth  symphony,  are  in  sonata  form.  The  sonatas 
Op.  109  and  Op.  Ill  end  with  variations.  The  sonata  Op.  106, 
known  as  the  "  Grand  Sonata,"  closes  with  a  fugue.  The  fugue  was 
sometimes  used  as  a  finale  by  Haydn  and  Mozart,  while  Lachner 
employed  it  in  his  suite  Op.  113. 

The  full  possibiUties  of  the  sonata  form  should  now  be  apparent 
to  the  reader.  The  complete  sonata  consists  of  four  movements 
which  show  the  utmost  variety  of  style,  and  allow  the  composer  to 
make  the  most  artistic  contrasts. 

In  the  first  movement,  the  themes  themselves  are  of  varying 
character,  allowing  the  composer  to  balance  them  in  excellent 
fashion.  The  exposition  is  then  put  in  contrast  with  the  develop- 
ment, in  which  the  thematic  material  may  be  woven  and  interwoven 
to  form  an  exquisite  design,  or  worked  up  to  a  grand  climax. 

Against  this  movement,  usually  somewhat  intellectual  in  charac- 
ter, is  placed  the  Ijrrical  and  expressive  emotion  of  the  slow  move- 
ment. Here  feeling  is  paramount,  and  simplicity  is  often  the  key- 
note. 

Following  this  comes  tiie  scherzo  or  its  equivalent,  —  again  a 
complete  change  in  style.  Now  everything  is  playful  and  light,  or 
else  bizarre  or  brusque  in  effect. 

The  finale  brings  still  another  change.  In  some  degree  it  is  a 
reversion  to  the  style  of  the  first  movement.  But  as  a  general  rule 
the  finale  is  made  dashing  and  brilliant,  while  the  first  movement 
was  more  earnest  and  serious. 

In  all  the  later  movements,  the  composer  has  such  choice  of  form 
that  he  should  be  able  to  give  the  fullest  expression  to  his  musical 
ideas.  Even  in  the  first  movement,  there  is  sufficient  freedom  with- 
in the  form  for  him  to  develop  his  thoughts  unhampered.  The  vari- 
ety and  artistic  possibilities  of  the  sonata  and  symphony  have 
resulted  in  music  of  the  utmost  value,  —  music  that  comes  as  a  reve- 
lation to  the  cultivated  hearer,  and  appeals  to  his  highest  emotions 
in  a  language  that  is  said  to  begin  where  speech  ends. 


XXXVII 

THE  ORCHESTRAL  FORMS 

As  already  intimated,  the  symphony  is  an  orchestral  sonata,  usu- 
ally in  four  movements.  Occasionally  these  movements  are  differ- 
ent from  those  of  the  sonata,  and  national  dances  may  be  used. 
Thus  Tschaikovsky  introduced  the  brilliant  Russian  Kamarinskaia, 
while  Dvorak  employed  the  melancholy  Dumka  and  the  wild  Furi- 
ant.  Berlioz  and  Tschaikovsky  tried  a  waltz  movement  in  a  sym- 
phony; but  the  waltz  is  rather  too  informal  for  the  best  effects. 
Rubinstein's  "Ocean  Symphony"  contains  seven  movements. 

The  concerto  is  generally  a  three-movement  orchestral  sonata, 
with  the  scherzo  omitted.  Sometimes  concerto  movements  merge 
into  one  another  with  no  pause  between  them.  This  is  true  occasion- 
ally of  the  symphony  also.  Toward  the  close  of  the  first  movement 
in  a  concerto,  and  sometimes  in  the  last  movement,  occurs  what  is 
known  as  a  cadenza.  This  is  an  xmaccompanied  passage  for  the  solo 
instrument.  It  is  usually  brilliant  in  character,  giving  the  soloist 
a  chance  to  display  his  technique.  Sometimes  the  cadenza  is  writ- 
ten by  the  composer.  More  often,  however,  it  is  left  to  the  per- 
former. He  may  sometimes  use  a  cadenza  of  his  own,  or  one  written 
by  anybody,  even  when  the  composer  has  made  his  own  cadenza. 
A  number  of  cadenzas  in  great  works  have  been  published  separately 
by  famous  performers.  The  place  for  the  cadenza  is  indicated  in 
the  score  by  a  hold  on  a  dominant  or  6/4  tonic  chord.  The  per- 
former ends  the  cadenza  by  a  long-sustained  trill,  on  a  note  that 
will  allow  the  conductor  to  make  the  orchestra  enter  in  proper  har- 
mony, —  usually  the  dominant  degree. 

Concertos  may  be  written  for  more  than  one  instrument  of  the 
same  kind,  or  even  for  instruments  of  several  kinds,  with  orches- 
tra. The  best  concertos  do  not  resemble  instrumental  solos  with 
accompaniment,  but  are  really  orchestral  works  with  one  or  more 
threads  of  solo  music  interwoven  into  their  texture.  Beethoven, 
who  thought  naturally  for  orchestra,  wrote  concertos  that  fulfilled 


346  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

this  requirement  admirably.  Schubert  avoided  the  concerto,  and 
even  in  his  symphonies  it  often  seems  as  if  the  musical  ideas  were 
thinly  disguised  songs.  Schumann's  massive  chord-style  was  pian- 
istic  enough,  but  not  unsuited  for  orchestral  use  also;  and  his  piano 
concerto  shows  the  proper  balance,  even  though  his  instrumenta- 
tion is  often  poor.  Chopin,  on  the  other  hand,  was  more  exclusively 
devoted  to  an  expressive  melodic  style.  As  a  result,  his  concertos 
seem  like  piano  solos  with  incidental  orchestral  accompaniment. 

Symphonies  and  concertos  can  be  built  on  a  far  grander  scale  than 
piano  sonatas.  In  the  first  place,  the  variety  of  orchestral  coloring 
is  very  great.  A  piano  piece  in  comparison  with  an  orchestral  work 
has  been  likened  to  a  black-and-white  drawing  beside  an  oil  paint- 
ing; and  the  comparison  is  certainly  just.  In  piano  work,  too,  the 
number  of  notes  is  limited  to  the  ability  that  can  be  shown  by  a 
single  pair  of  hands;  while  in  the  orchestra  a  chord  may  consist  of 
many  notes.  This  increases  the  possibilities  of  dramatic  effect.  In 
orchestral  music,  too,  development  is  carried  to  a  greater  extent 
than  in  piano  music. 

Chamber  music  is  very  often  written  in  sonata  form.  The  term 
"chamber  music"  is  derived  from  the  Italian  words  musica  di 
camera,  in  contradistinction  to  musica  di  chiesa,  or  church  music. 
It  was  played  at  first  only  in  the  chambers  of  wealthy  amateurs. 
All  music  for  combinations  of  instruments  smaller  than  an  orches- 
tra is  called  chamber  music.  The  most  common  form  is  the  string 
quartet,  consisting  of  a  first  and  second  violin,  a  viola,  and  a  'cello. 
Piano  quartets,  with  piano,  violin,  viola,  and  'cello,  are  fairly  numer- 
ous; and  piano  trios,  with  violin,  'cello,  and  piano,  are  still  more  so. 
Many  sonatas  have  been  written  for  single  instruments  with  piano. 
The  piano  quintet  adds  the  keyboard  to  the  instruments  of  the 
string  quartet.  Various  combinations  for  strings  and  woodwind 
have  been  employed;  while  even  the  brass  instruments  are  used 
occasionally.  In  chamber  music  the  grandeur  of  the  orchestra  is 
absent;  but  this  is  atoned  for  by  a  clear  and  interesting  leading  of 
the  parts.  Thus  a  string  quartet  may  be  a  work  of  consummate 
skill,  in  spite  of  its  often  having  an  apparently  simple  effect. 

Overtures  are  often  written  in  sonata-allegro  form.  In  such  cases 
there  is  usually  no  repeat  of  the  exposition .  Some  overtures  have  little 
development,  the  chief  interest  lying  in  the  well-contrasted  themes. 


THE  ORCHESTRAL  FORMS  347 

One  of  the  earliest  styles  of  this  form  was  known  as  the  French 
overture.  In  fact  the  word  overture  comes  directly  from  the  French, 
and  means  an  opening  piece.  Lully  and  others  of  his  time  devel- 
oped an  overture  consisting  of  a  slow  movement  followed  without 
pause  by  a  quick  one.  The  slow  section  was  a  fairly  short  introduc- 
tion, while  the  rapid  part  was  often  a  fugue.  Handel  used  this  form 
in  the  overture  to  his  "Messiah."  Sometimes  the  French  composers 
followed  the  rapid  section  with  a  moderately  slow  dance  movement, 
w^hich  was  held  to  be  part  of  the  form. 

The  classical  overture  has  the  sonata-allegro  shape,  with  no  repeat 
of  the  exposition.  Mozart's  opera  overtures,  such  a^s  those  to  "  Don 
Giovanni,"  "The  Marriage  of  Figaro,"  etc.,  are  in  this  form. 
Weber  used  the  form,  slightly  modified,  in  his  "Freischiitz,"  "Eury- 
anthe,"  and  "Oberon"  overtures,  and  at  the  same  time  chose  the 
themes  from  the  music  of  the  operas  that  followed. 

The  dramatic  overture  aims  to  give  a  suggestion  or  an  epitome 
of  the  opera  that  follows  it.  Such  overtures  were  not  restricted  in 
form.  They  were  originated  by  Gluck,  who  sometimes  kept  them 
separate,  but  generally  allowed  them  to  lead  directly  into  the 
opera.  At  times  they  approached  the  sonata-allegro  form  in  shape. 
Beethoven  adopted  the  dramatic  overture  with  evident  preference 
for  it,  and  his  "Leonora  no.  3,"  for  the  opera  "Fidelio,"  is  an  excel- 
lent example.  Beethoven  always  kept  the  overture  as  a  separate 
piece.  Beethoven's  other  overtures,  too,  are  really  dramatic,  though 
the  one  to  "Egmont"  approaches  the  classical  overture  in  form. 

The  concert  overture  resembles  the  classical  overture  in  follow- 
ing the  sonata-allegro  form.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  fact  that 
it  is  not  attached  to  any  opera  or  play,  but  is  a  separate  composi- 
tion intended  for  concert  performance.  Mendelssohn  brought  this 
form  into  prominence,  his  "Hebrides"  and  "Sea-Calm  and  Pros- 
perous Voyage"  overtures  being  unconnected  with  any  dramatic 
work. 

The  medley  overture,  used  by  Harold,  Auber,  and  others,  has 
no  definite  form,  but  is  merely  a  string  of  melodies  drawn  from  the 
opera  that  is  to  follow  it.  The  tunes  and  sections  are  put  together 
without  any  regard  for  definite  form;  but  the  composer  usually  sees 
to  it  that  they  are  well  contrasted  and  arranged  to  make  a  climax 
whenever  possible. 


848  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOT\TEDGE 

The  Wagnerian  Prelude,  or  Vorspiel,  is  an  outgrowth  of  the 
dramatic  overture.  But  Wagner's  preludes  are  so  varied  in  form 
and  effect  that  they  deserve  a  separate  classification.  Sometimes, 
as  in  the  "Meistersinger"  Prelude,  he  foreshadowed  the  plot  of  the 
opera  itself;  while  on  other  occasions,  as  in  the  Prelude  to  "Lohen- 
grin," he  limited  himself  to  a  simpler  suggestion,  —  the  coming  and 
going  of  the  Holy  Grail.  The  Vorspiel  leads  directly  into  the  opera 
that  follows  it. 

Liszt  and  others  have  developed  the  symphony  along  the  lines  of 
programme  music,  and  even  invented  a  new  form,  the  symphonic 
poem,  to  satisfy  their  desires  and  enable  them  to  devote  themselves 
wholly  to  programme  effects.  As  stated  in  a  previous  chapter,  pro- 
gramme music  is  music  that  tries  to  portray  definite  scenes  or  events. 
Very  often  the  title  is  a  sufficient  clue.  Thus  in  Liszt's  "Faust" 
Symphony,  the  first  movement  t3T)ifies  Faust,  the  second,  Mar- 
guerite, and  the  third,  Mephistopheles. 

The  symphonic  poem  is  a  free  orchestral  form.  There  are  no  laws 
governing  its  shape,  except  those  of  good  taste,  —  or  those  of  pub- 
lic taste,  one  might  better  say.  Yet  composers  generally  choose 
poetic  subjects,  so  that  they  are  enabled  to  write  expressive  or 
dramatic  music.  In  the  symphonic  poem,  form  thus  becomes  an 
individual  matter.  Yet  the  general  laws  hold  good  still.  There 
must  be  sufficient  balance,  contrast,  and  growth  toward  a  climax. 
There  must  also  be  good  music.  Very  many  works  by  contemporary 
composers  are  heard  once  or  twice,  and  then  laid  aside  as  uninterest- 
ing. In  all  the  modem  struggle  for  suggestive  tonal  effects,  inspira- 
tion has  not  yet  been  made  unnecessaiy  by  mere  skill.  Talent,  or 
genius,  is  still  a  desideratum. 

Liszt  chose  excellent  subjects  for  his  symphonic  poems, — sub- 
jects that  enabled  him  to  give  free  rein  to  his  creative  ability.  His 
most  glorious  work,  "Les  Preludes,"  illustrates  a  sentence  of  Lamar- 
tine,  which  shows  that  the  varied  phases  of  life,  such  as  love,  hap- 
piness, or  glory,  are  all  a  prelude  to  eternity.  In  "Tasso,  Lamento  e 
Trionfo,"  the  strong  contrast  between  the  two  parts  of  the  work  is 
brought  into  notice  at  once  by  the  title.  The  "Battle  of  the  Huns," 
after  a  painting  by  Kaulbach,  is  another  suggestive  subject. 

Richard  Strauss  has  gone  farthest  afield  in  programme  music; 
and  he  claims  that  the  time  will  come  when  music  can  give  a  de- 


THE  ORCHESTRAL  FORMS  349 

tailed  description  of  such  a  definite  subject  as  a  man  at  a  meal,  and 
show  when  he  takes  up  or  puts  down  his  knife  or  fork.  But  the  fact 
still  remains  that  Strauss  himself  is  best  in  those  subjects  that  bring 
the  emphasis  on  emotion  rather  than  events.  The  yearning  mem- 
ories and  the  great  apotheosis  in  "Death  and  Transfiguration"  are 
of  higher  artistic  value  than  the  attempts  to  show  Don  Quixote 
in  an  upsetting  boat,  or  on  an  imaginary  trip  through  the  air. 

Composers  have  used  the  variation  form  to  some  extent  in  pro- 
gramme music.  Strauss's  "Don  Quixote"  is  still  the  most  promi- 
nent example.  Elgar,  however,  indulged  in  a  more  private  style  of 
programme  music  by  portraying  various  friends  in  his  "Enigma" 
variations.  D'Indy's  "Istar"  is  another  large  programme  work 
in  the  variation  form.  In  this  composition  the  variations  are 
complex  at  first,  while  the  theme  comes  at  the  end.  This  unusual 
procedui*e  is  suited  to  its  subject,  as  Istar  is  forced  to  disrobe  in 
order  to  reach  her  lover  in  the  Halls  of  Death. 

The  symphony  itself  has  been  used  in  programme  music  ever 
since  the  time  of  Beethoven's  "Pastoral."  Raff  wrote  a  number  of 
programme  symphonies,  including  those  entitled  "Lenore"  and 
"Im  Walde."  Goldmark's  "Rustic  Wedding"  Symphony  was 
very  familiar  a  generation  ago.  Rjmsky-Korsakov's  "Antar"  and 
"  Scheherazade  "  are  both  called  symphonies,  though  they  tell  very 
definite  stories. 

The  growth  of  the  programme  school  has  resulted  in  a  strongly 
dramatic  style,  that  has  threatened  to  obliterate  the  quieter  vein  of 
classicism.  Attention  was  given  to  this  subject  in  the  chapter  on 
Brahms  and  Bruckner,  in  which  it  was  shown  that  Bruckner  wrote 
pure  music  that  was  more  closely  related  to  the  modem  programme 
effects  than  that  of  Brahms.  In  Mahler's  symphonies  the  dramatic 
style  is  far  more  in  evidence.  They  are  full  of  such  strong  contrasts 
and  discordant  intensity  that  they  seem  like  programme  music  with 
the  programme  left  out.  They  are  symphonies  in  name,  but  sjon- 
phonic  poems  in  fact. 

The  suite,  or  "set"  of  pieces,  is  now  an  orchestral  form  in  several 
movements;  but  the  individual  movements  have  more  freedom  and 
informality  than  those  of  the  symphony.  Some  composers  made 
the  suite  into  a  definite  form,  while  others  arranged  suites  from  the 
incidental  music  they  had  written  for  some  play  or  ballet.  Lachner 


350  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

worked  purposely  in  the  suite  form,  writing  eight  examples  of  it. 
Most  famous  among  Lachner's  suites  is  the  one  containing  his  well- 
known  march  and  an  orchestral  fugue.  In  such  suites  the  form  of 
the  first  movement  may  sometimes  approach  the  sonata  allegro; 
but  the  style  is  not  necessarily  as  elevated  as  in  symphony.  The 
other  movements  may  have  any  of  the  forms  enumerated  in  the 
preceding  chapter. 

Of  the  suites  built  up  from  incidental  or  other  music,  Grieg's  two 
"Peer  Gynt"  suites  and  Bizet's  two  "Arlesienne"  suites  are  the 
best  known.  There  is  no  attempt  at  sonata-allegro  form  in  these 
works.  Bizet's  two  compositions,  taken  from  music  to  Daudet's 
play,  begin  in  frankly  melodious  fashion;  while  the  first  Grieg  work 
opens  with  a  tone-picture  of  a  "Morning  Mood"  that  certainly 
suggests  sunrise  and  the  growing  light  of  day.  Another  well-known 
suite  is  the  "Nutcracker,"  by  Tschaikovsky,  taken  from  one  of  his 
ballets. 

The  divertimento  is  somewhat  like  the  suite,  but  even  more  light 
and  informal  in  character.  Tschaikovsky  made  it  a  single  suite 
movement. 

The  serenade  was  formerly  held  to  be  a  piece  or  set  of  pieces  play- 
able in  the  evening.  It  thus  became  somewhat  like  the  diverti- 
mento. Volkmann's  Serenade  for  string  orchestra  is  an  example. 

The  old  suite,  composed  of  dances  and  similar  movements,  will 
be  described  in  the  following  chapter. 

In  all  these  works  the  composers  took  care  to  give  the  proper 
balance  between  the  styles  of  the  different  movements. 


XXXVIII 

DANCES  AND  PIANO  STYLES 

Dancing  has  existed  from  the  earliest  times;  and  it  probably 
originated,  among  prehistoric  races,  from  pantomime  intended  to 
be  descriptive  of  hmiting  or  martial  scenes.  Many  of  the  early 
religions  adopted  dancing  as  part  of  their  ceremonial;  but  in  his- 
toric times  it  has  always  been  an  independent  art  as  well. 

Circular  dances  are  found  to  have  existed  among  the  old  sun- 
worshippers.  The  Biblical  dance  about  the  Golden  Calf,  or  that 
around  the  bull  Apis,  show  the  same  character.  A  similar  round 
formation  existed  in  the  German  "Reigen"  of  early  mediaeval  times, 
which  survive  in  children's  games,  such  as  "Little  Sally  Waters" 
and  others  of  the  sort. 

The  Grecian  dances  and  the  Roman  pantomime,  described  in  an 
earlier  chapter,  had  little  effect  on  mediaeval  dancing.  The  art  re- 
ceived scant  encouragement  during  the  dark  ages;  but  the  Trouba- 
dours and  Minnesingers  brought  in  their  train  a  revival  of  dancing 
as  well  as  of  song.  In  Grermany,  a  quick  dance  was  often  followed 
by  a  slow  one,  while  a  later  return  of  the  quick  movement  brought 
about  a  first  rondo  effect.  In  France,  the  French  overture  developed 
from  a  slow  dance  followed  by  a  rapid  one.  There  were  various  re- 
ligious dances,  of  more  or  less  influence  on  the  popular  branch  of  the 
art.  The  Flagellants  had  a  penitential  dance,  which  they  employed 
in  times  of  plague  or  other  calamity. 

The  stately  Saraband  arose  directly  from  the  dance  of  the  Span- 
ish altar-boys  on  Holy  Thursday.  It  was  a  slow  dance  in  triple 
rhythm. 

A  dance  that  is  now  not  clearly  understood  is  the  English  Morris 
Dance.  Some  claim  that  the  title  comes  from  Morisco,  and  indicates 
a  Moorish  origin,  if  not  a  relation  to  the  Spanish  Fandango.  In 
England  it  was  merged  into  an  old  pantomime  celebrating  Robin 
Hood.  The  Morris  Dance  could  be  made  to  progress  from  place 
to  place;  and  Will  Kempe  once  danced  it  from  London  to  Norwich. 


852  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

In  modem  times,  Edward  German  composed  a  very  pleasing  Morris 
Dance  in  his  music  to  "Henry  VIII." 

The  Hornpipe,  once  cherished  by  sailors,  was  originally  an  Eng- 
lish shepherds'  dance,  the  horn  being  really  a  shepherd's  pipe,  as 
shown  by  the  name  English  horn.  Tne  Hornpipe  was  a  lively  dance 
in  even  rhythm. 

Another  rustic  dance  in  England  was  the  Hay,  or  Hey.  This  was 
a  circular  arrangement,  much  used  at  May-Day  gatherings.  When 
Shakespeare  makes  Titania  say,  "Come,  now,  a  roundel  and  a  fairy 
song,"  the  roundel  refers  to  the  circular  Hay.  Sometimes  words 
were  sung  to  it. 

In  "Much  Ado  about  Nothing,"  Beatrice  remarks  that  "Wooing, 
wedding,  and  repenting  is  a  Scottish  jig,  a  measure,  and  a  cinque- 
pace."  The  jig,  in  various  nations,  was  a  lively  6/8  or  12/8  move- 
ment. It  was  often  called  "Gigue,"  from  the  German  word  Geige, 
meaning  fiddle;  and  that  instrument  was  well  suited  to  the  rapid 
style  of  the  dance.  The  Gigue  was  typical  of  the  lover's  haste.  The 
Measure,  derived  from  "Passo-Mezzo,"  or  medium  step,  was  more 
quiet  and  regular.  When  Lochinvar  exclaims,  "Now  tread  we  a 
Measure,"  he  refers  to  this  dance,  and  not  to  a  bar  of  music.  Its 
even  course  typifies  quiet  married  life,  according  to  Beatrice.  The 
Cinque-Pace  (cinque-pas)  was  an  irregular  five-step  affair,  aptly 
illustratmg  the  break-up  of  domestic  harmony. 

Somewhat  slower  varieties  of  the  Gigue  were  known  as  the  Loure 
and  the  Canary. 

The  Gaillard  was  a  more  graceful  dance,  though  still  fairly  lively. 
In  Italy  and  France  it  was  known,  from  its  Roman  origin,  as  the 
Romanesca;  and  Liszt's  piano  arrangement  of  this  old  singing-dance 
will  show  the  graceful  style  of  its  music.  In  even  rhythm,  it  flows 
along  smoothly  at  first,  but  hurries  before  the  close.  Evidently  the 
Gaillard  demanded  some  agility;  for  an  old  English  letter  says,  "Our 
Galliardes  are  so  cm-ious  that  thei  are  not  for  my  daunsjmg,  for  the! 
are  so  full  of  trickes  and  toumes,  that  he  which  hath  no  more  but 
the  plaine  Singuepace  is  no  better  accumpted  of  than  a  verie  bomgler." 

The  Tordion,  or  Tourdion,  was  much  like  the  Gaillard,  but 
slower  and  smoother. 

Another  dance  mentioned  by  Shakespeare  is  the  Dump.  But  the 
words  "Play  me  some  merry  dump  "  are  paradoxical,  since  the  Dump 


DANCES  AND  PIANO  STYLES  85S 

was  a  dance  of  sad  and  doleful  character.  It  was  probably  derived 
from  the  Bohemian  Dumka,  the  elegiac  movement  that  Dvorak 
used  in  his  symphonies. 

The  AUemande  was  of  German  origin.  It  was  a  fairly  cheerful 
movement,  like  an  Allegretto,  in  4/4  rhythm.  Some  have  thought 
that  the  AUemande  was  not  really  a  dance. 

The  Courante  was  a  rapid  dance  in  triple  rhythm,  with  the  run- 
ning effect  that  its  name  implied. 

The  Bourree  was  a  fairly  rapid  dance  in  4/4  time,  with  consider- 
able liveliness  of  style.    It  had  its  origin  in  Auvergne. 

Somewhat  like  the  Bourree,  but  slower,  was  the  Gavotte.  This 
was  named  from  the  Gavots,  or  inhabitants  of  Gap,  near  the  Pyre- 
nees. It  is  in  4/4  time,  with  a  suggestion  of  syncopation  owing  to  its 
beginnmg  on  the  third  beat  of  the  measure.  Its  pleasing  character 
is  brought  about  by  skipping  intervals  and  short,  crisp  phrases. 
The  trio  of  the  Gavotte  was  often  in  the  style  of  the  musette,  with 
drone-bass  effects. 

The  Rigaudon  was  another  fairly  rapid  dance,  sometimes  also 
sung  by  the  performers.  It  was  invented  by  Rigaud,  the  dancing 
master  of  Louis  XIII.  The  old  song-dances  were  sometimes  called 
Ballets,  from  the  ItaUan  word  ballare,  to  dance. 

The  French  Volte  may  well  have  been  the  precursor  of  our  waltz, 
the  name  signifying  merely  a  turn.  Thoinot  Arbeau  wrote  of  it, 
"You  may  pursue  it  thus  through  many  turnings,  whirling  now  to 
the  right  and  now  to  the  left."  Later,  he  added,  "You  shall  return 
your  partner  to  her  seat,  where,  do  what  she  may,  she  will  find  her 
shaken-up  brain  full  of  swimmings  and  whirlings;  while  you  will 
probably  not  be  much  better  off."  Then  came  the  familiar  com- 
plamt,  "I  beg  you  to  consider  if  it  be  decorous  for  a  young  girl  to 
straddle  and  stride." 

The  Passepied,  corrupted  into  Paspy,  was  another  fairly  rapid 
French  dance  in  triple  tune.  Like  the  Gavotte,  it  had  several  strains 
and  reprises. 

The  Minuet  was  of  a  slower  type.  Its  graceful  3/4  music  was  to 
be  taken  at  a  decorous  pace,  though  the  symphonic  Minuets  were 
fairly  quick. 

The  Branle,  or  Brawl,  was  another  slow  dance,  given  by  pairs 
in  imitation  of  a  leading  couple. 


354  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

The  Pavane  was  also  slow  and  stately,  but  in  even  rhythm. 

The  Chaconne  was  another  slow  and  dignified  dance.  It  was 
usually  in  triple  rhythm,  though  examples  in  even  rhythm  have 
been  found.  It  is  best  known  now  through  Bach's  famous  Cha- 
conne for  violin  alone. 

The  Passacaglia  was  a  slow  dance  in  triple  rhythm,  much  like 
the  Chaconne,  but  more  often  in  minor.  It  was  given  with  much 
exaggeration  and  bombast,  the  couples  succeeding  one  another  in 
a  fashion  that  is  now  found  in  the  cake-walk.  Some  derive  the  name 
from  pasar  calle,  which  is  Spanish  for  walking  along  the  street;  but 
others  trace  it  to  passo  gallo,  or  rooster  step. 

The  old  suite  was  composed  of  several  of  these  early  dances.  The 
usual  succession  was  Allemande,  Courante,  Saraband,  and  Gigue, 
which  suggests  the  general  style  of  a  symphony  with  the  slow  move- 
ment coming  third.  But  many  other  movements  were  permissible. 
Between  the  Saraband  and  the  Gigue,  Intermezzi  were  sometimes 
introduced.  These  were  usually  dances  of  moderate  pace,  like  the 
Gavotte  or  Minuet,  which  would  be  in  sufficient  contrast  with  the 
slow  tempo  preceding  them  and  the  rapid  tempo  that  followed.  The 
middle  movements  could  be  varied.  If  this  was  done  by  means  of 
slight  embellishments,  the  variation  was  known  as  "  Les  Agrements," 
while  a  more  decided  alteration  was  called  a  Double.  Certain  move- 
ments that  were  not  dances  often  entered  the  suite.  A  fugue  was 
permissible.  Often  it  came  after  a  Toccata,  a  brilliant  piece  full  of 
technical  display.  Less  ambitious  than  the  Toccata  was  the  Tocca- 
tina.  The  Air  was  a  simple  melody,  while  the  Burlesca  was  playful 
in  style.  Somewhat  like  the  Burlesca  was  the  Scherzo,  not  to  be 
confused  with  the  symphonic  movement  of  the  same  name.  The 
suite  could  begin  with  a  prelude,  known  under  the  various  names 
of  Intrada,  Preambule,  Fantasia,  Overture,  or  even  Sinfonia,  The 
last  word  was  often  applied  to  any  interlude,  such  as  the  Symphony 
in  Bach's  "Christmas  Oratorio,"  or  the  Pastoral  Symphony  in 
Handel's  "Messiah."  In  Bach's  B-minor  Suite  is  a  charming  move- 
ment entitled  "Badinerie,"  which  consists  of  some  delightfully 
chattering  flute  work  against  an  orchestral  backgroimd.  The  Par- 
tita was  an  early  name  for  the  suite  itself. 

In  more  recent  times,  Germany  has  given  to  music  the  Landler, 
or  coimtry  dance  of  waltz  type.  The  waltz  itself  was  developed  in 


DANCES  AND  PIANO  STYLES  S55 

Germany,  a  cotillion  being  still  known  as  a  German,  while  the  dance 
itself  was  the  Deutsche.  The  waltz  has  been  developed  into  a  piano 
form,  not  suitable  for  dancing,  by  Chopin,  Rubinstein,  and  others. 
The  waltz  is  written  m  3/4  time,  but  played  as  if  composed  in  6/4 
rhythm  instead. 

Spain  has  been  devoted  to  the  dance  for  many  centuries.  Most 
popular  in  that  country  is  the  Fandango,  a  3/4  or  3/8  affair  accom- 
panied by  castanets.  Local  varieties  of  this  are  the  Malaguena, 
Rondena,  Granadina,  and  Murciana.  The  Andalusian  Cachucha 
is  another  dance  in  triple  rhythm,  this  time  fairly  rapid.  Still  an- 
other dance  of  the  same  sort  is  the  Jota.  The  Bolero  is  a  dance  of 
moderate  pace,  in  3/4  rhythm,  accompanied  by  castanets  in  certain 
alternations  of  large  and  small  notes.  Sometimes  the  Bolero  contains 
a  Tirana,  which  is  a  passage  of  gentle  6/8  melody.  The  Seguedilla 
is  more  rapid,  and  in  6/8  rhythm.  Other  national  Spanish  dances  of 
this  sort  are  the  Jaleo  and  Guaracha.  The  Spanish  gypsies  use  an 
attractive  3/8  dance  called  the  Polo  Gitano.  The  Habanera  (Hava- 
naise),  adopted  by  Spain  from  Cuba,  is  in  moderate  tempo,  and 
usually  in  triple  rhythm,  though  the  one  in  Bizet's  opera  "Carmen'* 
shows  even  rhythm,  with  frequent  triplets. 

Italy  has  given  music  the  Tarantella,  a  swift,  running  dance  in 
6/8  rhythm.  It  is  said  that  this  dance  was  named  from  the  taran- 
tula, as  its  fiery  style  would  incite  people  to  the  exertion  of  rapid 
dancing  that  was  held  necessary  in  curing  that  spider's  bite;  but 
the  Italian  tarantula  was  evidently  not  the  tropical  one.  The  Sal- 
tarello  is  an  Italian  dance  of  similar  style,  but  containing  more  skips 
than  the  Tarantella.  Mendelssohn  ended  his  Italian  Symphony 
with  a  Saltarello.  The  Furlana,  or  Forlane,  is  a  rapid  6/8  affair  of 
Venetian  origin,  much  used  by  the  gondoliers.  Ponchielli  emploj^^ed  it 
in  "La  Gioconda,"  and  Wolf -Ferrari  did  the  same  in  "The  Jewels  of 
the  Madonna."  The  Siciliano  was  a  pastoral  Sicilian  dance,  or  dance- 
song,  of  gentle  and  soothing  character,  in  slow  6/8  or  12/8  rhythm. 

Among  the  dances  of  Provence,  the  Farandole  is  best  known,  be- 
cause of  Bizet's  use  of  it  in  his  "Arlesienne"  music.  It  is  a  lively, 
rapid  dance,  sometimes  in  4/4  rhythm,  but  occasionally  in  6/8.  The 
Frangaise  denotes  a  graceful  French  dance  in  3/4  rhythm.  The 
Galop  is  a  very  quick  dance,  generally  2/4,  though  other  rhythms 
are  sometimes  used. 


356  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Among  Slavic  dances,  the  Cracovienne  (Krakowiak)  is  a  Polish 
dance  in  2/4  rh3^hm.  The  Varsovienne  is  in  moderate  3/4  rhythm. 
The  Polacca  is  similar  to  this,  but  somewhat  quicker.  This  must 
not  be  confused  with  the  Polka,  which  is  the  Bohemian  Pulka,  a 
rapid  dance  in  even  rhythm.  Raff  and  Rubinstein  composed  polkas, 
but  the  dance  does  not  offer  many  musical  possibilities.  The 
Mazurka  (Masurek)  is  a  Polish  dance  in  triple  rhythm  and  rather 
capricious  style.  It  has  frequent  accents  on  the  second  beat  of  the 
measure,  which  the  dancers  emphasize  by  a  kick.  The  Polka  Ma- 
zurka is  about  the  same  in  style,  though  slower,  and  with  the  unex- 
pected accents  on  the  third  beat.  The  Polka  Redowa  is  faster,  and 
has  no  unusual  accents.  The  Redowa  itself  sometimes  alternates 
3/4  and  2/4  measures.  The  Czardas,  or  Csardas,  is  a  fiery  Hun- 
garian dance.  Most  stately  of  all  is  the  Polonaise,  originally  a  digni- 
fied dance-parade  in  which  the  Poles  marched  before  their  leader, 
John  Sobieski,  when  he  was  given  the  Polish  crown.  Chopin  made 
excellent  use  of  both  Polonaise  and  Mazurka. 

Norway  offers  the  Springdans  (3/4)  and  the  Hailing  (2/4),  both 
illustrated  in  the  shorter  works  of  Grieg.  The  latter  is  a  boisterous 
affair  for  men  only,  at  which  the  performers  try  to  kick  the  low 
rafters  of  the  bam  or  other  building  where  they  dance. 

Russia  has  many  folk-dances.  The  one  exerting  most  influence 
on  music  is  the  lively  dance  for  men  known  as  the  Kamarinskaia, 
which  Tschaikovsky  made  into  a  symphonic  movement. 

Scotland  is  suggested  by  the  Schottische,  or  "Scotch  Dance." 
This  is  a  slow  dance  in  even  rhythm,  having  a  number  of  short 
notes  in  each  bar,  to  which  the  performers  take  three  moderate 
steps  and  two  quick  ones.  The  Reel  is  a  very  animated  affair,  in 
rapid  even  rhythm.  The  Strathspey  is  somewhat  slower,  and  has 
what  is  known  as  the  Scotch  snap,  —  a  sixteenth  note  followed  by 
a  dotted  eighth  note.  The  Contra-Dance,  or  Country  Dance,  known 
in  England  and  other  lands,  is  a  rustic  affair,  much  used  in  former 
centuries,  and  somewhat  resembling  our  Virginia  Reel;  for  the 
dancers  were  placed  in  opposite  rows,  and  made  to  go  through  cer- 
tain figures  accompanied  by  rapid  four-bar  or  eight-bar  phrases  in 
the  music.  The  Quickstep  was  a  sort  of  march  in  very  rapid  6/8 
rhythm.  The  Quadrille  was  originally  a  French  dance,  consisting 
of  five  movements,  which  were  entitled  La  Pantalon,  La  Poule, 


DANCES  AND  PIANO  STYLES  857 

L'^tS,  La  Trenise  (or  La  Pastorelle),  and  La  Finale.  These  names 
were  to  some  extent  descriptive  of  the  music,  which  was  naturally 
in  five  divisions,  either  6/8  or  2/4. 

Among  modem  dances,  the  Two-Step,  and  the  Brazilian  Maxixe 
as  well,  are  in  fau-ly  rapid  6/8  rhythm.  A  4/4  rhythm  may  be  used, 
but  does  not  fit  the  dance  so  well.  The  Tango,  coming  from  the 
Argentine  RepubUc,  is  in  4/4  rhythm,  consisting  largely  of  eighth- 
notes. 

The  March,  which  is  practically  a  dance,  has  been  popular  with 
many  composers  because  of  its  stirring  or  martial  character.  It  can 
be  in  4/4,  or  rapid  6/8  rhythm;  but  a  lofty  processional  effect  is 
attained  by  the  use  of  12/8  rhythm.  The  Coronation  March  in 
Meyerbeer's  opera  "  Le  Prophete"  is  an  excellent  example  of  the  last 
sort.  An  added  adjective  often  shows  the  character  of  a  March,  — 
as  Wedding  March,  Funeral  March,  etc. 

The  Ballet,  brought  into  recent  prominence  by  the  admu-able 
work  of  the  Russian  dancers,  is  simply  a  pantomime  set  to  music. 
The  Ballet  may  have  several  acts,  and  be  as  long  as  a  moderate- 
sized  opera.  Adam's  "Giselle"  and  Delibes's  "Coppelia"  and  other 
similar  works  are  well  known  as  French  examples;  while  in  Russia, 
Tschaikovsky,  Glazounoff,  and  the  more  radical  Stravinsky  have 
given  much  attention  to  the  form.  Naturally  no  set  laws  govern 
the  Ballet,  which  is  a  series  of  dances  in  varying  styles  and  rhythms. 
Single  ballet  scenes  were  often  introduced  in  certain  old  operas;  but 
these  did  not  usually  have  any  special  meaning,  whereas  in  the 
complete  Ballet  each  dance  helps  to  illustrate  or  unfold  the  plot. 

A  number  of  short  musical  titles,  usually  employed  for  piano 
pieces,  and  representing  styles  rather  than  forms,  may  be  given 
here. 

The  Fantasia  is  a  work  in  free  form,  which  may  treat  various 
themes  or  figures,  but  does  so  in  a  free,  fanciful  way. 

The  Capriccio  is  a  work  of  much  the  same  character.  But  while 
the  Fantasia  is  generally  earnest  in  style,  the  Capriccio  should  be 
lighter,  more  "capricious,"  and  even  bizarre.  Both  may  be  cast 
in  various  musical  forms,  but  should  not  let  the  form  hamper  their 
qualities  of  style. 

The  Rhapsodie  is  another  free  composition,  of  impassioned  and 
intense  character.  Liszt  used  it  to  show  the  wild  power  of  the  Hun- 


358  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

garian  gypsy  music.  Many  of  the  actual  gypsy  pieces  show  a  two- 
part  structure,  the  first  part,  or  Lassan,  being  slow  and  very  melan- 
choly, while  the  last  part,  the  Friska,  is  wild  and  fiery. 

The  Prelude  is  a  short  piece  in  free  form  written  to  precede 
another  piece.  Thus  a  Prelude  precedes  each  F^gue  in  Bach's 
"Well- tempered  Clavichord."  Chopin  treated  the  Prelude  as  a  sep- 
arate form,  and  its  free,  impassioned  style  suited  his  genius  well. 

The  Reverie  is  a  dreamy,  tender  composition,  often  in  one  of  the 
song-forms. 

The  Romanza  is  a  piece  expressing  romantic  feeling,  if  not  aiming 
at  an  actual  story.  It  may  be  written  in  one  of  the  song-forms  or 
rondos,  but  is  usually  free  in  style. 

The  Po^me  is  similar  to  the  Romanza. 

The  Legende  carries  with  it  a  suggestion  of  legendary  romance, 
or  supernatural  mystery.  Wieniawski's  Legende  for  violin  and 
piano  is  an  admirable  example. 

The  Ballade  is  another  work  in  poetic  and  emotional  style,  with 
some  degree  of  narrative  suggestion.  Chopin's  Ballades  are  good 
examples. 

The  Italian  term  Ballata  sometimes  means  Ballade,  but  is  more 
often  a  dance-song  or  dance-like  piece. 

The  Novelette,  a  title  well  used  by  Schumann,  is  a  piece  com- 
posed of  sections  so  striking  and  characteristic  that  they  seem  to 
tell  a  story. 

The  Novellozza  carries  with  it  a  humorous  suggestion.  Godard's 
Novellozza  is  an  admirable  illustration. 

The  Cabaletta  is  a  pleasingly  melodious  piece,  of  fairly  simple 
style,  with  an  accompaniment  of  triplets  or  other  notes  that  will 
suggest  a  galloping  horse. 

The  Nocturne  is  a  piece  in  emotional  style  representmg  the 
poetic  feelings  aroused  by  evening  or  night.  Field  was  a  pioneer  in 
this  form,  but  Chopin's  Nocturnes  soon  drew  attention  away  from 
those  of  the  earlier  composer. 

The  Berceuse  is  a  cradle-song,  generally  with  a  lulling  6/8  rhsrthm. 
Chopin's  Berceuse  is  an  example. 

The  Serenade  is  an  evening  song  of  melodious  character,  suggest- 
ing a  love-song.  Both  Serenade  and  Nocturne  once  referred  simply 
to  music  for  evening  use. 


DANCES  AND  PIANO  STYLES  359 

The  Aubade  is  a  morning  song.  Liszt's  transcription  of  Schu- 
bert's "Hark,  hark,  the  lark"  is  an  instrumental  example. 

The  Pastorale  is  a  piece  of  rustic  suggestion. 

The  Barcarolle  is  an  Italian  boat-song,  suggested  in  instrumental 
music.  It  is  generally  in  swingy  6/8  rhythm. 

The  Gondoliera  is  similar  to  the  Barcarolle,  but  carries  a  definite 
suggestion  of  Venetian  effects. 

The  Cavatina  is  a  smooth,  attractive  melody  in  vocal  music,  and 
in  piano  music  must  keep  the  same  style.  Raff's  expressive  Cava- 
tina for  piano  and  violin  is  an  excellent  illustration. 

The  Elegie,  or  Dirge,  is  a  melodious  piece  of  sad  or  mournful 
style. 

The  Song  Without  Words  is  a  short  melodious  piece  of  song-like 
character,  composed  definitely  in  one  of  the  song-forms. 

The  Moment  Musical  is  a  short  piece  of  melodious  style. 

The  Bagatelle,  meaning  "trifle,"  is  a  short  and  simple  piece. 

The  Albumblatt,  or  Album  Leaf,  is  a  short  piece  of  improvisa- 
tional  character,  such  as  one  might  write  in  an  album. 

The  Impromptu  is  another  piece  of  marked  improvisational  style. 

The  fitude  is  primarily  a  technical  study,  but  may  be  made  of 
interesting  music.  Chopin's  fitudes  are  examples  in  point,  being 
studies  in  the  sense  that  a  painter's  sketches  are  studies. 

The  Intermezzo  is  a  short  piece  in  free  style,  generally  f oimd  be- 
tween others. 

The  Entr'acte  is  a  piece  to  be  played  between  the  acts  of  an 
opera.  Sometimes  such  a  piece  is  known  also  as  an  Intermezzo;  but 
the  latter  may  occur  at  other  places,  as  the  Intermezzo  in  Mas- 
cagni's  "Rustic  Chivalry"  will  show. 

The  Potpourri  is  a  medley  in  which  various  fragments  of  a  musi- 
cal work  are  strung  together  in  continuous  shape.  Potpourris  from 
the  famous  operas  are  the  most  common  examples. 

The  Pasticcio  is  a  medley  of  another  sort,  made  up  of  various 
single  pieces.  In  an  operatic  pasticcio,  words  are  set  to  melodies  al- 
ready existing  separately.  The  Pasticcio  may  be  based  on  works  of 
more  than  one  composer.  Orefice's  opera  "Chopin"  is  an  example 
of  the  Pasticcio.  In  that  work,  Orefice  took  various  Chopin  pieces, 
and  blended  them  into  an  opera  by  adding  suitable  words. 


XXXIX 

THE  VOCAL  FORMS 

The  larger  forms  enumerated  in  the  preceding  chapters  are  not 
used  in  vocal  music.  Vocal  rondos  exist,  in  second  rondo  form;  but 
they  are  never  very  intricate  in  construction.  Many  songs  are  writ- 
ten in  the  song-forms,  while  some  show  the  shape  of  song-form  with 
trio;  but  vocal  music  has  forms  and  styles  of  its  own. 

Alessandro  Scarlatti  developed  the  da  capo  aria,  and  used  it  in 
his  operas.  This  is  practically  a  vocal  song-form  with  trio,  consist- 
ing of  a  section,  an  alternating  section,  and  the  repeat  of  the  first 
section.  An  example  of  this  shape  is  found  in  the  solo  "He  was 
despised,"  from  Handel's  "Messiah."  Sometimes  there  is  only  a 
partial  return. 

Opera  at  first  gave  an  important  place  to  recitative,  which  is 
musical  declamation  much  resembling  speech,  though  always  with  a 
definite  pitch.  As  early  as  Handel's  time  there  were  two  varieties, 
—  recitativo  secco,  with  no  support  except  occasional  chords,  and 
recitativo  stromentato,  with  a  much  fuller  and  more  varied  accom- 
paniment. Both  kinds  are  present  in  "Comfort  ye,"  the  opening 
number  of  "  The  Messiah."  The  accompanied  recitative  comes  first, 
the  change  appearing  with  the  words, "  The  voice  of  him  that  crieth." 

The  songs  of  Handel's  time  were  classed  in  five  varieties, — aria 
di  bravura,  aria  di  portamento,  aria  di  mezzo  carattere,  aria  parlante, 
and  aria  cantabile. 

The  first  of  these,  the  aria  di  bravura,  was  aimed  to  display  vocal 
technique.  The  old  solos  of  this  sort,  such  as  Handel's  "Ev'ry  val- 
ley" or  "Why  do  the  nations  so  furiously  rage"  (in  "The  Messiah  "), 
make  gi'eat  demands  on  a  singer's  ability  to  give  rapid  roulades  in 
clean-cut  style.  These  arias  are  full  of  beautiful  music,  wherein 
they  are  superior  to  the  meaningless  brilliance  of  certain  showy 
scenes  in  Italian  opera.  The  aria  di  bravura  was  usually  given 
to  a  female  voice,  "  Rejoice  greatly "  being  a  good  example  in 
"The  Messiah." 


THE  VOCAL  FORMS  861 

The  aria  di  mezzo  carattere,  as  its  name  implies,  was  of  more  ordi- 
nary character  and  style.  Haydn's  "With  verdure  clad"  may  be 
taken  as  an  illustration. 

The  aria  cantabile  was  a  song  of  marked  smoothness.  "He  shall 
feed  his  flock,"  from  "The  Messiah,"  will  serve  as  an  example. 

The  aria  di  portamento  called  for  frequent  use  of  the  vocal  porta- 
mento, which  is  a  sweep  of  the  voice  toward  the  note  coming  next, 
before  the  time  of  the  note  given  is  entirely  finished.   The  song 
"Jerusalem,"  from  Mendelssohn's  "Saint  Paul,"  shows  something 
of  this  character,  though  it  is  cantabile  in  style. 

The  aria  parlante  was  more  in  a  spoken  style,  though  less  abrupt 
than  recitative.  Its  character  may  be  shown  by  a  more  modem 
song,  —  Rubinstein's  "The  Asra." 

The  style  of  singing  in  Mozart's  time  was  smooth,  light,  and  flu- 
ent. The  Rossini  operas  again  called  for  brilliant  execution,  but 
their  solos  did  not  show  much  musical  depth  or  harmonic  variety. 
Gluck  had  revived  recitative  in  his  works;  and  after  the  Italian 
vogue  grew  less,  Wagner  introduced  a  sort  of  melodic  recitative, 
which  he  called  Melos.  In  the  mean  time  Schubert  and  the  Lied 
composers  had  written  works  that  called  for  a  more  dramatic  and 
expressive  style  of  singing  than  the  Mozart  lyrics  necessitated.  The 
German  Lied  exists  in  a  variety  of  styles,  but  all  of  them  show  a 
close  union  of  the  music  with  the  words,  and  an  attempt  to  express 
in  tones  the  real  inwardness  of  the  poem.  The  French  chanson,  and 
to  some  extent  the  Italian  canzone,  placed  more  emphasis  upon 
daintiness  and  grace  in  the  melody. 

The  art-song  is  a  song  in  which  music  is  set  to  the  entire  poem; 
while  in  the  strophe  form  the  music  is  repeated  for  each  stanza. 
The  art  form  is  usually  much  more  artistic.  Many  beautiful  strophe 
songs  exist;  but  in  that  style  of  composition  there  are  two  possible 
defects.  The  music  may  become  monotonous  on  repetition;  or  the 
character  of  the  melody  and  accompaniment  may  fit  only  certain 
stanzas,  and  be  unsuited  to  others. 

The  scena  is  a  vocal  composition  of  some  size,  in  which  the  com- 
poser is  expected  to  use  a  variety  of  styles.  The  scena  will  con- 
tain some  recitative  work;  a  smooth  aria-section,  known  here  as 
a  cavatina;  and  an  aria  or  other  portion  devoted  to  more  bril- 
liant effects.    A  scen^  may  be  either  part  of  an  opera,  or  a  wholly 


S62  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

separate  composition.  Mendelssohn's  "Infelice"  is  an  independent 
scena. 

The  hymn  is  a  song  or  part-song,  with  accompaniment,  set  to 
the  words  of  some  sacred  poem.  Hjmins  are  divided  into  phrases 
corresponding  with  the  Hnes  of  the  poem.  For  four-line  stanzas, 
most  hymns  are  in  the  single-period  form,  antecedent  and  conse- 
quent each  extending  for  two  lines.  Eight-line  settings  of  hjonns 
are  usually  in  the  two-period  form,  sometimes  independent,  and 
sometimes  with  partial  return.  The  metre  of  hymns  is  shown  by- 
letters  or  numbers.  S.M.,  or  short  metre,  describes  an  iambic  hymn 
with  four-line  stanzas,  each  of  which  consists  of  six,  six,  eight,  and 
six  syllables  respectively  in  the  lines.  CM.,  or  common  metre,  has 
four  iambic  lines  containing  respectively  eight,  six,  eight,  and  six 
syllables.  L.M.,  or  long  metre,  consists  wholly  of  eight-syllabled 
iambic  lines.  The  letter  D  after  any  of  the  above  signifies  double- 
length  stanzas,  and  calls  for  an  eight-line  tune.  Other  metres  are 
almost  always  shown  by  figures.  A  single  figure  will  do  if  all  the 
lines  are  equal;  as,  for  instance,  7s,  signifying  seven-syllabled 
(trochaic)  lines.  If  the  lines  are  not  all  equal,  it  is  customary  to 
give  the  nimiber  of  syllables  in  each  line;  as,  for  instance,  8:7:8:7, 
in  which  (trochdc)  lines  of  eight  and  seven  syllables  are  alternated. 
In  some  cases  the  letters  P.M.  are  used  to  signify  peculiar  metre. 

The  anthem  is  a  part-song  set  to  sacred  words,  with  accompani- 
ment. Anthems  are  usually  much  more  ambitious  and  varied  in 
style  than  hymns.  They  are  often  sung  by  a  choir,  which  will  take 
all  the  parts;  whereas  a  hymn,  if  sung  by  a  congregation,  is  usually 
given  wholly  in  the  soprano  part,  as  a  unison  melody. 

Chants  and  canticles  form  a  part  of  various  church  services. 

The  canticles  or  other  music  in  plain-song,  or  plain-chant,  make 
use  of  the  Gregorian  modes. 

In  the  time  of  the  contrapuntal  schools,  ijiusic  was  almost  en- 
tirely vocal.  Coimterpoint,  in  its  simplest  significance,  means  part- 
writing. 

Among  the  contrapuntal  forms  used  for  voice,  the  motet  was  a 
sacred  part-song.  It  has  been  derived  from  motiLS,  or  movement,  and 
from  mot,  meaning  the  sacred  Word. 

The  madrigal  was  the  chief  rival  of  the  motet.  The  name  has 
been  derived  from  madre^  meaning  mother,  and  explained  as  desig- 


THE  VOCAL  FORMS  S63 

nating  a  song  in  praise  of  the  Virgin;  but  this  definition  is  not  final, 
since  madrigals  treated  secular  subjects  also.  In  the  madrigal,  the 
melody,  or  cantus,  was  usually  divided  among  the  various  parts, 
instead  of  being  kept  to  one  voice.  A  true  madrigal  was  always  sung 
without  accompaniment.  The  term  is  often  misapplied. 

The  chorales  of  Luther's  time  and  later  were  very  strong  and 
rugged  in  character.  They  often  contained  suggestions  of  the  har- 
monic style,  and  a  more  definite  melodic  structure  than  was  com- 
mon in  their  time. 

But  the  most  important  vocal  form  of  the  contrapuntal  i)eriod 
was  the  mass.  The  composers'  fondness  for  masses,  and  their  use 
of  popular  tunes  in  them,  has  been  mentioned  already.  Masses 
are  written  by  modem  composers  also;  but  these  are  usually  less 
strictly  contrapuntal  than  the  older  works. 

The  chief  divisions  of  the  mass  are  the  Kyrie  ("Lord,  have 
mercy");  the  Gloria  (containing  also  the  "Qui  tollis,"  "Quoniam," 
and  "Cum  Sancto  Spirito");  the  Credo  (having  as  subdivisions 
"Et  incamatus,"  "Et  resurrexit,"  and  "Amen");  the  Sanctus;  the 
Benedictus;  the  Agnus  Dei;  and  the  Dona  nobis.  The  varying 
emotions  of  the  Latin  words  used  in  these  divisions  enable  com- 
posers to  treat  the  form  with  due  variety  and  contrast  of  style. 

The  Requiem  mass  is  generally  shorter.  It  omits  the  Gloria,  and 
contains  instead  a  "Requiem  setemam,"  "Lux  aetema/'  and  "Dies 
-irse."  The  last  division  is  a  thirteenth-century  poem  describing  the 
Day  of  Judgment. 

The  Stabat  Mater  is  another  mediaeval  Latin  poem,  depicting 
the  sufferings  of  the  Virgin  Mary  at  the  Cross. 

Horatio  Parker  made  an  admirable  setting  of  the  early  Latin 
poem  entitled  "Hora  Novissima."  This  work  is  really  an  oratorio. 

Shorter  Latin  poems  that  are  often  set  include  "Veni  Creator," 
"0  Salutaris,"  ancLJ'Ave  Maria." 

The  oratorio  is  a  large  sacred  work  using  Biblical  text  and  treat- 
ing the  various  phases  of  some  Biblical  subject  or  event.  Such  a 
work  consists  of  solos,  ensembles  of  more  than  one  voice,  choruses, 
and  even  instrumental  mterludes.  Two  styles  of  oratorio  are  used, 
being  known  as  the  epic  and  the  dramatic.  In  the  former  the  singers 
merely  narrate  the  text  in  its  vocal  guise;  but  in  the  latter  style, 
each  singer  represents  a  certain  character.    Handel's  "Messiah" 


864  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

is  epic,  while  liis  "Samson"  is  dramatic.  Mendelssohn  combined 
the  two  styles  in  his  "Saint  Paul"  and  "Elijah." 

The  Passion  is  an  oratorio  dealing  with  the  martyrdom  of  Christ. 
The  best  example  is  the  "Saint  Matthew  Passion,"  by  Bach. 

The  cantata  is  a  vocal  work  somewhat  similar  to  the  oratorio  in 
general  aspect,  but  treating  a  secular  subject.  Cantatas  are  usually 
shorter  than  oratorios,  though  not  necessarily  so;  and  they  are  gen- 
erally less  contrapuntal.  Sacred  cantatas  exist,  treating  religious 
subjects  in  a  brief  or  informal  manner. 

The  traditions  of  Handel  and  Mendelssohn  have  made  England 
the  home  of  oratorio  and  cantata.  In  Germany  the  epic  cantatas 
of  Max  Bruch,  such  as  "Frithjof,"  "Odysseus,"  and  "Arminius," 
deserve  especial  mention. 

The  English  composer  Granville  Bantock  has  recently  endeav- 
ored to  found  a  new  form,  consisting  of  separate  movements  for 
voices  alone.  His  "Atalanta  in  Calydon"  divides  the  voices  into 
several  groups,  and  treats  the  various  groups  much  as  an  orchestral 
work  would  treat  its  individual  instrumental  parts.  The  composi- 
tion is  in  four  sections,  and  the  contrasts  of  style  are  much  like  those 
of  the  sjmiphonic  movements. 

Strictly  speaking,  melodrama  is  not  a  vocal  form.  It  is  music 
set  as  an  accompaniment  to  spoken  words,  and  demands  a  reader 
instead  of  a  singer.  Schumann's  melodrama  passages  in  "Man- 
fred" add  excellent  orchestral  music  to  parts  of  Byron's  poem;  while 
the  "Enoch  Arden"  of  Richard  Strauss  places  a  striking  piano 
accompaniment  against  Tennyson's  words.  The  Bohemian  com- 
poser Fibich  has  set  an  entire  trilogy,  "Hippodamia,"  in  this 
fashion.  Melodrama  is  one  of  the  few  forms  that  have  not  yet  re- 
ceived the  attention  they  deserve. 

The  Singspiel,  with  music  either  as  a  setting  for  the  important 
parts  of  a  drama  or  as  a  diversion  in  the  unimportant  parts,  has 
been  described  already,  in  connection  with  early  opera. 

The  opera  itself  is  too  free  in  style  to  be  called  a  definite  form; 
but  the  different  schools  of  opera  show  various  distinctive  charac- 
teristics. Peri,  and  the  Florentines  who  helped  him,  meant  opera 
to  be  declamatory,  with  the  music  heightening  the  effect  of  the 
action.  But  opera  grew  away  from  that  ideal,  and  by  the  time  of 
Handel,  it  was  practically  a  singing-concert,  with  a  conventional 


THE  VOCAL  FORMS  865 

thread  of  mythological  plot.  Mozart  made  opera  fluent  and  life- 
like, but  even  before  his  time  Gluck  had  revived  the  idea  of  having 
operatic  music  illustrate  and  echo  the  text.  Gluck  still  kept  the 
structure  of  separate  operatic  numbers.  The  Rossini  school  then 
caused  public  taste  to  welcome  a  revival  of  the  singing-concert  idea, 
this  time  with  less  musical  worth  than  was  shown  in  Handel's  day. 
Wagner  brought  about  another  reversal  of  public  taste;  and  his 
great  music-dramas  showed  the  world  that  music  of  a  most  ad- 
vanced type  could  be  made  to  support  and  intensify  the  text  in 
wonderful  fashion.  Wagner  was  the  first  to  discard  the  idea  of  sep- 
arate numbers  in  opera,  and  cast  his  music  in  the  form  of  a  plastic 
whole  instead  of  a  set  of  loosely-joined  parts.  His  continuous 
melodic  recitative  has  been  mentioned  already.  He  was  also  the 
first  to  make  prominent  operatic  use  of  Leitmotiven,  or  guiding 
motives.  As  stated  in  the  chapter  on  Wagner,  these  short,  impres- 
sive phrases,  each  one  typical  of  some  character  or  event,  enable 
the  composer  to  make  his  music  remarkably  suggestive,  and  some- 
times actually  tell  a  story  in  tones.  More  recent  composers  have 
not  made  such  successful  use  of  guiding  motives;  but  they  do  not 
possess  the  genius  which  Wagner  brought  to  the  creation  and  use 
of  these  musical  figures.  Contemporary  opera  aims  to  be  strongly 
dramatic,  and  usually  employs  the  continuous  style. 


XL 

THE  CONTRAPUNTAL  FORMS 

When  the  lajnnan  learns  that  counterpomt  is  simply  part-writing, 
he  takes  the  statement  lightly.  The  student,  however,  who  has 
been  through  a  course  in  the  heart-breaking  rules  that  govern  the 
leading  of  the  parts,  appreciates  the  fact  that  counterpoint  is  an 
important  branch  of  music.  The  composer  finds  a  knowledge  of 
counterpoint  almost  mdispensable;  and  the  reader  will  remember 
that  Schubert  planned  a  thorough  course  in  this  branch  just  before 
his  untimely  death. 

While  composers  in  the  harmonic  style  make  use  of  counterpoint 
in  a  passing  way,  and  allow  suggestions  of  it  to  strengthen  their 
works,  there  are  also  certain  contrapuntal  forms  that  are  wholly 
independent  of  the  harmonic  style.  Counterpoint  is  the  science  of 
combining  melodies,  instead  of  supporting  a  melody  by  chords. 

Counterpoint  is  classified  into  five  different  varieties.  In  the  first 
order,  the  different  parts  show  note  against  note.  In  coimterpoint 
of  the  second  order,  two  (or  sometimes  three)  notes  of  discant 
(accompanying  part)  are  used  for  each  one  in  the  cantus  firmus 
(fixed  theme).  The  third  order  shows  four  notes  against  one.  The 
fourth  variety  consists  of  syncopated  counterpoint,  in  which  each 
note  of  the  discant  begins  when  a  note  of  the  cantus  is  half  done. 
The  fifth  variety,  florid  coimterpoint,  makes  use  of  all  the  preced- 
ing kinds  in  a  single  composition. 

Good  examples  of  coimterpoint  as  used  in  harmonic  works  may 
be  found  in  the  last  part  of  the  first  section  of  the  slow  movement 
in  Beethoven's  Seventh  Symphony,  and  also  in  the  latter  part  of 
Wagner's  "Tannhauser"  March,  where  fairly  rapid  and  regular  bass 
notes  are  used  against  the  return  of  the  first  theme,  in  chords. 
Counterpoint  of  the  third  order  is  suggested  by  both  examples. 

When  two  voices,  or  parts,  are  written  in  counterpoint,  it  is  pos- 
sible for  the  composer  to  make  them  of  such  a  nature  that  they  can 
be  transposed  as  a  whole  with  reference  to  each  other,  and  made  to 


THE   CONTRAPUNTAL  FORMS  367 

exchange  positions.  One  part  may  be  transposed  an  octave  while 
the  other  stays  in  its  original  position;  or  the  same  result  can  be 
reached  by  having  one  part  move  up  a  fifth  while  the  other  is  trans- 
posed down  by  a  fourth;  or  one  may  move  up  and  the  other  down 
an  octave.  Such  an  inversion  of  parts  is  called  double  counterpoint. 

In  the  cases  suggested,  the  change  in  relative  position  would 
always  be  in  octaves;  and  the  transposition  is  spoken  of  as  double 
coimterpoint  at  the  octave.  But  other  intervals  may  be  used  in- 
stead of  the  octave.  Double  counterpoint  at  the  tenth  is  frequently 
found  in  the  old  works. 

Double  counterpoint  may  be  accompanied  by  one  or  more 
free  parts  in  other  voices. 

Triple  counterpoint  would  consist  of  three  parts  inverted  in  any 
order.  This  is  much  harder  to  write  than  double  counterpoint. 
Even  higher  orders  than  triple  counterpoint  may  exist. 

Imitation  is  often  used  in  counterpoint.  That  consists  of  the  em- 
ployment of  the  same  figure  or  figures  in  more  than  one  part,  at 
different  times. 

One  part  may  be  made  to  serve  as  its  own  accompaniment,  by 
having  the  same  material  start  in  a  second  voice  after  it  has  already 
begun  in  the  first.  As  stated  earlier  in  this  work,  such  a  use  of  a 
theme  or  melody  for  its  own  accompaniment  is  called  a  canon.  The 
second  part  usually  begins  one  or  two  measures  after  the  first  has 
begun.  The  second  part  may  start  at  any  desired  interval  from  the 
first,  making  a  canon  at  that  interval.  If  the  parts  begin  an  octave 
apart,  a  canon  at  the  octave  results.  In  Jadassohn's  Pianoforte 
Album  (Op.  32),  are  a  number  of  canons,  some  of  which  are  at  the 
seventh,  or  other  intervals.  A  canon  at  the  unison  may  exist,  the 
second  part  starting  the  theme  on  the  same  note  with  which  it  be- 
gan. An  example  of  such  procedure  is  found  in  Marzials's  duet  in 
canon  entitled  "  Friendship."  In  this  the  voices  take  the  same  melody, 
one  voice  beginning  a  measure  later  than  the  other.  But  if  one  voice 
is  male  and  one  female,  the  song  becomes  a  canon  at  the  octave. 

The  old  puzzle  canons  were  described  in  the  chapter  on  the  con- 
trapuntal schools.  The  melody  of  a  crab  canon,  it  will  be  remem- 
bered, is  accompanied  by  the  same  melody  sung  backwards.  This 
canon  was  sometimes  known  as  the  canon  per  rede  et  retro.  It  may 
also  be  restated  that  the  phrase  "Out  of  light,  darkness,"  or  vice 


368  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

versa,  meant  that  the  white  (hollow)  notes  of  a  melody  were  to  be 
used  in  accompaniment  as  black  (solid)  notes,  having  a  different 
time  value,  or  vice  versa. 

The  study  of  the  contrapimtal  forms  is  one  that  usually  arouses 
the  pupil's  enthusiasm.  Only  a  few  illustrations  and  analyses  can 
be  given  here;  but  by  the  understanding  of  these  the  student  should 
be  enabled  to  continue  by  himself,  and  analyze  all  the  music  that 
he  studies. 

If  the  student  will  look  at  the  second  of  Bach's  Fifteen  Two-Part 
Inventions,  he  will  find  examples  of  various  points  mentioned  in  the 
foregoing  paragraphs.  In  the  first  place,  the  ten  opening  measures 
form  a  canon.  The  lower  voice  uses  the  same  material  as  the  upper 
voice  does,  at  an  interval  of  an  octave  downward.  By  having  the 
lower  voice  start  two  measures  after  the  upper  one,  a  canon  is  made 
in  which  the  lower  voice  uses  eight  measures  of  the  material  found 
in  the  upper  voice.  Then  there  is  a  change.  One  part  moves  down 
an  eleventh,  and  the  other  up  a  fifth,  making  double  counterpoint 
at  the  octave  (really  the  double  octave).  The  material  is  then 
started  by  the  lower  part,  while  now  it  is  the  upper  part  that  enters 
two  measures  later  with  the  canonic  accompaniment,  after  filling 
in  free  material  for  these  two  measures.  When  the  second  canon 
ends,  two  measures  of  modulatory  character  are  found,  with  the 
lower  part  in  the  first  one  becoming  the  upper  part  in  the  second. 
The  next  four  measures  show  similar  contrapuntal  changes;  and 
after  them  the  piece  closes. 

An  inspection  of  other  Inventions  in  the  set  will  show  that  such 
pieces  are  not  all  cast  in  the  same  mould.  The  Invention  may  be 
defined  as  a  short  contrapuntal  piece,  somewhat  in  the  informal 
style  of  an  improvisation,  but  always  aimed  to  show  ingenuity. 

Most  varied  and  interesting  of  all  the  contrapuntal  forms  is  the 
fugue.  The  name  comes  from  the  Latin  word  fuga,  meaning  a 
flight;  and  different  voices  take  up  the  fugal  themes  successively, 
in  a  manner  that  makes  the  term  appropriate  enough.  The  fugue 
is  built  up  from  one  or  two  thematic  ideas,  which  are  woven  and 
interwoven  into  an  intricate  and  beautiful  tonal  design. 

The  fugue  consists  of  material  of  three  sorts,  —  exposition,  stret- 
tos,  and  episodes.  The  exposition  comes  first,  after  which  strettos 
and  episodes  alternate  with  one  another. 


THE  CONTRAPUNTAL  FORMS 


369 


The  exposition  consists  of  the  introduction  of  the  theme  chosen 
for  the  fugue  in  all  the  different  voices  used.  The  theme  enters  at 
first  in  one  voice,  and  is  known  as  the  subject.  After  that  a  second 
voice  takes  up  the  theme,  transposed  a  fifth  upward  or  a  fourth 
downward.  In  this  transposed  position,  the  theme  is  known  as  the 
answer.  Meanwhile  the  first  voice  goes  on,  very  often  using  a  sec- 
ond theme  known  as  the  coimtersubject.  After  this  a  third  voice 
takes  the  theme,  now  on  some  octave  from  its  original  pitch,  and 
known  agam  as  the  subject.  Meanwhile  the  second  voice,  having 
finished  the  answer,  takes  up  the  countersubject  in  a  transposed 
position;  while  the  first  voice,  having  finished  the  countersubject, 
becomes  a  free  part  for  the  time  being.  This  procedure  is  contin- 
ued until  subject  or  answer  has  appeared  in  all  the  voices,  and  the 
countersubject  in  all  but  one.  The  odd-numbered  appearances  of 
the  theme  are  always  subject,  and  always  begin  on  the  same  scale- 
degree;  while  the  even-numbered  appearances  are  always  the  an- 
swer, and  always  start  on  the  fifth  scale-degree  (or  some  octave  of 
it)  from  that  on  which  the  subject  begins.  The  word  theme  is  not 
used  in  connection  with  the  fugue,  —  at  least  not  in  America;  but 
it  is  employed  here  for  convenience  in  explanation.  The  counter- 
subject,  it  may  be  stated,  is  sometimes  shorter  than  the  subject. 

A  schedule  is  given  below,  showing  the  manner  in  which  the  parts 
are  employed  in  one  arrangement  of  the  exposition  in  a  four-voiced 
fugue.  In  this  arrangement  the  voices  start  from  the  lowest  part 
upward. 


Soprano 
Alto 
Tenor 
Bass 


Subject 


Answer 
Countersubject 


Subject 

Countersubject 
Free  part 


Answer 

Countersubject 
Free  part 
Free  part 


There  are  several  other  successions  in  which  the  voices  may  enter 
with  good  effect.  The  most  usual  of  these,  in  addition  to  the  one 
given,  are  alto-tenor-bass-soprano  and  soprano-alto-tenor-bass. 
A  fugue  may  have  any  moderate  number  of  voices,  four  being 
most  usual.  Sometimes  it  has  only  two;  while  Bach,  in  his  "Art 
of  Fugue,"  composed  one  with  six  voices. 

Episodes  are  passages  in  free  style.  They  may  be  wholly  in- 
dependent, but  very  often  their  material  is  derived  from  the  sub- 
ject, or  countersubject,  or  both. 


870  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Strettos  are  canons  made  by  the  appearance  of  subject  or  answer 
in  different  voices,  starting  at  different  times.  Such  canons  may 
occasionally  use  the  theme  in  more  than  two  voices,  thus  making  a 
canon  of  more  than  two  parts.  At  the  end  of  the  fifth  fugue  in  vol- 
ume II  of  the  "  Well-tempered  Clavichord  "  there  is  a  stretto  which 
runs  through  four  voices. 

Other  treatments  of  subject  and  answer  are  called  repercussions. 

The  exposition  leads  into  a  first  episode,  which  ends  in  a  passing 
cadence.  After  this  the  first  stretto  appears.  Then  come  other 
episodes,  followed  in  each  case  by  other  strettos,  until  finally  the 
fugue  ends  with  what  is  called  the  coda-episode.  In  a  strict  fugue, 
the  number  of  strettos  and  episodes  is  arranged  by  rule,  and  their 
keys  determined  in  the  same  way.  There  may  be  also  a  counter- 
exposition,  giving  answer  and  subject  in  a  reversed  succession  of 
voices,  just  after  the  first  episode. 

Fugues  may  be  classified  in  a  number  of  ways:  — 

1.  A  fugue  is  known  by  the  number  of  voices  that  it  uses;  as,  for 
instance,  a  four-voiced  fugue,  a  three-voiced  fugue,  etc. 

2.  A  fugue  may  have  more  than  one  subject,  a  single  fugue  hav- 
ing one,  a  double  fugue  two  in  succession,  etc. 

3.  When  the  answer  uses  exactly  the  same  intervals  as  the  sub- 
ject, the  fugue  is  called  a  real  fugue;  but  if  the  intervals  are  at  all 
altered  in  the  answer,  to  keep  it  in  the  key,  or  "tone,"  the  fugue  is 
known  as  a  tonal  fugue. 

4.  Fugues  may  sometimes  be  classed  by  the  scales  they  use;  as 
diatonic  fugues,  without  accidentals;  chromatic  fugues,  with  a  sub- 
ject wholly  chromatic;  or  even  fugues  named  after  one  of  the  Gre- 
gorian tones  when  such  a  scale  is  employed. 

5.  F\igues  are  classified  also  by  any  treatment  given  to  the  an- 
swer. This  may  be  augmented,  inverted,  or  otherwise  changed, 
giving  rise  to  augmented,  inverted,  or  other  fugues. 

6.  Fugues  are  classed  as  strict  or  free,  according  to  whether  they 
do  or  do  not  follow  the  key-schedule  and  number  of  strettos  and 
episodes  prescribed  by  the  rules  for  a  strict  fugue.  These  rules  are 
seldom  respected  now,  but  they  may  be  found  in  the  text-books  on 
fugal  composition. 

A  free  fugue  is  by  no  means  necessarily  simpler  than  a  strict  one. 
The  fugues  m  the  "Well-tempered  Clavichord"  are  very  free  for 


THE  CONTRAPUNTAL  FORMS  371 

the  most  part;  but  at  the  same  tune  they  show  the  greatest  original- 
ity, and  the  most  marked  contrapuntal  skill.  In  some  of  them  the 
countersubject  is  worked  up  along  with  the  subject;  in  others  there 
is  no  real  countersubject;  while  still  others  are  composed  of  double 
or  triple  counterpoint  instead  of  strettos  and  episodes.  But  every 
one  of  them  is  almost  wholly  derived  by  contrapuntal  transforma- 
tions of  the  material  in  its  exposition. 

A  f ughetta  is  a  very  short  fugue,  consisting  of  an  exposition  and 
a  few  episodes. 

A  fugato  passage  is  a  passage  that  suggests  fugal  treatment. 

For  a  clear  example  of  fugue,  the  reader  may  look  at  no.  7  in 
volume  II  of  the  "Well-tempered  Clavichord."  It  is  found  to  be  a 
four-voiced  fugue,  with  a  single  subject;  it  is  a  tonal  fugue,  because 
the  answer  deviates  once  from  the  intervals  of  the  subject;  it  is  not 
an  augmented,  inverted,  or  otherwise  altered  fugue;  and  lastly,  it 
is  a  free  fugue. 

The  parts  enter  from  the  lowest  upward.  The  subject  lasts  for 
six  bars,  and  ends  on  the  first  note  of  the  next  bar,  the  answer  be- 
ginning while  this  final  note  of  the  subject  is  sounded.  The  answer 
starts  with  a  fourth  instead  of  a  fifth,  but  follows  the  subject  in  all 
its  later  intervals.  In  spite  of  a  similarity  in  the  accompaniment  to 
the  subject  or  answer,  there  is  no  real  countersubject.  The  answer 
does  not  overlap  when  it  ends,  and  there  is  even  a  brief  interlude, 
in  measure  13,  before  the  subject  enters  in  the  alto  voice.  The  same 
interlude  recurs  before  the  soprano  voice  enters  with  the  answer. 
When  the  exposition  ends,  on  the  first  beat  of  bar  25,  the  first  epi- 
sode continues  it  to  a  cadence  three  measures  later.  There  is  no 
pause  at  this  cadence,  however;  and  in  bar  28  the  tenor  voice  starts 
the  answer,  with  its  first  note  shortened  so  that  it  fills  only  the  last 
half  of  the  measure.  In  bar  29  the  subject  enters  in  the  bass  part, 
making  a  stretto.  In  bar  31  the  upper  two  voices  stop,  giving  this 
stretto  full  prominence.  In  measure  35,  the  alto  starts  the  answer, 
while  the  soprano  begins  the  subject  in  the  next  measure,  forming 
another  stretto.  From  bar  42  onward  an  episode  is  found,  fairly 
free  in  shape,  but  conforming  to  the  general  style  of  the  preceding 
work.  In  bar  51  the  subject  reappears  in  a  repercussion,  taken  by 
the  tenor  voice  in  the  subdominant  key.  After  this,  in  bar  57,  the 
answer  begins  in  the  soprano;  while  the  subject,  entering  in  the 


372  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

bass  part  in  the  next  measure,  forms  another  stretto.  This  stretto 
is  the  final  one;  and  it  is  made  majestically  prominent  by  the  use 
of  the  two  outside  voices,  while  the  two  middle  voices  add  strength 
by  their  accompaniment.  The  subject  ends  on  the  first  beat  of  bar 
64,  and  the  coda-episode  then  closes  the  work.  Thus  this  fugue  is 
chiefly  made  of  three  complete  canons. 

Sometimes  a  climax  is  brought  about,  near  the  end  of  a  fugue, 
by  the  use  of  what  is  known  as  an  organ  point,  or  pedal  point.  This 
is  a  long-sustained  note  in  the  bass,  over  which  the  other  parts  pro- 
ceed continuously. 

In  fugue  no.  5  of  the  above-mentioned  volume  a  different  sti'uc- 
ture  is  found.  This  is  a  four-voiced,  single,  and  free  fugue;  but  ex- 
amination shows  that  it  is  real  instead  of  tonal.  The  subject  consists 
of  the  first  nine  notes,  and  ends  on  the  first  half  of  the  third  beat  in 
the  second  measure.  The  exposition  is  consequently  very  short, 
and  the  fugue  is  found  to  consist  chiefly  of  strettos  and  episodes. 
Strettos  will  be  found  in  bars  14,  21  (three  voices),  27,  33,  and  44. 
The  episodes,  it  will  be  noted,  are  made  up  chiefly  of  the  subject 
material.  Sometimes  the  subject  or  answer  appears  in  a  single  part 
during  these  episodes;  but  more  often  they  are  built  largely  or 
wholly  of  a  figure  taken  directly  from  the  last  four  notes  of  the  sub- 
ject. The  student  will  find  it  an  interesting  exercise  to  mark  with 
pencil  every  appearance  of  this  figure. 

The  final  stretto  of  this  fugue  has  been  cited  already  as  going 
through  all  four  voices;  but  it  merits  still  closer  attention.  Examina- 
tion will  show  that  the  theme  enters  successively  in  the  soprano, 
alto,  tenor,  and  bass  voices;  that  the  time-interval  between  one 
appearance  and  the  next  is  always  the  same;  and  that  the  scale- 
degree  difference  between  one  appearance  and  the  next  is  also  kept 
the  same.  The  scale-interval  between  successive  appearances  of  the 
theme  is  always  a  third,  though  an  extra  octave  is  added  between 
the  alto  and  tenor  parts.  Such  a  stretto,  in  which  the  time-intervals 
and  the  scale-degree  differences  are  kept  equal  while  the  theme 
appears  in  all  voices  in  succession,  is  called  a  stretto  maestrale,  or 
masterly  stretto.  In  the  example  cited,  it  occupies  less  than  three 
measures;  and  this  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  fact  that  a  seem- 
ingly simple  contrapxmtal  passage  may  show  the  most  varied  and 
intricate  beauty  to  those  who  have  learned  to  appreciate  it.    The 


THE  CONTRAPUNTAL  FORMS  373 

clean-cut  musical  logic  of  the  fugue  is  well  worth  understanding; 
and  whoever  learns  to  follow  it  will  soon  come  under  its  spell. 

With  the  aid  of  these  chapters  on  musical  form,  the  student 
should  be  enabled  to  do  his  own  analysis  in  all  but  the  most  excep- 
tional cases.  He  will  also  notice  a  newer  and  deeper  charm  in  music, 
and  a  far  more  interesting  structural  design  than  the  outsider  can 
possibly  suspect.  He  will  see  balance  and  variety  in  the  song-forms; 
S3mimetry  and  well-judged  contrast  in  the  rondos;  strong  thematic 
effects  and  great  climaxes  of  development  in  the  sonatas;  and  tonal 
designs  and  derivations  of  the  most  amazing  skill  in  contrapuntal 
pieces.  With  this  knowledge,  he  will  find  the  beauty  of  good  music 
enhanced  a  hundred-fold. 


PART  IV 
THE  INSTRUMENTS 


XLI 

(the  piano  and  its  predecessors^ 

The  old  Assyrian  relics  show  pictures  of  the  instrument  that  ulti- 
mately became  our  piano.  It  was  a  very  primitive  form  of  stringed 
instrument,  with  the  strings  running  over  a  flat  support.  When 
such  an  instrument  was  hung  about  the  neck  and  played  with  a 
quill,  it  was  called  a  psaltery;  and  vmder  this  title  it  became  popular 
in  mediaeval  as  well  as  ancient  times.  Smiilar  to  the  psaltery,  but 
played  by  striking  the  strings  with  a  hammer,  was  the  Arabian 
dulcimer.  This  instrument,  with  a  compass  of  four  octaves,  two 
below  and  two  above  middle  C,  undoubtedly  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  pilgrims  and  crusaders,  who  brought  it  back  with  them 
to  Europe.  There  it  received  the  German  name  of  Hackbrett,  or 
chopping-board,  from  the  hammering  motion  needed  to  play  it; 
while  the  psaltery  became  the  Schweinskopf,  or  pig's  head,  from 
its  shape. 

Perhaps  the  earliest  application  of  keys  to  an  instrument  came 
in  the  shape  of  the  light  clavicytherium,  in  which  the  strings  of  the 
kithara  were  set  in  motion  by  quills  on  the  keys.  Little  is  known 
about  the  actual  origin  of  keyed  instruments;  but  by  the  end  of  the 
fifteenth  century  there  were  two  main  kinds  in  existence.  One 
family  consisted  of  the  spinet  type,  which  applied  the  psaltery 
principle  of  plucking  the  strings.  The  other  variety,  represented 
only  by  the  clavichord,  was  more  like  the  dulcimer.  But  where 
the  dulcimer  hammer  made  the  strings  vibrate  through  their  whole 
length,  just  as  the  piano  hammer  does  to-day,  the  clavichord  key 
had  what  is  known  as  a  tangent,  or  tongue,  which  pressed  directly 
against  the  string  and  stayed  there,  forming  one  end  of  the  vibrat- 
ing part.  The  clavichord  tone,  formed  by  the  stroke  of  the  tangent 
at  one  end  of  the  part  that  would  vibrate,  was  necessarily  soft.  By 
alternating  light  and  heavy  pressure  on  the  key,  the  performer 
could  make  the  tangent  loosen  or  tighten  the  string.  This  recur- 
rent alteration  of  the  tension  produced  the  vibrato  effect  of  the 


378  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

violin,  by  slight  pitch  variations,  but  gave  in  addition  a  varying 
power  of  tone,  greatest  when  the  string  was  tightest.  This  tremolo 
effect  (Bebung)  made  the  clavichord  very  expressive.  Beethoven 
tried  to  imitate  it  on  the  piano  by  alternately  pressing  and  releasing 
the  soft  pedal;  but  he  did  not  succeed.  The  clavichord  tone,  though 
soft,  is  of  an  infinitely  appealing  sweetness. 

In  the  spinet-harpsichord  type,  the  keys  were  provided  with 
quills,  or  jacks,  which  plucked  the  string  in  passing  as  each  key 
was  played.  The  jacks  were  sometimes  made  of  leather  instead  of 
quill. 

The  smallest  instrument  of  this  type  was  known  as  the  octavina, 
and  consisted  of  a  single  octave  of  keys  in  a  small  box.  The  virgi- 
nals, which  wholly  superseded  the  older  clavicytherium,  was  still 
box-like  in  shape,  but  had  four  octaves.  It  could  give  music  of  some 
worth;  and  the  English  virginal  school  of  composers,  who  flourished 
in  and  after  the  Elizabethan  age,  wrote  pieces  of  astonishing 
breadth  and  value  for  this  little  instrument.  The  name  virginals 
came  from  the  fact  that  the  instrument  was  a  favorite  with  young 
girls.  As  the  quill  passed  over  its  string  to  pluck  it,  a  scraping  noise 
was  usually  audible;  and  this  made  the  historian  Bumey  describe 
the  tone  as  "a  scratch  with  a  sound  at  the  end  of  it." 

The  name  spinet  is  derived  either  from  spina,  a  thorn,  in  sugges- 
tion of  the  pointed  quills,  or  from  Spinetti,  a  Venetian  maker.  The 
spinet  was  sometimes  square,  but  more  often  harp-shaped,  like  our 
grand  pianos.  While  the  virginals  was  a  mere  box  set  on  a  table, 
the  spinet  had  legs  of  its  own.  Its  longer  strings  gave  a  fuller  tone, 
though  still  somewhat  light. 

The  early  harpsichords  had  a  compass  of  less  than  five  octaves. 
But  the  instrument  grew,  until  we  find  such  makers  as  the  Ruckers 
or  Taskin  producing  harpsichords  with  two  large  keyboards  and 
half-a-dozen  pedals.  The  double  harpsichord  had  two  strings  (and 
two  quills)  for  each  tone.  The  second  keyboard  had  jacks  of  differ- 
ent material  from  the  first,  to  obtain  a  different  tone-quality.  The 
various  pedals  could  make  one  quill  effective  instead  of  two,  or 
couple  the  two  manuals  together,  or  cause  the  sounding  of  any  note 
with  the  octave  above  or  below.  Thus  the  harpsichord  had  a  great 
variety  of  effects,  and  was  a  worthy  instrument,  even  though  its 
tone  was  somewhat  tin-panny. 


THE  PIANO  AND  ITS  PREDECESSORS  379 

There  was  an  upright  spmet  called  the  clavicj^herium,  which 
must  not  be  confused  with  the  earlier  instrument  of  that  name. 

The  piano  (German,  clavier;  French,  pianoforte;  Italian,  piano- 
forte) differs  from  all  these  instruments  in  going  back  to  the  hammer 
idea  used  in  the  dulcimer.  Such  a  hammer-action  was  first  brought 
out  by  the  Italian  Cristofori,  at  Padua  in  1711.  Similar  inventions 
were  claimed  by  the  Frenchman  Marius,  the  German  Schroeter, 
and  the  Englishman  Wood;  but  Cristofori  deserves  the  real  credit. 

The  early  pianos  had  two  strings  to  a  note  where  ours  have  three. 
As  a  result  of  this,  the  old  term  calling  for  soft  pedal  was  una  corda, 
or  one  string,  the  other  being  thrown  out  of  action  by  the  soft  pedal. 
Now  we  should  say  due  corde,  as  two  strings  are  left  in  action  when 
the  soft  pedal  takes  one  out.  On  the  old  pianos,  due  corde  signified 
a  release  of  the  soft  pedal.  At  present  this  is  called  for  by  the 
words  tre  corde. 

The  piano  did  not  at  once  displace  the  older  instruments.  This 
was  especially  true  of  the  clavichord,  on  which  the  soft,  tender 
tones  were  wholly  different  from  the  piano  quality.  Bach  kept  to 
the  clavichord,  while  the  harpsichord  continued  to  hold  its  own 
even  in  Mozart's  time.  It  was  Beethoven  who  turned  the  scale 
definitely  in  favor  of  the  piano;  for  his  broad  and  massive  effects 
were  too  strong  for  the  harpsichord. 

The  piano  of  to-day  may  be  grand,  square,  or  upright  in  shape, 
though  the  square  pianos  are  not  now  manufactured.  The  upper 
notes  have  three  strings  to  a  tone,  the  lowest  notes  having  one  and 
some  other  low  notes  two.  The  deepest  strings  are  wound  with 
copper  wire,  to  make  them  heavy  enough  to  be  strung  tightly  with- 
out getting  too  high  a  pitch.  The  tension  increases  as  the  pitch  of 
the  strings  rises.  To  hold  all  this  pull,  modem  pianos  are  provided 
with  metal  frames.  One  end  of  each  wire  is  fastened  around  a  pin, 
which  may  be  turned  by  a  "piano-hanmaer,"  causing  a  tightening 
or  loosening  of  the  (wire)  strings.  The  other  end  of  each  string 
goes  over  a  bridge  that  rests  upon  the  soundmg-board,  which  is  of 
spruce  front  and  maple  back.  When  a  piano  key  is  played,  it  works 
as  a  lever,  and  throws  up  a  felt-covered  hammer  against  the  strings. 
There  is  a  complicated  "action"  govemmg  the  hammer,  which 
allows  it  to  fall  back  a  little  after  it  hits  the  strings.  When  the  key 
is  played,  it  also  raises  off  the  strings  a  felt  damper,  so  that  the 


380  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

hammer  stroke  causes  free  vibrations.  When  the  key  is  released, 
this  damper  drops  back  upon  the  strings  and  stops  the  tone.  The 
key  itself  moves  in  a  way  governed  by  oval  pins  that  extend  into 
felt-lined  cavities  on  its  under  side. 

The  damper  pedal  of  the  piano,  often  miscalled  the  loud  pedal, 
operates  by  moving  all  the  dampers  up  off  the  strings.  The  highest 
notes  have  no  dampers,  as  their  tones  are  made  short  by  the  ex- 
treme tightness  of  the  wires.  But  all  except  these  have  dampers. 
When  the  dampers  are  lifted  off  the  strings,  the  tones  will  not  only 
last  imtil  they  die  away  of  themselves,  but  will  make  some  of  the 
other  strings  vibrate  in  sympathy  with  them.  Low  notes  will  last 
longer  than  high  ones  when  the  damper  pedal  is  used. 

The  soft  pedal  operates  in  different  ways,  according  to  the  style 
of  piano  used.  In  grand  pianos,  it  shifts  the  action  to  one  side,  so 
that  the  hammers  strike  only  two  strings  out  of  three.  In  upright 
pianos,  it  usually  moves  the  hammers  so  near  to  the  wires  that  their 
stroke  lacks  the  power  obtained  by  a  long  swing.  In  the  square 
piano,  the  soft  pedal  sometimes  muffles  the  tone  by  making  tongues 
of  soft  leather  or  felt  come  between  the  hammer  and  the  strings. 
In  all  cases  the  object  is  to  soften  the  tone. 

Some  pianos  have  a  sostenuto  pedal,  which  will  hold  notes  only 
if  it  is  put  into  use  after  they  have  been  played.  The  performer 
may  thus  strike  a  note  or  chord  that  he  wishes  to  sustain,  and  then 
put  down  the  sostenuto  pedal,  after  which  the  tone  will  last,  even 
though  he  releases  the  keys  and  uses  his  hands  elsewhere. 

Other  instruments  have  bass  damper  pedals,  which  will  sustain 
all  the  lower  tones  of  the  piano,  but  none  of  the  higher  ones. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  mechanism  of  the  piano  that  after  a  note 
has  been  played,  and  the  hammer  has  dropped  back  from  the 
strings,  the  player  can  in  no  way  influence  the  quality  of  the  tone. 
Yet  it  is  not  unusual  for  great  artists  to  be  seen  wiggling  their  fin- 
gers on  the  key,  as  if  they  expected  in  some  mysterious  way  to  make 
the  tone  expressive  by  such  procedure.  There  are  differences  in  the 
quality  of  tones,  but  these  are  caused  by  the  varying  degrees  of 
strength  with  which  the  key  is  struck  in  the  first  place. 

There  are  at  present  two  main  methods  of  piano  practice,  — 
that  of  finger-strength,  represented  by  Leschetizky,  and  that  of 
weight,  represented  by  Breithaupt.   There  is  little  doubt  of  the 


THE  PIANO  AND  ITS  PREDECESSORS  381 

correctness  of  the  finger-stxength  method.  Those  who  study  by  it 
are  easily  able  to  help  their  performance  by  weight  of  hand  and 
arm;  but  those  who  neglect  to  develop  their  fingers  sufficiently  will 
never  do  great  work.  The  weight  school,  however,  is  not  without 
its  finger  exercises. 

The  good  pianist  is  known  by  his  all-round  musicianship.  He 
does  not  merely  depend  on  the  technique  necessary  to  dazzle  an 
audience,  but  he  shows  also  an  expressive  power  that  is  properly 
used  in  the  interpretation  of  great  works.  If  he  is  lacking  in  the 
expressive  qualities,  and  depends  too  much  on  technique  and  me- 
chanical ability,  he  is  called  a  virtuoso.  In  so  far  as  it  means  lack  of 
expressive  power,  the  term  is  a  reproach;  but  some  pianists  have 
sufficient  musicianly  feeling,  and  are  called  virtuosos  only  because 
they  have  such  remarkable  technique  that  it  attracts  more  notice 
than  the  other  qualities. 

The  technical  points  for  an  auditor  to  look  for  in  piano  playing 
may  be  easily  enumerated.  They  have  to  do  with  finger  dexterity, 
or  with  the  use  of  the  wrist,  forearm,  or  upper  arm  and  shoulder. 

The  finger-skill  is  by  far  the  most  noticeable  point  in  a  good 
pianist's  work.  If  his  rapid  passages,  trills,  and  other  embellish- 
ments are  clear,  even,  and  well  controlled  as  well  as  fast,  then  he 
has  mastered  the  technical  side  of  his  art.  If  the  pianist's  hands 
are  visible,  it  may  be  of  interest  to  see  how  he  holds  his  fingers. 
Most  performers  incline  rather  to  the  flat  than  to  the  high-arched 
finger  position,  though  the  artist  will  vary  his  hand-position  for 
different  effects.  The  skill  with  which  a  pianist  makes  rapid  skips 
of  some  length  is  another  point  worth  watching.  This  will  involve 
control  of  hand  and  forearm  as  well  as  fingers. 

Octave  passages  are  played  by  a  rapid  fluttering  swing  of  the 
wrist,  which  is  guided  by  the  forearm.  Clearness  and  rapidity  in 
these  is  made  a  special  point  of  practice.  The  same  procedure  may 
be  used  in  playing  light,  rapid  chords.  For  heavy  chords,  how- 
ever, the  full-arm  stroke  is  used.  The  weight-players  make  it  a 
point  to  have  the  knuckles  well  bent  to  take  the  weight  of  an  arm 
stroke;  but  this  is  a  natural  position,  which  the  players  of  the  fin- 
ger-school adopt  of  themselves. 

Technique  is  properly  used  as  a  means  to  the  end  of  artistic  ex- 
pression. In  the  matter  of  power,  every  great  pianist  is  more  than 


382  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

sufficiently  equipped.  In  other  words,  he  is  able  to  pound  the  piano 
so  forcibly  that  even  the  best  instrument  will  give  forth  only  a 
blur  of  noise.  The  artistic  effects  are  obtained  by  control  and  vari- 
ation of  power,  not  by  abuse  of  it. 

The  same  is  true  of  speed.  The  pianist  does  not  usually  play  a 
piece  as  fast  as  he  can,  but  takes  the  pace  suited  to  the  work,  and 
gives  it  expression  by  changes  of  speed  as  well  as  of  power.  By 
using  the  proper  accelerations  and  retards,  and  the  most  effective 
changes  of  pace,  as  well  as  proper  accents  and  balance  of  force,  the 
pianist  may  bring  much  out  of  a  piece,  and  make  it  notably  expres- 
sive. The  hearer  may  always  ask  himself  questions  on  these  points. 
Does  the  performer  make  the  right  contrasts  of  speed  and  power, 
or  are  they  minimized  or  exaggerated  too  much?  Does  he  bring 
out  the  melody  and  form  of  a  piece  properly?  Or  is  it  over-empha- 
sized, or  left  obscure?  Variations  in  power,  variations  in  speed,  and 
the  proper  use  of  control  and  contrast,  are  what  the  hearer  must 
train  himself  to  notice  and  estimate.  He  will  then  be  able  to  tell 
whether  a  performance  is  quiet  or  passionate,  repressed  or  exag- 
gerated, well-balanced  or  eccentric.  He  can  also  tell  whether  the 
pianist  is  striving  to  interpret  a  piece  logically,  or  trying  to  display 
his  own  powers  at  the  expense  of  the  composer's  meaning.  The  use 
or  abuse  of  the  pedal  is  another  point  worthy  of  attention. 
:  The  nature  of  the  piece  played  is  often  a  guide,  as  different  schools 
of  piano  music  require  different  treatment.  Thus  the  early  sonatas 
of  Scarlatti,  and  the  music  of  Couperin,  Rameau,  and  others  of 
their  sort,  demand  a  light  ease  of  control  and  more  than  usual 
directness  in  style.  The  Mozart  pieces  admit  of  more  expression, 
though  still  direct  and  straightforward.  With  Beethoven's  great 
sonatas  the  dramatic  element  plays  a  more  prominent  part.  In 
connection  with  these  there  has  been  much  discussion  over  the  fit- 
ness or  unfitness  of  rubato.  That  is  a  change  of  pace  within  the 
measure  or  phrase,  a  prolonging  of  certain  notes  at  the  expense  of 
others  for  the  sake  of  expression.  Paderewski  clahns  that  Bee- 
thoven's works  should  have  rubato;  but  the  young  pianist  will  do 
well  to  use  it  in  very  moderate  quantities.  Modem  works  of  the 
Liszt  type  may  be  given  the  fullest  degree  of  dramatic  expression. 

Works  of  contrapuntal  character  demand  a  special  treatment  of 
their  own.  They  are  based  on  a  system  of  part-writing,  in  which 


THE  PIANO  AND  ITS  PREDECESSORS  383 

each  part,  or  voice,  has  its  own  importance.  In  harmonic  (homo- 
phonic)  music,  there  is  one  chief  melody,  supported  by  an  accom- 
paniment of  chords.  In  strict  counterpoint,  such  as  is  found  in  the 
fugue,  each  voice  has  its  own  melodic  line,  and  the  voices  blend  with 
each  other,  like  colored  strands  twisted  to  form  a  variegated  rope. 
There  are  many  pieces  that  come  between  the  two  extremes,  and 
have  some  contrapuntal  (polyphonic,  or  many-voiced)  effects  while 
being  mostly  harmonic  in  style,  or  vice  versa. 

In  polyphonic  music,  such  as  the  fugues  of  Bach,  Mendelssohn, 
and  others,  the  pianist  must  bring  out  each  part.  Instead  of  having 
a  single  melody  to  be  made  prominent  against  a  background  of 
chords  and  harmonies,  he  now  has  several  melodies,  which  must  be 
balanced  against  each  other  in  such  a  way  that  the  important  parts 
of  all  are  brought  out.  This  is  hard  work,  and  its  success  marks  the 
true  musician. 

But  in  spite  of  general  rules,  there  is  still  much  latitude  in  the 
rendering  of  a  piece.  We  may,  therefore,  judge  the  pianist  by  his 
own  individual  work.  If  he  plays  with  control  and  variety  of  speed 
and  power,  brings  out  his  themes  expressively  without  "tearing 
them  to  tatters,"  and  balances  section  against  section,  or  voice 
against  voice,  in  proper  fashion,  expressing  the  very  best  effects 
of  which  a  piece  is  capable,  then  we  may  feel  sure  that  he  is  a  great 
artist.^ 

The  use  of  electricity  to  vibrate  wires  has  been  embodied  in  an 
instrument  known  as  the  choralcelo.  This  looks  like  a  double  up- 
right piano.  Electric  magnets,  controlled  by  properly  interrupted 
currents,  attract  and  release  the  wh-es,  thus  making  them  vibrate 
at  the  desired  rates.  The  result  is  a  very  pure  and  pleasing  tone 
quality,  of  flute-like  or  organ-like  character.  The  choralcelo  has 
also  an  ordinary  piano  action,  which  may  be  used  by  itself  or  in 
combination  with  the  electrically  produced  tones.  Recent  improve- 
ments in  the  instrument  include  the  use  of  bars,  plates,  and  chains 
of  various  sizes,  which  give  many  pleasmg  tone-colors. 

1  For  an  estimate  of  the  work  of  certain  players,  see  the  chapter  "Some  Famous 
Pianists,"  in  this  work. 


XLn 

THE  ORGAN 

The  organ  (German,  Orgel;  French,  orgue;  Italian,  organo)  has 
been  called  the  king  of  instruments;  but  if  the  title  is  correct,  it  has 
had  a  much  longer  reign  than  usually  falls  to  the  lot  of  royalty. 

"The  just  designs  of  Greece,"  which  the  poet  Collins  seemed  to 
think  superior  to  "Cecilia's  mingled  world  of  sound,"  had  no  place 
for  the  organ,  unless  we  accept  as  a  primitive  organ  the  syrinx,  or 
set  of  Pan-pipes.  That  the  organ  sometimes  took  such  a  small  form 
is  shown  by  the  regals  of  Monteverde's  seventeenth-century  orches- 
tra, which  was  a  tiny  portable  organ  somewhat  resembling  the 
syrinx.  The  larger  stationary  organ  of  Monteverde's  day  was  known 
as  the  positive;  and  this  term-  is  still  kept  to  describe  the  choir 
organ  in  France  and  Germany. 

I  Rome  had  a  somewhat  mysterious  water-organ,  worked  by  hy- 
draulic pressure.  Its  construction  is  not  now  known,  in  spite  of  refer- 
ences to  it  by  Vitruvius  and  others. 

The  Eastern  Empire  kept  the  organ,  though  with  human  instead 
of  hydraulic  motor  power.  In  the  eighth  century,  the  Byzantine 
Emperor  sent  an  organ  as  a  present  to  King  Pepin  of  France.  These 
early  organs  were  noisy  affairs,  without  the  selective  power  that 
comes  with  the  use  of  stops;  and  when  a  note  was  played,  all  the 
pipes  of  that  pitch  gave  their  tone  together.  It  is  on  record  that 
a  lady  at  Charlemagne's  court  was  driven  crazy  by  hearing  the 
organ  unexpectedly  for  the  first  time.  A  century  or  more  later, 
the  organ  at  Winchester,  England,  was  described  by  the  monk 
Wulstan  as  having  "a  noise  like  thunder." 

The  idea  of  stops  grew  up  gradually  in  the  middle  ages.  Stops 
depend  on  the  simple  principle  of  having  two  operations  necessary, 
instead  of  one,  to  let  the  air  into  an  organ  pipe.  Pressing  down  a 
key  must  be  preceded  by  a  drawing  out,  or  other  adjustment,  of  the 
stop.  Each  stop  operates  a  bar,  kno\vn  as  a  slider,  which  keeps  its 
set  of  pipes  closed  until  certain  holes  in  the  slider  are  brought  di- 
rectly under  the  corresponding  pipe  openings.  After  one  or  more 


THE  ORGAN  S85 

sets  of  pipes  are  prepared  for  use  by  the  stop-adjustment,  the  press- 
ing down  of  a  key  will  sound  only  the  pipe  of  the  desired  pitch  in 
each  set  that  has  been  prepared  for  use  by  the  stops.  While  the 
key  is  intended  to  let  air  into  all  pipes  of  a  given  pitch,  the  stops 
admit  the  air  only  to  those  pipes  where  its  action  is  desired,  and 
exclude  the  air  from  all  other  pipes  controlled  by  the  key. 

From  the  sixteenth  century  onward,  the  organ  has  grown  contin- 
ually in  size.  The  small  forms,  with  pipe-ranks  parallel  to  the  keys 
and  just  behind  them,  were  developed  into  larger  sizes,  in  which  some 
of  the  pipes  were  set  off  at  a  distance,  and  controlled  from  a  roller- 
board  that  operated  with  strings  or  wires.  The  mechanical  organ 
developed  first,  but  now  there  are  pneumatic  and  electric  organs  also. 

The  mechanical  organ  is  operated  by  systems  of  rods  and  levers. 
Pressing  down  the  key  pushes  up  a  "sticker,"  or  push-rod;  this  works 
a  lever,  or  "back-fall";  the  back-fall,  either  directly  or  by  means  of 
the  roller-board,  pulls  down  a  "tracker,"  .or  pull-rod  under  the  pipe 
to  be  used;  the  tracker,  in  its  turn,  drags  with  it  a  "pull-down,"  or 
wore  that  passes  up  into  the  wind-chest;  and  lastly,  this  pull-down 
moves  a  "pallet,"  or  valve,  the  motion  of  the  pallet  opening  the 
pipe  and  letting  the  air  rush  into  it  to  make  it  sound. 

In  the  pneumatic  organs,  each  key  is  provided  with  an  air-tube 
extending  to  the  wind-chest.  This  tube  contains  air  under  pressure 
when  not  in  use.  When  the  key  is  played,  some  air  is  released  from 
the  tube.  The  pallet  is  so  arranged  and  connected  that  when  the 
air  pressure  in  the  tube  is  lowered,  an  opposing  air-pressure  over- 
balances it,  and  forces  the  pallet  to  open. 

In  electric  organs,  each  key  is  provided  with  wires.  When  the 
key  is  played,  an  electric  contact  is  formed,  and  the  current  causes  a 
release  in  the  wind-chest,  that  allows  the  pallet  to  open.  The  electric 
organs  thus  resemble  the  pneumatic  ones,  except  that  the  long  part 
of  the  air-tube  outside  the  wind-chest  is  here  replaced  by  wire,  and 
the  release  effected  by  the  key  electrically  instead  of  pneumatically. 

The  largest  organs  have  five  different  keyboards,  known  (from 
the  lowest  up)  as  the  great,  swell,  choir,  solo,  and  echo  organs.  There 
is  a  pedal  board  also,  played  by  the  feet.  Each  manual  (keyboard), 
and  the  pedal  board  too,  has  a  number  of  different  sets  of  pipes  con- 
nected to  it,  each  set  shown  by  a  stop.  Organ  pipes  come  in  various 
sizes.  In  the  first  place,  any  set  of  pipes  must  range  from  large  to 


386  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

small  to  give  the  scale,  halving  the  length  always  giving  an  octave 
higher,  and  so  on.  But  on  the  organ  a  set  is  also  designated  by  the 
length  of  pipe  connected  with  the  key  known  as  great  C,  two  oc- 
taves below  the  middle  C  of  the  piano.  An  open  pipe  about  eight 
feet  long  will  give  this  note.  Any  series  of  pipes  sounding  the  pitch 
of  the  note  played  is  called,  from  this,  an  eight-foot  series;  and  tones 
that  sound  the  pitch  of  the  key  played  are  called  eight-foot  tones. 
This  is  thus  a  designation  for  those  pipes  that  soimd  the  pitch  of  the 
key  played,  even  though  the  pipes  above  great  C  are  shorter  than 
eight  feet,  and  those  sounding  below  it  are  longer.  The  other  figures 
used  to  designate  sets  of  organ  pipes  enable  us  to  compare  them 
with  the  eight-foot  sets,  or  stops.  Thus  a  sixteen-foot  stop  is  one 
whose  pipes  may  be  twice  as  large,  for  the  same  pitch,  as  those  of  an 
eight-foot  set;  at  any  rate,  the  sixteen-foot  set  must  sound  an  octave 
deeper,  for  any  given  key,  than  the  eight-foot  set.  There  are  thirty- 
two-foot  sets  of  pipes,  that  sound  an  octave  deeper  yet  for  a  given 
key.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  one  key  on  the  organ,  unlike  one  on 
the  piano,  may  give  several  different  tones.  The  eight-foot  stops 
are  called  foundations,  and  the  sixteen-foot  stops  doubles,  while 
stops  smaller  than  eight  feet  are  known  as  mutations.  Of  these 
smaller  stops,  the  four-foot  sounds  an  octave  above  the  key  played, 
and  the  two-foot  two  octaves  above  it.  The  interval  of  a  fifth  is  used 
also,  a  stop  of  five  and  a  third  feet  giving  a  fifth  above  the  founda- 
tions, while  one  of  two  and  two  thirds  feet  gives  an  octave  and  a  fifth 
(the  twelfth)  above  the  foundations.  There  are  also  stops  of  ten  and 
two  thirds  feet,  giving  the  fifth  above  the  doubles;  but  these  are 
used  chiefly  for  the  pedals.  Sets  of  two  or  three  ranks  of  very  small 
pipes,  sounding  together,  are  called  furniture  or  mixture.  They  are 
used  in  combination  with  heavy  tones,  to  brighten  them.  The 
doubles  and  foundations  are  often  played  together,  with  enough 
mutation  and  mixture  to  get  the  desired  effect.  The  fifth  is  never 
used  alone,  but  is  combined  with  other  stops  to  brighten  them. 

It  will  be  seen  on  reflection  that  a  single  large  organ  will  have 
a  great  number  of  pipes.  Each  of  the  five  manuals,  as  well  as  the 
pedals,  will  have  many  stops;  and  each  stop  represents  a  set  of  pipes 
usually  containing  one  for  each  key.  The  organ  at  the  town  build- 
ing in  Sydney,  like  the  still  larger  one  recently  erected  at  Liverpool, 
has  about  ten  thousand  pipes. 


THE  ORGAN 


8gT 


Pipes  may  be  open  or  closed,  the  latter  being  stopped  at  one  end 
and  sounding  an  octave  deeper  than  open  pipes  of  the  same  length. 
Pipes  may  be  wide  or  narrow  in  proportion  to  their  length,  the  nar- 
row ones  giving  the  more  brilliant  tone.  Pipes  may  be  made  of 
wood  or  of  metal.  Finally,  they  may  be  provided  with  reed  mouth- 
pieces, or  simply  have  air-openings  instead,  being  known  as  flue- 
pipes.  The  organ  builder  combines  all  these  possibilities  so  as  to 
produce  the  maximimi  variety  in  tone-color.  Incidentally,  his  in- 
strument has  to  be  "voiced"  to  the  church  or  hall  where  it  is  set 
up.  This  consists  in  trying  out  all  the  tones,  and  making  them  even 
wherever  necessary.  If  this  were  not  done,  certain  pipes  in  a  rank, 
or  stop,  which  are  reenforced  when  their  wave-length  happens  to 
fit  the  building,  would  sound  too  loud. 

Stainer,  in  his  book  on  the  organ,  gives  a  classification  of  the 
stops  that  is  quoted  here  for  reference.  His  table  is  still  useful, 
though  descriptions  of  other  stops  may  be  found  in  the  works  of 
Hopkins  and  Rimbault,  or  Audsley. 


MANUAL  FLUE  STOPS 

(Double  stopped  diapason  or  bourdon . . . Soft  and  sweet. 
Double  gamba  or  contra  gamba Reedy,  generally  soft. 
Double  (open)  diapason  metal Full  rich  tone. 

'  Stopped  diapason.  "| 

Lieblich  gedackt.    I    Soft  and  sweet. 

Clarinet  flute.         ( 
Rohrfiote.  J 

Hohlflote.  1^  g^eet,  but  fuller-toned, 

Harmonic  flute.  S  '  '  ' 
Salicional  or  salicet.  "| 

Dulciana.  ^ Soft  and  reedy. 

Keraulophon.  J 

Gamba  or  viol  da  gamba Very  reedy. 

Gemshom.       1  ,  ,  ,. 

Spitzfiote.         y Thin  and  delicate. 

Viol  d' amour.  J 

Small  open  diapason More  powerful. 

Large  open  diapason Full  and  rich, 


8-ft. 


Bell  diapason ^  .  ,    .  „        ,  , 

Flute  a  pavilion ^ Very  nch,  fuU,  and  very  reedy. 

Gamba  (full-toned)  or  bell  gamba J 

} 


4-ft. 


Flute. 

Waldfiote. 

Flute  d 'amour, 

Salicet  flute. 

Gemshom. 

Geigenprincipal 
,  Spitzfiote.            ) 
^Principal  or  octave Full-toned. 


.Sweet  and  bright. 


Reedy  and  very  bright. 


388 


THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 


2-ft. 

2Ht. 


Com 
pound  "^ 


''piagelSet.    } Very  bright,  but  "fluty." 

GeSorn    [ "^^^^  ^"^^^'  ^^"^°'*  ^^^^^* 

Fifteenth  or  super-octave Bright  and  full-toned. 

Quint,  full-tone;  adds  breadth  and  dignity  in  combination. 
Twelfth,  full-tone;  adds  richness  in  combination. 

fEcho  comet Soft  in  combination. 

Sesquialtera Adds  fullness. 

Furniture "  " 

Mixture "     brilliancy. 

Sharp  mixture "  " 


MANUAL  REED  STOPS 


16-ft. 


8-ft. 


...{ 


Tenoroon  or  contra  oboe. 
Double  bassoon. 
Double  trumpet. 
Trombone. 
Contra  posaune. 

Oboe  (orchestral). 

Clarinet. 

Como  di  bassetto, 

Cor  Anglais. 

Vox  humana. 

Hautboy,  soft  and  sweet;  used  on  Swell 

Horn. 

Cornopean 

Trumpet. 

Posaune.   ) 

Tromba.    ) 

Harmonic  trumpet.  )  ( 

Tuba  mirabilis.         f ( 

Octave  hautboy 

Clarion 


Olt 

} 


Soft  and  rich;  generally  on  the 
swell  organ. 

Full-toned  and  rich. 


Of  special  quality  of  tone;  gen- 
erally used  independently  as 
solo  stops. 

as  foundation  stop. 

Full  and  rich  on  swell. 

Loud  and  rich. 

Very  loud  and  brilliant  on 
high  wind  pressure. 

Bright. 
Very  bright. 


PEDAL  FLUE  STOPS 


«„  ,     f  Sub-bass,  double  stopped  diapason,  or  contra  bourdon.  Very  soft,  little 
82-f t.  <      used  except  m  combmation. 

[Double  diapason.  Rich  and  full,  lowest  notes  used  in  combination. 

r  Bourdon  (16-ft.  tone.  )  „  ,.       , 

16-ft.  \  Violone.  ) Soft  and  most  useful. 

[Open  diapason Full  and  heavy. 


8-ft. 


rStoDped  flute  (8-ft.)  ) ( Sweet  and  soft;  generally  use- 


Principal  or  octave i  Fu^-toned;     most 

<>  ■  ■ '  (     strengthen  bass. 

4-ft.    Fifteenth  or  super-octave Adds  brightness. 

10|-ft-    Quint,  produces  a  very  heavy  tone  in  combination. 

5Ht.    Twelfth Adds  brightness. 


useful    to 


PEDAL  REED  STOPS 
I  Contra  fagotto \  Soft,  but  useful  only  in  combi- 

L  Contre  bombarde.  J 


32-ft.  ■!  r-     *  X ' "  *  '     nation. 

I  Contra  posaune.     {  I  Most   useful   addition  to  fuU 


(     power. 


THE  ORGAN  889 

'Fagotto  or  bassoon Soft  and  frequently  useful. 

Trombone.  )  (  Add  weight  to  a  forte  combina- 

16-ft.  ■<  Posaune.      ) (      tion. 

.OpSSe.  [ Of  great  power  and  grandeur. 

{Bassoon Soft  and  useful. 
r•1a«•,^^  r^r.  f«,rv,r««<-                                 i  Gives  brilllancy  to  a  forte  com- 
Clanon  or  trumpet -j      bination. 

4-ft.     Octave  clarion Adds  brilliancy. 

The  compound  stops  vary  a  good  deal  on  different  organs,  but 
they  are  always  used  for  the  same  purpose,  —  to  reenforce  the 
higher  overtones  of  a  note  when  brilliancy  is  desired.  The  tremu- 
lant is  a  device,  used  with  certain  pipes,  which  interrupts  the  wind 
flow  at  regular  intervals  of  time.  Another  sort  of  tremolo  is  ob- 
tained by  having  two  ranks  of  salicional  (salcional)  or  dulciana 
pipes,  one  rank  being  slightly  flatter  than  the  other;  in  which  case 
the  vibrations  of  the  two  ranks  will  coincide  a  certain  number  of 
times  per  minute,  causing  a  beat,  or  increase  in  tone  volume,  each 
time  they  coincide.  Such  combinations  of  ranks  are  given  new 
names,  like  vox  angelica,  imda  maris,  etc. 

The  pipes  of  the  swell  organ  are  enclosed  in  a  box,  with  shutters. 
These  may  be  partly  opened  by  pressing  a  pedal,  so  that  the  player 
can  cause  swells  and  subsidences  as  he  opens  or  closes  the  box. 
Sometimes  other  pipes  than  those  joined  to  the  swell  manual  are 
given  a  second  swell  box. 

But  the  chief  variations  in  power  come  from  the  performer's  use 
of  different  stops,  which  are  not  all  equally  strong.  The  art  of  usmg 
the  proper  stops  is  known  as  registration.  At  times  the  composer 
marks  his  registration  pretty  fully,  but  often  it  is  left  to  the  deci- 
sion of  the  performer.  The  latter  is  sometimes  hard  put  to  it  to 
change  the  stops  without  interrupting  the  flow  of  a  piece.  To  aid 
him  in  this,  modem  organs  are  often  supplied  with  combination 
pistons,  so  arranged  that  the  player  can  group  several  stops  to- 
gether under  the  control  of  one  piston. 

Experience  is  the  best  guide  for  the  combination  of  stops,  for  the 
reason  that  different  organs  may  differ  greatly  in  effect.  But  there 
are  certain  main  principles  of  combination  that  are  given  in  the 
organ  handbooks.  Thus  the  softer  bourdons  and  diapasons,  per- 
haps stopped,  form  the  basis  of  soft  notes,  with  some  smooth  stop 
added  to  make  them  blend  well.  These  will  be  mostly  eight-foot 


S90  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

tones  on  the  manuals,  and  sixteen-foot  on  the  pedals.  An  open  dia- 
pason increases  the  tone,  while  the  addition  of  other  eight-foot  and 
four-foot  stops  brings  fair  power.  For  loud  notes,  the  doubles  are 
used  to  add  the  lower  octave,  while  still  more  foundations,  muta- 
tions, and  mixtures  are  thrown  in. 

The  auditor,  then,  will  look  most  of  all  for  quahty  of  tone  when 
hearing  the  instrument.  If  he  can  see  the  player  manipulate  the 
stops,  so  much  the  better;  but  he  can  hear  changes  of  any  impor- 
tance in  the  tone.  He  will  find  himself  able,  with  very  few  trials, 
to  tell  whether  the  deep  sixteen-foot  stops  are  present  or  absent; 
and  he  may  even  learn  to  detect  the  presence  and  probable  amount 
of  mutation  stops.  There  are  not  many  special  points  of  finger- 
technique  for  him  to  watch;  the  performer's  touch  must  simply  be 
clear  enough,  and  quick  enough,  to  get  a  clean-cut  entrance  of  the 
wind  into  the  pipes;  while  he  plays  the  pedals  with  a  heel-and-toe 
movement  that  does  not  challenge  attention.  But  if  the  player 
handles  his  registration  properly,  he  will  give  broad  effects  and 
build  up  grand  cUmaxes  that  fully  justify  the  organ's  claim  to  a 
regal  title. 


XLIII 

THE  VOICE 

The  human  voice  (German,  Stimme;  French,  voix;  Italian,  voce) 
is  an  instrument  of  the  same  type  as  the  oboe  or  bassoon.  These 
instruments  have  what  is  known  as  a  double-reed  mouthpiece;  and 
in  similar  fashion  the  throat  is  provided  with  two  membranes  called 
the  vocal  cords,  which  swing  toward  and  away  from  each  other 
when  producing  a  tone,  and  let  out  successive  air-puffs  of  the  re- 
quisite number  per  second  for  the  pitch  of  the  note  sung. 

The  lungs  and  the  muscles  controlling  them  supply  the  necessary 
air.  When  we  breathe  with  an  open  throat,  the  air  current  is  ex- 
haled without  impediment.  But  when  the  vocal  cords  are  in  action, 
closing  the  throat  except  for  the  release  of  air-puffs,  the  muscles 
controlling  the  lungs  may  be  in  definite  action,  forcing  the  air  out 
if  a  tone  of  any  volume  is  to  be  obtained. 

The  muscles  governing  the  lungs  act  in  three  ways.  The  dia- 
phragm, a  broad  flat-arched  muscle  at  the  base  of  the  lungs,  con- 
tracts downward  to  inhale  air,  and  relaxes  upward  to  let  the  air  be 
exhaled,  or  even  pushes  upward  in  making  a  tone.  The  rib-muscles 
may  expand  the  lungs  by  enlarging  the  chest  circimiference.  Still 
another  sort  of  inhalation  may  be  made  by  lifting  the  chest  and 
elongating  the  lungs  upward  by  means  of  the  shoulders.  There  is  a 
great  deal  of  discussion  as  to  what  is  the  best  method  of  breathing 
for  singers;  but  many  of  them  are  now  agreed  th«t  an  enlargement 
of  the  lower  ribs,  helped  by  a  slight  back-expansion  and  raising  of 
the  shoulder-blades,  is  the  proper  method  of  inhalation.  The  stu- 
dent may  train  his  back  in  breathing  by  inhaling  in  a  sitting  posi- 
tion, leaning  forward  imtil  the  face  almost  touches  the  knees.  After 
the  inhalation,  the  burden  of  action  in  tone-producing  is  shifted  to 
the  diaphragm,  which  controls  the  tone  best  during  exhalation. 
Breathing  by  the  diaphragm  is  the  most  wholesome  procedure  in 
ordinary  life;  but  the  singer  must  train  for  special  results. 

The  larjTix,  which  may  be  felt  as  the  Adam's-apple,  is  the 


892  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

apparatus  at  the  top  of  the  wind-pipe  (trachea)  that  acts  as  vibrat- 
ing mouthpiece  in  producing  a  tone.  The  larynx  consists  of  several 
cartilages,  united  by  muscles  and  covered  by  membranes,  the  whole 
being  suspended  from  the  hyoid,  or  tongue,  bone. 

Lowest  of  all  is  the  cricoid  cartilage,  named  from  the  Greek  to 
show  its  resemblance  to  a  signet-ring.  This  is  joined  to  the  top  of 
the  windpipe  by  a  circular  ligament.  The  widest  (highest)  part  is 
in  the  back. 

The  thyroid  cartilage  is  much  larger.  It  rests  on  top  of  the  cri- 
coid, and  forms  the  main  part  of  the  Adam's-apple.  It  is  not  a 
complete  ring,  but  is  shaped  much  like  two  square  shields  facing 
diagonally  forward.  The  back  ends  are  joined  by  the  thyro-hyoid 
membrane.  From  the  back  ends  rise  rod-like  projections  connect- 
ing the  cartilage  to  the  hyoid  bone.  At  the  upper  front  part  of  this 
cartilage  is  the  flexible  tongue  known  as  the  epiglottis.  When  we 
swallow  food,  the  epiglottis  bends  back  to  let  the  food  pass  over  it, 
across  the  top  of  the  larynx,  to  the  gullet,  or  oesophagus,  which  is 
behind  the  windpipe. 

On  top  of  the  high  back  part  of  the  cricoid  cartilage  are  two  little 
hillocks  known  as  the  arytenoid  cartilages.  On  top  of  these  are  the 
two  very  small  Santorini  cartilages,  and  beside  the  arytenoids  are 
the  two  tiny  Wrisberg  cartilages. 

The  vocal  cords  are  membranes,  one  on  each  side  of  the  larynx, 
looking  not  unlike  the  halves  of  a  drum  membrane,  with  an  open 
slit  or  passage,  called  the  glottis,  extending  from  front  to  back. 
When  the  cords  are  loose,  this  slit  is  more  like  a  round  hole.  The 
front  end  of  the  cords  is  attached  to  the  thyroid  cartilage,  and  the 
back  ends  are  united  to  the  arjrtenoid  cartilages,  one  to  each.  When 
the  cords  are  tightened  by  the  muscles  governing  the  cartilages,  the 
slit  becomes  narrow  enough  to  make  the  air  escape  in  the  intermit- 
tent puffs  needed  to  produce  a  tone.  The  cords  are  smooth  mem- 
branes of  grayish-white  color,  though  inflammation  may  make 
them  red  or  cover  them  with  lumpy  nodules. 

Above  the  vocal  cords  are  two  so-called  false  vocal  cords,  and 
between  the  two  pairs  are  recesses  known  as  the  Morgagni  pockets. 
The  use  of  the  false  cords  and  pockets  is  not  clearly  understood. 
Some  think  they  direct  the  tone  upward  through  the  throat.  Others 
believe  that  they  make  the  tone-quality  soft  and  rich.  Still  others 


THE  VOICE  898 

think  that  the  false  cords  actually  take  part  in  tone-production, 
and  replace  the  real  ones  when  the  latter  are  out  of  condition.  The 
false  cords  are  red  folds  of  the  mucous  membrane,  and  secrete 
enough  moisture  to  keep  the  true  cords  from  getting  dry  and  hard. 

The  cavity  above  the  larynx,  formed  by  the  nose  and  mouth 
coming  together,  is  known  as  the  pharjoix.  The  cavities  of  the  nose 
and  mouth  act  as  resonating  chambers.  The  shape  of  the  mouth 
is  subject  to  alteration,  while  that  of  the  nose  remains  practically 
constant.  Nasal  tones  have  good  penetrating  power.  Alteration 
of  the  shape  of  the  mouth,  by  means  of  tongue  movements,  causes 
a  change  in  the  tone-quality  which  enables  us  to  distinguish  be- 
tween different  vowels.  The  "  oo  "  sound,  as  in  "  food,"  has  the  few- 
est overtones.  A  gradual  opening  of  the  lips  will  make  the  mouth 
correspond  to  a  conical  rather  than  a  cylindrical  tube,  giving  more 
overtones  and  a  brighter  quality.  As  we  open  the  lips  we  pa^ 
through  the  vowel  soimds  found  m  the  words  "foot,"  "fun,"  "not," 
and  "awe";  while  with  the  sound  of  "ah"  the  mouth  should  be 
fully  open.  A  further  emphasis  of  the  conical  shape  is  then  made 
by  gradually  closing  the  back  of  the  mouth-cavity,  by  raising  the 
tongue.  We  pass  through  the  sounds  of  the  vowels  in  "mat"  and 
"met,"  until  with  the  sound  in  "meet"  the  passage  between  the 
tongue  and  the  roof  of  the  mouth  is  at  its  narrowest. 

The  presence  of  overtones  in  different  proportion  is  also  shown 
by  the  fact  that  each  voice  has  its  own  quality.  If  two  voices  jwo- 
duced  tones  having  the  same  proportion  of  overtones  in  union  with 
the  fundamental  tone,  they  would  sound  alike. 

The  action  of  the  throat  should  not  be  self-conscious.  The  singer 
knows  what  pitch  he  wishes  to  get,  and  he  strikes  it  without  think- 
ing of  working  the  crico-thyroid  muscles  or  stretching  the  vocal 
cords.  Yet  there  is  evidently  a  very  accurate  relation  between  idea 
and  act,  for  the  vocal  cords  at  once  adopt  the  tension  necessary  to 
produce  the  required  pitch.  This  tension  may  be  obtained  in  two 
ways,  however,  and  the  singer  knows  which  one  he  is  going  to  use. 

The  so-called  chest  register  (better  named  chest  quality)  is  ob- 
tained when  the  vocal  cords  vibrate  at  full  length  along  their  straight 
edges,  which  are  thus  held  tight  to  narrow  the  opening  known  as 
the  glottis,  or  "chink  of  the  glottis."  In  this  method  of  singing, 
increased  tones  mean  increased  tension.    As  the  pitch  rises,  the 


894  THE  BCK)K  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Adam's-apple,  which  carries  the  front  ends  of  the  cords,  rises  also, 
and  takes  a  stiffer  and  stiffer  position,  demanding  more  and  more 
muscular  effort.  To  sing  high  notes  in  the  chest  register  (with  chest 
quality)  is  very  fatiguing.  The  chest  notes  in  a  man's  voice  have 
the  fulness  and  quality  obtained  in  ordinary  shouting. 

If  the  singer  uses  the  so-called  head  register,  he  will  obtain  a  tone 
of  much  smoother  quality.  To  get  such  head  tones,  the  throat 
must  be  left  lax,  and  the  nose  open.  Such  tones  are  often  developed 
by  humming  through  the  nose.  In  these,  the  authorities  tell  us,  the 
vocal  cords  vibrate  more  in  a  lateral  direction,  like  a  pin  that  is 
stuck  in  a  wall  and  twanged.  The  head  register  requires  none  of 
the  fatiguing  stiffening  of  the  throat  that  is  needed  for  chest  notes. 
It  has  a  much  smoother  quality  of  tone,  being  almost  like  the  falsetto 
voice  in  character.  In  reality,  the  falsetto  is  simply  a  very  high  part 
of  the  head  register.  The  head  tones  have  nothing  of  the  gruff  char- 
acter of  the  shout,  but  have  the  smoother,  lighter  quaUty  of  a  whine. 

The  good  singer  vni\  use  the  head  tones  as  much  as  the  nature  of 
his  voice  permits.  With  men,  this  blending  of  a  maximum  of  head 
quality  with  the  tone  may  be  done  at  all  pitches,  but  more  especially 
in  the  high  ones.  Sir  Morell  Mackenzie  said  that  sopranos  use  a 
maximum  of  chest  register,  while  contraltos  depend  much  more  on 
head  quality  for  their  high  notes.  But  this  statement  is  many  years 
old,  and  probably  the  sopranos  now  make  a  much  greater  use  of 
the  head  register  than  formerly. 

Oertel  studied  head  tones  by  means  of  an  instrument  called  the 
stroboscope,  connected  with  the  laryngoscope.  The  latter  is  an 
arrangement  of  mirrors  enabling  an  observer  to  see  into  the  throat. 
The  former  is  based  on  the  idea  of  a  revolving  plate  with  a  hole  in 
it,  permitting  vision  only  when  the  hole  reaches  a  certain  spot  in 
its  path  of  revolution.  If  the  stroboscope  revolves,  for  example, 
250  times  a  second,  and  the  vocal  cords  under  the  laryngoscope  are 
vibrating  251  times  a  second,  then  each  revolution  of  the  strobo- 
scope will  show  the  cords  in  a  position  slightly  advanced  from  that 
seen  previously.  In  this  way  a  sort  of  moving  picture  is  obtained 
showing  the  vocal  cords  in  action  apparently  at  the  rate  of  one  vi- 
bration per  second.  By  using  this,  Oertel  found  that  in  head  tones 
the  vocal  cords  were  divided  mto  segments  lengthwise,  the  segments 
vibrating  laterally. 


THE  VOICE  Sas 

In  the  later  sections  on  tubular  instruments,  it  is  shovm  that  the 
length  of  the  vibrating  air-column  producing  a  tone  varies  inversely 
as  the  pitch.  The  vocal  cords  are  controlled  by  muscles,  while  the 
mouthpieces  of  reed  instruments  are  not.  We  may  therefore  make 
the  vocal  cords  give  any  rate  of  vibration  that  they  can,  and  the 
length  of  the  vibrating  air-column  will  vary  in  accordance  with  their 
rate.  But  where  the  air-wave  in  a  clarinet,  for  instance,  is  four  times 
the  length  of  the  tube,  that  of  a  vocal  tone  may  be  many  more 
times  the  length  from  vocal  cords  to  lips.  Yet  there  is  some  short- 
ening of  the  air-column  in  the  throat  as  the  pitch  is  raised.  With 
chest  tones,  the  thyroid  cartilage  shortens  the  air-space  by  rising 
as  the  pitch  rises;  and  chest-singers  often  throw  the  head  back  for 
high  notes.  For  head  tones,  there  seems  to  be  a  lowering  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  larynx  toward  the  cords,  producing  the  sensation  of 
"drinking  in"  the  tone. 

All  this  no  doubt  leads  to  rather  abstruse  considerations.  There 
is,  however,  much  room  for  further  investigation  of  the  larynx  in 
action;  and  the  reader  may  not  find  it  amiss  to  have  these  hints 
of  what  the  investigator's  problems  are  like. 

From  the  hearer's  point  of  view,  too,  the  above  items  may  be  of 
value.  He  can  watch  what  method  of  breathing  a  singer  adopts, 
or  tell  whether  he  or  she  blends  head  and  chest  tones  skilfully. 

Voices  are  classified  in  many  ways.  Taking  them  in  general  divi- 
sions from  the  bottom  up,  we  have  the  basso  profunda,  the  basso 
cantante,  the  baritone,  the  tenore  robusto,  the  (lyric)  tenore  di  grazia, 
the  contralto,  the  mezzo-soprano,  and  the  full  soprano. 

The  voice  of  the  basso  jyrofundo  is  full  and  deep,  while  that  of  the 
basso  cantante  is  smoother  and  more  fluent.  Similarly,  the  tenore 
robusto  has  a  voice  of  heroic  proportions,  while  the  lyric  tenor  {tenore 
di  grazia)  has  less  strength,  but  more  smoothness  and  sweetness  of 
tone.  The  saccharine  quality  of  the  lyric  tenor's  tones  is  apt  to  grow 
monotonous;  and  it  caused  Von  Biilow  to  remark  that  "Tenor  is 
not  a  voice,  but  a  disease."  The  true  contralto  (alto)  voice,  too, 
is  broad  and  strong  in  quality,  while  that  of  a  mezzo-soprano  with 
almost  the  same  range  is  more  lyrical.  Sopranos  have  the  same  divi- 
sion, the  strong  voices  being  suited  to  the  dramatic  school,  while 
the  more  fluent  and  smooth  voices  of  the  so-called  colorature  sopranos 
can  be  managed  with  the  most  brilliant  flexibility.  The  last-named 


396  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

voices  are  those  that  are  displayed  in  the  runs,  embelHshments,  and 
rapid  passages  of  the  conventional  mad-scenes  in  Italian  opera  of 
the  Rossini  or  Donizetti  school. 

Men's  voices  sing  music  in  the  G  clef  an  octave  lower  than  it  is 
written. 

Vocal  execution  is  a  matter  in  which  the  singer  must  keep  up 
constant  practice.  In  the  piano  field,  Rubinstein  is  alleged  to  have 
said,  "If  I  neglect  practice  one  day,  I  know  it;  two  days,  my  friends 
know  it;  and  three  days,  the  public  knows  it."  Something  of  the 
sort  is  true  of  the  singer  also. 

The  singer  must  not  only  practise  execution,  but  he  must  develop 
tone  quality  as  well.  Where  the  pianist  cannot  vary  his  tone-color, 
the  singer  can  modify  his  tones  noticeably  by  practice.  A  good 
voice  is  in  part  a  natural  gift;  but  it  may  be  much  improved,  and 
in  some  cases  singers  have  attained  success  without  it.  Thus  Lud- 
wig  Wullner,  renowned  for  his  rendering  of  German  art-songs,  ob- 
tains his  effects  by  his  mastery  of  technical  management,  and  ad- 
vertises himself  as  "the  singer  without  a  voice." 

When  judging  of  a  singer,  the  listener  may  first  of  all  note  the 
quality  of  his  voice.  If  the  performer  is  a  man,  the  voice  may  be  of 
either  lyric  or  robust  style;  if  a  woman,  her  tones  may  be  broadly 
dramatic,  or  may  have  the  pure,  clear  quality  of  the  "  voix  blanche," 
the  clean-cut,  somewhat  cold  tone-color  shown  by  certain  coloratura 
singers. 

Breathing  and  breath  management  are  worthy  of  notice.  Does 
the  singer  breathe  naturally,  with  only  the  slightest  pause,  and  no 
apparent  effort?  Or  does  he  make  hard  work  of  it?  Also,  does  he 
pause  for  breath  at  the  proper  times,  or  does  he  let  his  inhalations 
divide  the  phrases  wrongly?  In  some  songs,  there  is  little  chance 
for  the  vocalist  to  go  astray.  In  the  old  Handel  airs,  however,  such 
as  "Ev'ry  valley,"  in  "The  Messiah,"  there  are  long  roulades,  in 
which  any  misjudgment  would  receive  its  full  share  of  prominence. 

The  quality  of  tone  is  kept  at  its  best  if  the  tone  is  given  proper 
resonance  by  the  nose,  and  more  especially  by  the  mouth.  We  hear 
many  teachers  tell  their  pupils  to  "focus  the  tone  on  the  teeth." 
This  does  not  mean  that  the  teeth  have  any  share  in  the  tone,  but 
that  the  student  is  to  let  the  tone  resound  clearly  and  not  be  smoth- 
ered by  the  mouth  or  throat. 


THE   VOICE  897 

The  tremolo  is  a  fault  that  depends  on  breath  management.  K 
a  singer  has  good  control  of  the  muscles  governing  his  lungs,  he 
should  not  be  troubled  with  any  objectionable  tremolo. 

Inaccuracy  in  pitch  may  come  from  the  singer's  inability  to  hear 
certain  notes  mentally.  It  is  apt  to  show  itself  on  long-held  notes  of 
very  high  or  very  low  position  in  a  singer's  range.  A  singer  need  not 
be  blamed  greatly  for  an  infrequent  lapse  on  a  single  note;  but  if  such 
carelessness  grows  to  be  a  habit,  it  is  naturally  an  important  defect. 

The  attack  of  a  tone  is  the  way  in  which  a  singer  begins  it.  This 
should  be  even  and  clean-cut,  unless  other  effects  are  used  pur- 
posely. If  a  singer  is  heard  to  "feel"  for  a  tone  lightly  and  search- 
ingly,  instead  of  starting  it  cleanly  at  full  power,  his  audience  will 
soon  grow  tired  of  him.  The  singer  often  experiences  a  temptation 
to  slide  up  to  a  high  note  with  a  "scoop";  but  he  must  resist  this 
feeling.  The  only  permissible  case  of  such  sliding  is  the  portamentOf 
in  which  a  singer  ends  a  note  by  carrying  it  rapidly  up  (or  down) 
to  the  pitch  of  the  next,  before  pronouncing  the  syllable  that  goes 
with  the  second  note.  Portamento  work  should  not  be  over-used, 
or  it  will  grow  wearisome  in  its  effect.  The  release  of  a  tone,  like 
the  attack,  should  be  clean-cut  and  sudden.  The  proper  tone,  ac- 
cording to  Santley,  is  started  full,  held  evenly,  and  released  cleanly, 
forming  what  he  calls  a  "rectangle  of  sound." 

After  these  technical  points  are  noted,  there  comes  the  subject 
of  musical  expression.  The  singer,  like  the  pianist,  has  many  grada- 
tions of  speed  and  power,  —  almost  an  infinite  variety  in  the  case 
of  the  voice.  These,  under  his  management,  constitute  his  render- 
ing of  a  song;  and  if  they  are  employed  with  due  regard  for  balance, 
contrast,  and  unity  of  the  entire  effect,  they  mark  the  singer  as  an 
artist.  The  singer  has  one  admirable  guide  that  the  pianist  lacks, 
—  the  sense  of  the  words.  These  usually  give  him  the  general  out- 
line of  the  effects  he  desires,  his  practice  merely  refining  the  details. 
Yet  even  here  there  is  room  for  judgment.  Thus  an  opera  singer  will 
often  exaggerate  the  effect  of  recital  songs,  and  try  to  make  them 
too  dramatic,  —  a  fault  usually  avoided  successfully  by  the  con- 
cert artist.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  song-singer  and  the  opera- 
singer  have  different  standards;  and  an  artist  who  changes  from  one 
field  to  the  other,  even  temporarily,  should  remember  this  fact. 


XLIV 

THE  VIOLIN 

While  the  piano  demands  the  maximum  amount  of  effort  from 
the  performer,  the  violin  (German,  Geige;  French,  violon;  Italian, 
violino)  is  the  instrument  that  is  capable  of  the  greatest  variety  of 
expression.  Like  the  human  voice,  it  may  echo  every  emotion. 

The  origin  of  the  violin,  as  aheady  intimated,  is  shrouded  in 
m-ystery.  The  rebab  of  Arabia,  the  ravonastron  of  India,  the  early 
Welsh  harp  known  as  the  crwth,  or  even  the  primitive  instruments 
of  Africa,  may  have  played  their  part  in  its  development.  Greil- 
samer,  a  French  authority,  now  claims  that  it  may  have  come  from 
the  kithara,  because  of  the  expansion  of  one  of  the  latter's  sides 
to  a  violin-hke  body  in  certain  early  mediaeval  specimens. 

The  term  fiddle,  also  viol,  is  derived  from  the  Latin  fidicula, 
meaning  a  stringed  instrument.  The  early  viols,  which  came  into 
general  use  in  the  time  of  the  Jongleurs,  were  flatter  in  shape  than 
the  present  violin.  Their  tone  was  different,  being  less  incisive  and 
brilliant,  but  more  calmly  sweet  and  plaintive.  Viols  of  various 
sizes  remained  in  use  some  time  after  the  violin  had  developed. 
When  the  early  sixteenth-century  music  is  revived  for  modem  ears, 
the  viols  are  often  used  in  place  of  violins,  and  with  very  pleasing 
effect  if  heard  with  harpsichord,  for  example. 

Gasparo  da  Salo  and  the  Amati  family  were  pioneers  in  violin- 
making,  the  former  living  in  the  Tyrol  and  the  latter  in  Cremona. 
Andrea  Amati,  the  pioneer  in  the  Cremona  manufacture,  was  bom 
in  1520.  His  two  sons  Antonio  and  Geronimo  continued  the  work, 
but  it  was  brought  to  greater  perfection  by  the  latter's  son  Nicolo. 
The  last-named  was  the  teacher  of  the  greatest  of  violin-makers, 
Antonio  Stradivarius  (1650-1737).  Another  famous  family  of  violin- 
makers  was  that  of  Guamerius,  of  whom  Joseph  (1683-1745), 
called  Del  Jesu,  is  known  through  having  one  of  his  instruments 
used  by  the  great  Paganini.  Other  famous  violin-makers  were  the 
Magginis,  the  Ruggieris,  the  Guadagninis,  the  Cerutis,  and  Storioni 


THE  VIOLIN  «99 

The  violins  of  these  men  are  valued  for  their  excellence  of  tone. 
This  comes  in  part  from  age,  or  rather  continued  use;  because  the 
constant  vibration  of  the  violin-box  makes  it  give  tones  of  con- 
stantly increasing  fulness  and  purity.  But  age  is  not  the  only  quality, 
else  all  the  old  instnunents  would  be  equally  good.  There  were 
secrets  in  the  making  and  using  of  the  varnish,  the  seasoning  of  the 
wood,  and  so  on.  These  points,  or  others  of  the  sort,  are  still  open 
to  discovery,  and  modem  makers  sometimes  produce  imusual  re- 
sults. Thus  a  famous  New  York  firm,  which  exhibited  some  of  its 
new  violins  at  a  Vienna  fair,  was  refused  the  prize,  at  first,  on  the 
ground  that  its  instruments  were  too  good  to  be  really  new. 

The  chief  parts  of  a  violin  are  the  body  and  neck,  made  of  maple 
or  pine;  a  thin  wooden  bridge  of  maple,  supporting  the  strings;  an 
ebony  bar  into  which  the  strings  are  knotted  beyond  the  bridge; 
an  ebony  finger-board  over  which  they  run;  a  i)eg-box,  in  which 
the  ends  of  the  strings  are  wrapped  around  pegs  that  are  used  for 
tuning;  and  the  four  strings  themselves.  The  strings  are  called 
catgut;  but  in  the  instrumental  field,  at  least,  the  cat  is  innocent, 
as  the  strings  come  from  the  sheep  or  the  goat  when  not  artificially 
made.  The  deepest  string  is  wound  with  wire.  With  the  violin 
comes  a  bow  of  horsehair,  and  a  metal  or  wooden  clamp  (the  mute, 
or  sordino).  The  bow  is  drawn  over  the  strings  to  set  them  in  mo- 
tion, whereupon  the  vibrations  are  transferred  by  the  bridge  to 
the  body  of  the  instrument,  which  acts  as  a  sounding-board,  and 
vibrates  in  sympathy  with  the  string,  but  much  more  powerfully. 
The  mute  is  stuck  on  the  bridge  in  clothespin-fashion  when  in  use, 
and  diminishes  the  volume  of  tone  by  letting  less  powerful  vibra- 
tions reach  the  sounding-box.  The  muted  tone  is  peculiarly  sweet 
as  well  as  soft.  When  the  mute  is  to  be  put  on  or  taken  off,  the  com- 
poser always  puts  some  rests  into  the  player's  part,  so  that  he  may 
have  time  to  dig  the  mute  from  his  vest  pocket  and  adjust  it  on 
the  bridge,  or  to  reverse  the  process. 

The  violin  strings  are  tuned  in  fifths,  to  G,  D,  A,  and  E  in  as- 
cending order,  beginning  with  the  G  just  below  middle  C.  Since 
making  a  string  shorter  causes  it  to  give  a  higher  tone,  the  player 
may  get  tones  of  higher  pitch  than  that  of  the  whole  string  (open 
string)  by  pressing  his  finger  on  it,  at  different  distances  from  the 
peg-box;  in  which  case  the  part  of  the  string  between  the  bridge 


400  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

and  the  player's  finger  is  what  vibrates  and  gives  the  tone.  In  prin- 
ciple it  is  simple,  but  in  practice  the  procedure  is  varied  and  diffi- 
cult. The  violinist's  left  hand,  which  is  used  to  finger  the  strings, 
is  trained  to  a  most  delicate  perfection  of  activity,  —  a  perfection 
that  is  injured  by  the  slightest  bruise,  so  that  the  performer  may 
not  indulge  in  anything  so  violent  as  baseball,  for  instance.  The  use 
of  the  bow,  too,  demands  a  perfect  adjustment  of  arm,  wrist,  hand, 
and  fingers.  So  it  must  have  been  a  very  ignorant  man  who  said, 
when  asked  if  he  could  play  the  violin,  "  I  don't  know;  I  never  tried." 

The  violinist,  when  playing,  supports  the  neck  of  his  instrument 
in  the  hollow  between  the  thumb  and  first  finger  of  his  left  hand. 
This  brings  his  four  fingers  over  the  strings  in  such  a  way  that  any 
one  of  them  may  press  the  string  against  the  finger-board,  known 
as  "stopping"  the  string.  When  the  hand  is  nearest  to  the  peg- 
box,  it  is  in  what  is  called  the  first  position.  By  moving  in  toward 
the  body  of  the  violin,  so  that  each  finger  gives  a  note  one  tone 
higher  than  before,  it  reaches  the  second  position.  In  ordinary 
playing,  six  positions  are  used.  For  the  upper  positions,  or  for  any 
note  still  higher  on  the  E-string,  the  fingers  must  do  some  reaching, 
as  the  body  of  the  instrument  prevents  the  hand  from  moving  in 
as  a  whole.  In  Beethoven's  time  the  compass  of  the  violin  was 
considered  to  be  one  tone  over  three  octaves.  Since  then  the  com- 
posers have  called  for  still  higher  notes  from  it;  and  Wagner,  in 
the  music  depicting  the  Holy  Grail  in  the  prelude  to  "Lohengrin," 
demanded  unusually  high  tones,  whose  thin,  clear  quality,  blended 
with  flute  notes,  gave  an  excellent  picture  of  celestial  bliss. 

In  this  case  Wagner  used  what  are  known  as  harmonics,  besides 
employing  the  ordinary  tones.  Harmonics,  known  also  as  over- 
tones or  upper  partials,  are  formed  when  a  string  of  the  violin  is 
made  to  vibrate  in  fractional  parts  instead  of  in  one  large  swing 
along  its  entire  length.  To  produce  such  an  effect,  the  player 
touches  the  string  lightly  at  a  certain  point  instead  of  pressing  it 
down  firmly.  If  he  touches  the  string  in  the  middle,  it  vibrates  in 
halves,  sounding  an  octave  higher  than  if  it  vibrated  as  a  whole. 
If  touched  one-third  of  its  length  from  the  peg-box  end,  it  vibrates 
in  thirds,  giving  a  still  higher  tone;  and  the  pitch  may  be  still  fur- 
ther raised  by  making  the  string  divide  into  fourths,  fifths,  etc. 

The  playing  of  harmonics  is  one  of  the  points  in  which  a  good 


THE  VIOLIN  401 

performer  shows  his  skill.  He  must  be  perfectly  accurate  in  finger- 
ing, as  the  slightest  deviation  from  the  exact  location  will  cause  a 
series  of  meaningless  squeaks.  The  so-called  artificial,  or  stopped, 
harmonics  are  derived  from  a  stopped  tone,  in  which  one  finger 
presses  the  string  down  in  the  ordinary  way  while  another  makes 
this  shortened  length  of  string  divide  into  fractional  parts.  The  use 
of  thin  strings  aids  greatly  in  the  production  of  these  tones;  and 
Paganini,  the  most  famous  technical  master  of  the  violin  that  the 
world  has  known,  could  in  this  manner  make  the  string  subdivide 
into  as  many  as  twelve  parts.  Most  concert  violinists  do  not  go 
above  eight  or  nine. 

The  hearer  can  soon  learn  to  distinguish  the  thin,  piping,  "flageo- 
let-tone" quality  of  the  harmonics;  and  if  he  is  near  enough  to  see 
the  player's  fingers,  he  may  note  the  light  touch  on  the  string  needed 
to  produce  them. 

The  most  common  style  of  the  violin  is  a  smooth  legato,  melodic 
and  expressive,  in  which  the  composer  uses  a  slur  to  show  which 
notes  are  to  be  played  in  a  single  bow-stroke,  and  sometimes  indi- 
cates whether  it  is  the  up  or  down  stroke. 

Among  other  technical  points  to  be  watched  for,  the  most  com- 
mon is  double-stopping,  or  the  playing  of  two  strings  at  once.  On 
ordinary  violins  the  bow  cannot  touch  three  strings  at  once,  al- 
though the  performer  may  alternate  notes  on  two  adjacent  strings 
so  quickly  that  he  seems  to  be  playing  in  three  or  four  part  har- 
mony. He  may  also  sweep  his  bow  over  three  or  four  strings  in 
very  rapid  succession,  giving  a  chord  of  three  or  four  notes  in  the 
harp-like  style  known  as  arpeggio.  It  is  said  that  Ole  Bull  had  a 
special  violin  bridge  made,  with  its  top  more  nearly  flat  than  usual, 
so  that  by  bearing  on  heavily  with  the  bow  he  could  touch  three 
strings  at  once.  But  usually  such  chord  effects,  as  seen  in  the  great 
Chaconne  for  solo  violin  by  Bach,  are  made  by  the  arpeggio-sweep, 
and  only  one  or  two  of  the  notes  really  sustained  for  any  time. 

In  orchestral  music,  where  there  are  two  groups  of  violins,  the 
same  effect  is  obtamed  by  dividing  the  forces  as  much  as  desired. 
Thus  Wagner,  in  the  "Forest-Rustling"  in  "Siegfried,"  divided 
his  first  violins  into  three  parts,  with  a  solo  violin  besides,  while 
the  second  violins  played  in  four  parts,  and  the  lower  strings  were 
also  divided.    This  gave  a  many-voiced  effect  that  represented 

LIBRARY 

•TATE  TEACHEftSJ   COLLPOt 
BANTA    BAReARA,    CA_l«^ORNlA 


402  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

very  successfully  the  rustlings  and  murmurings  of  the  forest.  Such 
procedure  (divisi)  is  common  now  with  all  the  orchestral  instru- 
ments, and  produces  a  much  broader  or  more  massive  tone  than 
the  older  method  of  scoring  for  unison  parts. 

The  violin  tremolo,  which  is  so  often  heard  in  our  melodramas 
when  the  villain  is  about  to  kill  the  heroine,  or  some  other  blood- 
curdling event  takes  place,  is  produced  on  a  single  tone  by  swinging 
the  bow  rapidly  to  and  fro  on  the  string.  This  effect  was  originated 
by  Monteverde  in  the  seventeenth  century;  though  if  he  had 
known  to  what  base  uses  it  would  come,  he  might  have  refrained 
from  inventing  it. 

The  vibrato  is  used  to  give  a  series  of  apparent  swells  and  sub- 
sidences to  a  single  smooth  tone.  It  is  caused  in  reality  by  slight 
regular  changes  in  pitch,  for  in  producing  it  the  player  sways  his 
hand  rhythmically  and  more  or  less  rapidly  while  keeping  his  finger 
on  the  string. 

Staccato  notes,  which  are  short  and  quick,  may  be  produced  by 
the  stopping  of  the  bow  on  the  string,  in  which  case  the  tone  ceases 
at  once.  Such  a  staccato  is  called  "detach^,"  or  "martellato." 

Another  staccato  is  produced  by  letting  the  bow  drop  on  the 
string  and  reboimd  quickly  by  its  own  elasticity.  This  is  known  as 
the  "flying  staccato"  or  "arco  saltando." 

When  the  string  is  lightly  brushed  and  the  bow  lifted  off  it  be- 
tween each  tone,  the  so-called  "spiccato"  is  produced. 

The  violin  strings  may  be  plucked,  Uke  those  of  a  guitar.  This 
procedure,  known  as  "pizzicato,"  may  be  used  for  guitar-like  ac- 
companunents,  but  it  has  a  mysterious  and  strikmg  effect  that  is 
valuable  for  its  own  sake  also.  Skilful  solo  players  will  sometimes 
give  pieces  that  demand  pizzicato  effects  in  combination  with 
bowmg;  and  while  a  tone  of  the  usual  sort  is  going  on,  they  will  be 
seen  to  pluck  a  string  also  with  one  of  the  free  fingers  of  the  left 
hand.  The  pizzicato,  like  the  tremolo,  was  invented  by  Monte- 
verde. 

A  tone  produced  by  tapping  the  string  with  the  back  of  the  bow 
is  called  "col  legno,"  meaning  "with  the  wood."  This  effect  is  too 
light  for  solo  use,  and  is  rare  even  in  orchestral  work. 

The  mute,  or  sordino,  has  been  mentioned  above.  The  muted 
tone  is  too  smoothly  sweet  for  lengthy  use,  but  in  short  passages 


THE  VIOLIN  403 

it  makes  a  good  contrast  to  the  more  brilliant  tones  of  the  unmuted 
strings. 

Trills  are  produced  by  a  rapid  alternation  of  two  notes,  the  lower 
one  being  held,  or  consisting  of  an  open  tone,  while  the  upper  one 
is  played  and  released  very  quickly. 

The  glissando  is  the  effect  produced  when  a  finger  is  slid  along 
the  string  while  the  bow  is  playing  on  it.  This  procedure  and  others 
are  often  burlesqued  in  vaudeville,  but  when  properly  used  are  de- 
cidedly effective. 

Embellishments  of  various  sorts,  such  as  turns,  trills,  mordents, 
and  rapid  runs,  are  much  used  in  violm  music.  The  player's  left 
hand  is  continually  in  action,  and  a  close  watch  of  its  nimble  fingers 
will  show  a  constant  overcoming  of  difficulties  that  are  not  all  recog- 
nized as  such  by  the  ear  alone. 

The  violin  is  capable  of  expressing  every  emotion,  from  the 
deepest  pathos  to  the  wildest  gayety  or  the  utmost  frenzy.  Its  use 
as  a  solo  instrum.ent  is  widespread,  and  it  plays  the  most  impor- 
tant part  in  the  orchestra.  It  lends  itself  to  the  expression  of  every 
shade  of  feeling,  and  while  many  instruments  have  only  one  or  two 
distinctive  tone-colors,  the  violin  possesses  them  all. 

A  very  great  deal  of  this  expressive  power  depends  on  the  per- 
former's use  of  the  bow.  This  is  a  matter  of  life-long  attention  from 
the  student's  earliest  days.  The  fingers  stop  the  strings  to  get  the 
correct  pitch;  but  it  is  always  the  infinite  variety  in  the  speed  and 
pressure  of  the  bow  that  brings  out  the  tone-quality.  The  broad 
and  beautiful  notes  of  an  Ysaye  or  a  Kreisler  depend  wholly  upon 
the  correct  and  artistic  use  of  the  bow. 

In  the  orchestra,  the  first  of  the  violin  players,  known  as  the 
"Concertmeister,"  ranks  next  to  the  conductor  himself,  and  should 
be  able  to  replace  the  latter  if  necessary.  He  is  always  a  performer 
of  high  merit,  and  best  able  to  play  the  solo  passages  that  abound 
in  modem  scores. 

Sometimes  special  tunings  of  the  violin  are  used.  Thus  Saint- 
Saens,  in  his  "Danse  Macabre,'*  depicting  the  skeletons  dancing 
at  midnight,  had  a  solo  vioUn  tuned  with  its  upper  string  a  semi- 
tone flat.  This  gave  a  peculiarly  weird  effect  when  Death  began 
to  tune  up  his  violin  for  the  skeletons'  dance.  Paganini  would  often 
tune  all  his  strings  a  semitone  too  high,  and  finger  the  pieces  a 


404  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

semitone  lower  than  they  were  written,  combining  the  correct  pitch 
with  the  brilliance  obtained  from  tight  strings.  Many  others  have 
used  special  effects  in  tuning. 

When  the  layman  attends  a  violin  recital,  he  will  be  able  to  notice 
many  of  the  points  enumerated  here.  He  will  almost  surely  see 
much  double-stopping,  many  harmonics,  pizzicato  passages,  and 
other  bits  of  technical  display.  These  he  may  follow  in  part  with 
the  eye,  by  watching  the  fingers  of  the  player's  left  hand.  But  the 
artist's  chief  glory  is  to  be  judged  by  the  ear.  If  he  shows  breadth 
and  purity  of  tone,  true  expressive  power,  real  delicacy  of  feeling, 
and  an  emotional  warmth  that  is  well  marked  without  being  un- 
duly exaggerated,  then  he  is  truly  great. 


XLV 

OTHER  BOWED  INSTRUMENTS 

The  viola  (German,  Bratsche;  French,  alto;  Italian,  viola)  is  ex- 
actly similar  to  the  violin,  except  that  it  is  one  fifth  larger,  and  has 
heavier  strings.  It  is  timed  a  fifth  below  the  violin,  its  strings  thus 
giving  C,  G,  D,  and  A,  the  deepest  tone  being  an  octave  below 
middle  C  on  the  piano.   Its  two  lowest  strings  are  wired. 

The  viola  is  played  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  used  for  the  violin, 
except  for  the  greater  stretches  in  fingering,  due  to  the  greater 
length  of  the  strings.  All  the  technical  points  of  violin  execution 
are  possible  on  the  viola,  but  owing  to  the  veiled  quality  of  its  high 
tones  its  music  is  confined  to  the  first  five  positions,  giving  the  viola 
a  compass  of  about  three  octaves. 

The  dull,  mournful  tone-color  of  the  viola  comes  from  the  fact 
that  its  strings  are  thick.  Its  increased  length  over  the  violin  would 
make  its  tones  only  a  third  below  those  of  the  violin  if  the  same 
thickness  of  string  were  used.  The  extra  depth  is  attained  by  in- 
creasing the  thickness  of  the  strings,  which  always  makes  the  tone 
lose  brilliancy.  Thus  the  viola  gets  a  tone-color  of  brooding  melan- 
choly. If  over-used,  it  becomes  tiresome.  When  M^hul  aimed  to 
portray  the  lofty  melancholy  of  the  Ossianic  poetry  in  his  "Uthal," 
he  tried  the  experiment  (at  Napoleon's  request)  of  leaving  out  vio- 
lins and  making  the  viola  the  chief  instrument  of  the  string  group. 
The  result  was  decidedly  too  successful;  for  the  tone-color  of  the 
piece  became  so  monotonous  that  Gr^try,  after  listening  to  the  end, 
exclaimed,  "  I  'd  give  a  hundred  francs  to  hear  a  violin." 

Among  more  recent  composers,  Mendelssohn  has  used  the  viola 
beautifully  in  the  slow  movement  of  his  Italian  Symphony;  while 
Berlioz  employed  the  instrument  admirably  to  personify  the 
rireamy  and  contemplative  hero  in  his  "Childe  Harold"  Symphony. 
In  the  second  movement  of  that  work  it  has  some  delicate  tones 
which  are  played  very  near  the  bridge,  —  a  style  known  as  sul  povr 
ticello. 


406  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

The  viola  plays  the  third  part  in  the  string  quartet,  which  con- 
sists of  a  first  and  second  violin,  a  viola,  and  a  violoncello.  This  does 
not  mean  that  it  is  always  below  the  two  violins  in  pitch,  for  the 
string  quartet  depends  upon  interest  and  variety  in  the  leading  of 
its  four  parts,  and  sometimes  the  viola  may  be  playing  the  highest 
note  of  a  chord.  In  orchestral  work  the  viola  has  much  the  same 
duty.  It  is  often  called  upon  for  its  special  tone-color,  but  usually 
it  is  found  playing  in  four-part  harmony  with  the  first  and  second 
violins  and  the  violoncellos.  In  the  eighteenth  century  its  r61e  was 
more  humble,  and  it  was  often  compelled  to  follow  the  bass  viol. 
Yet  Gluck  gave  a  strong  example  of  its  power  in  his  "Iphigenie  en 
Tauride."  In  that  work  Orestes,  pursued  by  the  Furies,  sinks  down 
overcome  in  prison;  but  the  gloomy  muttering  of  the  violas  shows 
that  his  rest  is  due  not  to  peace  of  mind,  but  to  exhaustion. 

The  viola  d'amore  is  not  really  a  viola,  but  belongs  to  the  old  viol 
type,  and  is  nearly  obsolete  now.  It  had  seven  catgut  strings  and 
seven  steel  strings  vibrating  in  sympathy  with  them.  Its  sweet 
tones  are  called  for  in  the  music  of  Bach's  time,  but  are  very  infre- 
quently demanded  in  later  works.  Loeffler,  however,  used  them  in 
his  "Mort  de  Tintagiles." 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  substitute  for  the  present  viola  an 
instrument  with  brighter  tone.  A  German  musician  named  Ritter 
brought  out  a  large  affair,  which  he  called  the  viola  alta,  but  which 
the  musical  world  now  knows  as  the  Ritter  viola.  It  is  half  as  large 
again  as  the  ordinary  viola.  For  this  reason  its  tones  are  brilliant 
and  resonant,  as  its  size  gives  the  required  depth  in  pitch  without 
the  need  of  having  the  strings  thickened.  Orchestras  have  not 
adopted  it,  because  it  is  too  large;  and  only  men  with  very  long 
arms  can  play  it.  As  a  whole,  music  is  the  most  conservative  of  the 
arts;  and  even  a  successful  innovation  is  not  adopted  for  many 
years. 

The  violoncello,  or  'cello  (German,  Violoncell;  French,  violoncelle; 
Italian,  violoncello),  takes  the  fourth  part  among  the  strings,  both 
in  the  quartet  of  solo  instruments  and  in  the  orchestra.  Of  course 
in  the  latter  case  any  instrument  may  be  used  for  a  solo  or  obhligato 
passage,  whenever  a  composer  desires  to  make  its  tone-color  promi- 
nent; but  in  tutti  passages,  when  all  the  instruments  play  together, 
it  takes  the  low  notes  of  the  string  group.  The  name  should  never 


1.  MANDOLIN;    2.  LUTE;    3.  VIOLA  D'AMORE;    4.  VIOLIX ;   5.  BAXJO;  6.  VIOLA; 
7.  VIOLONCELLO  ;   8.  GUITAR  ;   9.  HARP ;   10.  CONTRABASS 


OTHER  BOWED  INSTRUMENTS  407 

be  spelled  "violincello."  The  term  is  derived,  not  from  the  violin, 
but  from  the  violone,  the  old  Italian  name  for  double-bass.  Here 
again  there  is  a  slight  lack  of  accuracy,  for  the  violone  is  of  the  fiat 
viol  type,  while  the  'cello  has  the  more  rounded  violin  form.  In 
England  the  'cello  is  sometimes  called  the  bass  viol. 

The  strings  of  the  'cello  are  an  octave  deeper  than  those  of  the 
viola,  the  two  lower  ones  in  each  case  being  wound  with  wire.  But 
while  the  viola  tone  is  dull  from  thick  strings,  the  'cello  is  so  much 
larger  that  its  deep  pitch  is  obtained  by  length  of  string,  without 
disproportionate  increase  in  size.  The  instrument  is  so  large  that 
its  body  is  rested  on  the  floor  during  performance,  instead  of  on  the 
player's  arm.  In  fingering,  a  large  stretch  is  needed  to  produce  the 
necessary  changes  in  pitch.  Various  positions  are  used,  as  with  the 
violin;  but  while  the  very  high  positions  are  difficult  on  the  violin, 
because  the  fingers  are  crowded  together,  they  are  easy  on  the  'cello, 
because  the  large  stretch  needed  in  the  lower  positions  diminishes 
to  a  comfortable  size.  The  compass  of  the  'cello  is  therefore  exten- 
sive, being  nearly  four  octaves.  The  'cello  player  will  sometimes 
use  his  thumb  to  stop  a  string. 

The  early  Puritans  seem  to  have  possessed  a  decided  predilection 
for  the  'cello.  Just  why  they  chose  this  instrument  for  participa- 
tion in  their  religious  services  is  hard  to  see;  for  they  regarded  the 
violin  as  a  device  of  the  evil  one,  and  looked  askance  at  nearly  all 
music  except  congregational  smging.  When  Thomas  Brattle  im- 
ported an  organ,  in  the  early  years  of  the  eighteenth  century,  he 
wished  to  give  it  to  a  Puritan  church.  He  quoted  Scripture,  telling 
the  elders  to  "  play  skilfully  and  with  a  loud  noise";  but  even  with 
this  sage  advice  they  would  not  accept  the  gift,  and  he  passed  it  on 
to  an  Episcopal  church.  Yet  the  Puritans  adopted  the  'cello  in  theu- 
services,  sometimes  even  paying  the  player  as  much  as  $70  a  year. 

Owing  to  the  length  and  comparative  thinness  of  its  strings,  the 
'cello  has  as  much  variety  of  expression  as  the  violin;  but  its  utter- 
ance is  of  a  deeper  and  more  masculine  sort.  Great  composers  often 
indulge  in  the  device  of  writing  an  antiphonal  dialogue  between  two 
different  instruments;  and  the  violin  and  'cello  form  a  pair  well 
suited  for  this  procedure.  An  excellent  example  of  such  a  dialogue 
between  them  is  found  in  the  slow  movement  of  Beethoven's  Eighth 
Symphony.    Beethoven  usually  obtained  the  maximum  of  effect 


408  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

from  the  instruments  he  used,  and  made  them  speak  out  in  their 
most  characteristic  tones. 

In  solo  execution,  all  the  technical  points  of  the  violin  are  prac- 
ticable on  the  'cello.  There  are,  however,  certain  limitations.  Thus 
double-stopping  is  regulated  by  the  size  of  the  instrument,  and  in- 
tervals practicable  on  the  violin  or  viola  are  often  impossible  on  the 
'cello.  Arpeggio  chords  for  the  'cello  must  be  written  with  due  re- 
gard for  the  size  of  the  human  hand,  and  generally  include  at  least 
one  open  string.  Tremolo,  vibrato,  and  glissando  effects  are  easily 
obtained.  The  mute  can  play  its  part.  Arco  saltando  and  other 
devices  of  bowing  are  perfectly  applicable.  The  pizzicato  is  excel- 
lent, as  the  long  strings  of  the  'cello  give  a  full  tone  when  plucked. 
Harmonics  of  good  quality  may  be  played,  especially  on  the  upper 
string,  where  they  resemble  muted  violin  tones  in  effect.  Artifi- 
cial harmonics  on  the  'cello  are  limited  by  the  performer's  reach. 
They  are  not  often  called  for,  though  Verdi  used  them  very  effec- 
tively in  the  Nile  scene  of  "Aida." 

The  'cello  is  a  favorite  instrument  in  orchestral  expression.  Cheru- 
bini  wrote  three  real  parts  for  his  'cellos  in  the  opening  scene  of  his 
opera  "Faniska."  Rossini  called  for  five  solo  'cellos  in  the  "William 
Tell"  Overture,  though  the  passage  is  now  generally  arranged  for 
one.  The  'cello  is  very  effective  with  the  voice,  as  in  the  song  "Be 
thou  faithful  imto  death,"  from  Mendelssohn's  oratorio  "Saint 
Paul." 

'Cello  playing  was  of  slow  growth,  as  the  old  six-stringed  viol  da 
gamha  was  hard  to  displace.  But  the  more  powerful  'cello  tone 
blended  better  with  the  violins,  and  the  instrument  came  into  use 
in  the  time  of  Corelli  and  Tartini,  while  Haydn  and  others  placed 
it  in  the  string  quartet.  The  French  player  Duport  introduced 
chromatic  fingering,  —  an  important  step  forward.  So  well  did 
Duport  play  the  'cello  that  Voltau-e  said  to  him,  "  You  make  me 
believe  in  miracles;  for  you  can  create  a  nightingale  out  of  an  ox." 
At  this  time  it  was  customary  for  players  to  display  their  ability 
by  performing  difficult  violin  pieces,  such  as  Tartini's  "Trille  du 
Diable,"  on  the  'cello.  But  the  most  wonderful  master  of  the  in- 
strument was  by  all  odds  Adrien  Frangois  Servais,  who  lived  until 
1866.  His  compositions  are  tremendously  difficult,  like  those  of 
Paganini  for  the  violin. 


OTHER  BOWED  INSTRUMENTS  409 

The  contrabass,  or  double-bass,  or  double-bass  viol  (German, 
Kontrabass;  French,  contre  basse;  Italian,  contrabasso),  formerly 
known  in  Italy  as  the  violone,  is  the  largest  of  the  bowed  instru- 
ments. Its  size,  which  is  its  most  striking  feature,  was  emphasized 
by  the  old  English  custom  of  giving  trios  with  one  such  instru- 
ment; the  travelling  performer  would  play  on  it,  and  add  a  second 
part  with  his  voice,  while  a  third  part  came  from  the  voice  of  a  boy 
concealed  in  the  instrument.  The  English  contrabasses  used  to  have 
three  strings,  but  those  now  in  large  orchestras  have  four.  They  are 
tuned  in  fourths  to  the  notes,  E,  A,  D,  and  G,  the  first  being  the 
lowest  E  on  the  piano.  The  compass  runs  nearly  to  middle  C.  By 
common  consent,  contrabass  music  is  written  an  octave  higher  than 
the  actual  pitch,  to  avoid  the  use  of  many  extra  lines  below  the 
staff  (leger  lines).  It  therefore  sounds  an  octave  lower  than  it  is 
written. 

Special  tunings  are  sometimes  demanded.  Thus  Berlioz  advises 
that  haK  the  contrabasses  be  tuned  differently  from  the  rest.  Wag- 
ner, at  the  beginning  of  his  "Rheingold,"  has  the  contrabass  play- 
ers tune  their  lowest  strings  to  E-fiat,  which  is  held  as  a  sustained 
bass  for  wavy  harmonies  that  represent  the  flowing  of  the  river. 
Beethoven  went  even  further  down,  and  called  for  a  low  C,  —  a 
fact  which  led  the  German  Karl  Otho  to  bring  out  a  five-stringed 
contrabass  with  C  for  its  lowest  tone.  The  thickness  of  the  strings 
necessitates  great  strength  to  stop  them;  and  double-stopping  is 
almost  impossible  unless  one  of  the  tones  comes  from  an  open 
string.  In  orchestral  work,  of  course,  the  contrabasses  may  be 
divided  into  parts,  as  at  the  beginning  of  Tschaikovsky's  "Pathetic 
Symphony." 

The  tone-color  of  the  contrabass  is  heavy,  gruff,  ponderous.  It 
takes  the  bass  part  in  the  orchestra,  but  it  may  be  used  in  solo  pas- 
sages with  telling  significance.  It  may  also  be  used  to  burlesque  the 
effects  of  lighter  instruments.  In  swift  passages  it  can  never  be  en- 
tirely clear;  for  its  long,  heavy  strings  are  slow  to  cease  vibrating. 
Yet  Mendelssohn,  in  his  setting  of  the  114th  Psalm,  has  the  con- 
trabass play  sixteenth-notes  at  a  metronome  mark  of  116  for  a 
quarter-note,  giving  a  rate  of  464  notes  per  minute  in  the  playing. 
Another  hard  nut  for  the  contrabass  player  to  crack  is  the  accom- 
paniment to  Mozart's  song  "Per  questa  bella  mano,"  in  which 


410  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

the  chord  effects  and  high  notes  suggest  that  the  music  might  have 
been  played  two  octaves  lower  than  written. 

Solo  playing  on  the  contrabass  would  seem  at  first  sight  to  have 
all  the  delicacy  that  an  elephant  would  display  while  dancing.  The 
contrabass  harmonics  are  of  little  value;  the  mute  produces  no 
change  in  quality;  the  repeated  notes  and  tremolo  are  effective 
enough,  and  the  pizzicato  excellently  strong;  but  the  tone-quality 
seems  too  heavy  for  solo  work.  Yet  there  have  been  great  solo  per- 
formers on  the  contrabass,  such  as  Dragonetti  or  Bottesini.  Dra- 
gonetti  possessed  a  fine  instrument,  upon  which  he  could  obtain 
many  striking  effects.  It  was  with  this  contrabass  that  he  imitated 
the  approach  of  a  thunderstorm,  scaring  the  monks  of  San  Giustina, 
near  Padua,  imtil  they  came  out  of  their  cells  in  the  dead  of  night. 

The  pizzicato  has  been  well  used  by  Weber,  in  the  overture  to 
"Der  Freischutz,"  in  which  piece  it  gives  a  strikingly  sombre  effect 
just  after  the  opening  horn  quartet.  Rossini,  in  the  overture  to  "  Wil- 
liam Tell,"  divides  the  contrabasses  to  obtain  effects  of  pizzicato 
and  bowing  combined.  Another  famous  use  of  the  contrabass  piz- 
zicato is  found  in  the  Symphonie  Fantastique  of  Berlioz,  where  the 
hero,  after  being  led  by  jealousy  to  murder  his  sweetheart,  is  marched 
to  execution.  Bach  used  the  contrabass  well  in  "Ye  lightnings,  ye 
thunders,"  and  Gluck  employed  it  in  glissando  passages  to  imitate 
the  barking  of  Cerebus  in  "Orpheus."  But  Beethoven,  who  brought 
out  most  wonderfully  the  possibilities  of  his  instruments,  was  the 
first  to  make  the  contrabass  important  in  the  orchestra.  At  the  end 
of  his  Fourth  Symphony  is  a  rapid  contrabass  passage  that  demands 
all  the  players*  skill. 

When  this  work  first  came  out,  Weber,  often  at  odds  with  the 
more  serious  and  irascible  Beethoven,  wrote  a  satire  on  the  contra- 
bass passage,  which  was  printed  in  a  musical  periodical.  He  pic- 
tured a  concert  hall,  in  which  this  symphony  had  just  been  per- 
formed. After  the  departure  of  the  musicians,  the  instruments 
came  to  life,  and  began  to  hold  an  indignation  meeting  against  the 
merciless  composer  who  forced  them  to  do  such  hard  work.  When 
the  smaller  instruments  had  aired  their  grievances,  the  contrabass 
arose  gravely,  and  said,  "Your  troubles  may  be  real  enough;  but 
what  do  you  think  of  mine?  Instead  of  letting  me  proceed  in  a  quiet 
and  orderly  manner,  as  befits  my  dignity,  this  intolerable  composer 


OTHER  BOWED  INSTRUMENTS  411 

makes  me  jump  and  skip  about  in  the  craziest  way,  just  as  if  I  were 
a  giddy  young  violin."  At  this  the  instruments  burst  into  cries  of 
anger,  causing  such  an  uproar  that  the  janitor  heard  the  disturb- 
ance and  came  into  the  hall.  On  realizing  the  trouble,  he  ordered 
the  instruments  to  stop  their  noise  instantly,  or  he  would  get  Mr. 
Beethoven  to  write  another  symphony.  At  this  the  tumult  was 
hushed,  for  all  the  instruments  grew  mute  with  terror. 

Beethoven's  reply  to  adverse  criticism  usually  consisted  of  equal 
parts  of  personal  abuse  and  profanity.  But  he  remained  true  to  his 
ideals  of  art,  and  he  used  the  contrabass  prominently  again  in  the 
Scherzo  of  his  Fifth  Symphony.  In  the  Sixth,  or  Pastoral,  Sym- 
phony, he  pictured  thunder  by  having  the  contrabass  play  groups  of 
four  notes  against  groups  of  five  on  the  'cello.  Orchestral  thunder- 
storms are  very  popular,  and  in  all  of  them  the  contrabass  plays  an 
important  part. 

But  if  Beethoven  gave  the  contrabass  a  share  in  the  hard  work, 
he  atoned  by  giving  it  some  wonderfully  impressive  passages  in  the 
Ninth  Symphony.  Beethoven  was  a  lover  of  liberty,  a  dreamer  of 
human  brotherhood.  His  Heroic  Symphony  (the  third)  was  dedi- 
cated to  Napoleon  at  first,  being  made  impersonal  only  after  Napo- 
leon showed  self-seeking  tendencies  by  taking  the  imperial  throne. 
The  Ninth  Symphony  is  really  a  picture  of  the  millennium  to  come, 
in  contrast  with  the  strife  and  tumult  of  the  world.  Beethoven  in- 
troduced into  his  finale  the  words  of  Schiller's  "Ode  to  Joy,"  and 
used  the  contrabasses  as  a  transition  from  the  instrumental  to  the 
vocal  part. 

The  earlier  movements  of  this  work  have  their  share  of  beauty, 
but  it  is  made  to  seem  transient  and  temporary.  The  fourth  move- 
ment opens  tragically,  as  if  with  a  cry  of  agony  and  anguish  at 
human  misery.  Then  comes  a  dialogue  between  the  contrabasses  and 
the  rest  of  the  orchestra.  Phrases  from  the  earlier  movements  re- 
turn, as  if  to  suggest  some  remedy  for  the  turmoil;  but  in  vain.  They 
are  interrupted,  in  turn,  by  passages  of  solemn  dignity  on  the  con- 
trabass, which  seem  like  a  voice  rebuking  the  world  for  its  impotent 
passions.  Even  the  tender  theme  of  the  slow  movement  seems  un- 
acceptable, and  dies  away  into  silence.  Then  the  contrabasses  enter 
with  the  melody  that  is  to  be  used  later  with  the  words,  and  their 
broad,  full  tones  give  it  with  wonderfully  impressive  effect. 


412  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

The  contrabass,  then,  may  be  used  for  the  most  part  as  a  humble 
drudge,  giving  the  bass  parts  of  the  orchestral  music.  But  it  has 
capabilities,  and  the  great  composer  will  sometimes  give  it  passages 
that  are  of  the  utmost  importance  and  significance. 


XLVI 

PLUCKED-STRING  INSTRUMENTS 

Of  those  instruments  whose  strings  are  plucked  instead  of  being 
rubbed  by  a  bow,  the  most  important  by  far  is  the  harp  (German, 
Harfe;  French,  harpe;  Italian,  arpa).  It  undoubtedly  originated 
from  the  twanging  bow-string  of  early  savages;  and  the  nanga,  a 
modem  form  of  negro  harp,  is  practically  a  bow  with  five  strings 
instead  of  one.  Nearly  all  the  ancient  races  had  harps  of  some  form; 
and  as  the  harp  was  the  best  instrument  known  in  old  times,  its 
use  was  ascribed  to  celestial  beings  as  well  as  mortals.  The  ancient 
harps  varied  in  size  and  number  of  strings;  but  as  they  lacked  the 
vertical  pillar  that  makes  our  harp  a  triangle,  they  must  have  been 
hard  to  keep  in  tune.  The  Hebrew  harp,  or  Kinnor,  was  probably 
copied  from  the  Egyptian  instrument ;  while  the  Greek  word 
kithara  has  been  translated  indifferently  as  harp,  lyre,  lute,  or 
guitar. 

The  Irish  claim  to  have  originated  the  harp.  Undoubtedly  the 
oriental  harps  were  earlier,  though  the  Roman  legions  brought  the 
Irish  harp  back  from  Britain,  Its  use  in  the  Apulian  city  of  Arpi 
may  have  given  the  instrument  its  name,  though  Max  Miiller  claims 
a  Teutonic  origin  for  the  term.  The  ancient  races  of  the  east  gave 
the  instrument  various  names,  while  the  Germanic  tribes  knew  it 
under  its  present  appellation. 

The  old  Irish  harp,  in  its  largest  form,  had  three  rows  of  strings, 
two  outer  rows  of  twenty-nine  each  giving  diatonic  tones,  while  the 
middle  row  of  twenty  gave  the  chromatic  intervals.  The  instrument 
existed  in  other  forms,  and  as  late  as  1608  we  find  Monteverde  call- 
ing for  a  "double  harp,"  evidently  with  two  rows  of  strings.  The 
triple  form  lasted  until  nearly  1800. 

The  old  laws  of  Wales  mention  the  use  of  the  harp  as  one  of  three 
points  that  distinguished  the  freeman  from  the  slave;  and  pretend- 
ers were  often  discovered  by  their  unskilful  use  of  it.  Only  the  king, 
his  musicians,  and  the  gentlemen  of  the  realm  could  own  a  harp;  and 


414  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

slaves  were  forbidden  even  to  touch  the  instrument.  The  harp  was 
exempt  from  seizure  for  debt,  as  its  loss  was  presumed  to  mean  de- 
gradation to  the  ranks  of  the  slaves.  The  Welsh  musical  festivals, 
or  Eistedfodds,  were  originally  very  important  affairs,  participated 
in  by  those  who  had  reached  the  rank  of  chief  minstrel.  Candidates 
had  to  pass  a  three-years'  initiation,  and  other  periods  of  practice 
for  higher  degrees. 

The  Anglo-Saxons  cherished  the  harp,  and  respected  the  wander- 
ing minstrel.  As  early  as  the  year  495,  when  Colgi'in  was  besieged 
in  York,  his  brother  went  through  the  hostile  camp  disguised  as  a 
minstrel  to  get  the  information  that  enabled  him  to  relieve  the  place. 
A  similar  story  is  told  of  King  Alfred,  who  disguised  himself  as  a 
harper  to  enter  the  Danish  camp.  At  festivals  it  was  customary  for 
the  guests  to  sing  and  play  in  turn.  Once  the  poet  Caedmon,  who 
had  neglected  music  for  more  purely  intellectual  accomplishments, 
found  himself  unable  to  play  when  his  turn  came  in  such  a  gather- 
ing; whereupon  he  rose  from  the  table  and  went  home  to  hide  his 
shame. 

The  Minnesingers  of  Germany  made  frequent  use  of  the  harp, 
instead  of  the  guitar  that  the  Troubadours  sometimes  favored.  The 
effect  may  be  seen  in  Wagner's  "Tannhauser,"  in  which  the  con- 
testants indulge  in  a  tournament  of  song. 

In  England  the  lute  and  viol  gradually  replaced  the  hai'p,  while 
the  spinet  and  virginals,  which  were  smaller  forms  of  the  harpsi- 
chord, drove  it  still  further  into  obscurity.  Yet  in  1720  Handel 
called  for  harp  music  in  his  oratorio  "Esther,"  the  parts  being  per- 
formed by  two  Welsh  harpists. 

The  mvention  of  pedals  for  the  harp  has  been  ascribed  to  Hoch- 
brucker  in  1720,  and  Paul  Velter,  in  1730.  The  modem  concert 
harp,  however,  is  the  work  of  Sebastian  Erard,  who  perfected  it  in 
1810.  This  has  what  are  known  as  double-action  pedals.  The  harp 
is  tuned  in  the  scale  of  C-fiat  when  its  strings  are  open.  There  are 
seven  pedals,  one  for  each  note  of  the  scale.  Pressing  a  pedal  half- 
way down  will  cause  a  set  of  metal  pins  on  revolving  discs  to  clamp 
all  the  strings  giving  that  note,  and  raise  the  pitch  a  semitone  by 
shortening  the  length  of  the  string.  Thus  for  the  key  of  C  all  the 
pedals  would  be  depressed  half-way;  while  for  A-flat,  as  an  instance, 
the  pedals  for  C,  F,  and  G  would  be  pressed  down,  the  others  not. 


PLUCKED-STRING  INSTRUMENTS  415 

By  pressing  a  pedal  down  to  its  full  capacity,  the  player  brings  into 
action  a  second  set  of  discs,  shortening  the  strings  still  more,  and 
causing  sharps  to  sound  instead  of  natural  tones.  The  harp  pedals, 
unlike  those  of  the  piano,  are  used  simply  to  regulate  pitch;  and  it 
was  a  very  ignorant  critic  who  once  wrote  of  a  harpist's  having 
over-used  the  pedals. 

The  harp  strings  are  vertical,  running  from  the  curved  neck  to 
the  slanting  sound-board,  while  the  third  side  of  the  harp  is  formed 
by  a  vertical  pillar.  An  eighth  pedal  is  sometimes  used  to  close  holes 
in  the  sound-box,  reversing  the  principle  of  the  swell  box  for 
organ  pipes;  but  this  extra  pedal  is  of  little  value,  and  is  frequently 
omitted.  To  aid  the  performer,  the  C-strings  of  the  harp  are  col- 
ored red,  and  the  F-strings  blue.  Harp  music  is  written  for  two 
hands,  on  the  two  staffs  used  for  piano  music.  Flat  keys  soimd  best, 
because  then  most  of  the  strings  are  open,  vibrating  at  full  length. 
Thus  Prout,  in  his  cantata  "  AKred,"  has  F-sharp  for  the  key  of  the 
piece,  but  writes  the  harp  part  in  G-flat.  Gounod  was  not  so  care- 
ful, and  in  "Faust"  there  is  a  long  harp  passage  in  B  that  would 
have  sounded  better  in  C-flat.  Wagner  made  inordinate  demands 
on  his  harpists,  both  in  the  Magic  Fire  music  and  in  the  entrance 
of  the  gods  into  Valhalla,  the  latter  scene  being  in  the  "Rheingold." 
As  the  little  finger  is  not  used,  harp  chords  should  contain  not  more 
than  four  notes  for  one  hand. 

Chord-effects  are  excellent  upon  the  harp.  Quick  sweeps  of 
broken  chords  in  succession  are  known  as  arpeggio,  or  "harp-like," 
even  when  used  on  other  instruments.  The  harpist  gives  these  by 
alternating  his  hands. 

With  the  exception  of  chromatic  passages,  nearly  everything 
suitable  for  the  piano  will  sound  well  on  the  harp.  Harmonics,  also, 
are  practicable  except  on  the  highest  and  lowest  strings.  The  first 
hannonic,  an  octave  above  the  full-string  pitch,  is  the  only  one 
used.  It  is  obtained  by  touching  the  string  lightly  in  the  middle 
with  the  ball  of  the  hand  and  plucking  with  the  thumb  or  first  fin- 
ger. An  abrupt  staccato  may  be  obtained  from  about  the  same 
position,  the  string  being  plucked  and  the  tone  quickly  stopped 
by  heavy  pressure  of  the  hand.  All  tones  may  be  ended  by  laying 
the  open  palm  on  the  strings;  and  this  point  gave  Longfellow  the 
idea  of  a  beautiful  shnile  in  his  "Golden  Legend":  — 


416  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

"Time  hath  laid  his  hand  upon  my  heart, 
Gently,  not  smiting  it, 
But  as  the  harper  lays  his  open  palm 
Upon  the  strings,  to  deaden  their  vibration." 

If  the  harp  strings  are  plucked  near  the  end  instead  of  the  middle, 
a  more  twangy  tone,  with  more  overtones,  is  the  result.  Harp  trills 
are  possible,  but  not  much  used.  The  harp  glissando  is  a  sweep 
along  the  strings.  The  tremolo,  or  repetition  of  a  single  note,  is  ob- 
tained by  tuning  two  adjacent  strings  to  the  same  pitch,  except 
for  the  notes  D,  G,  and  A.  In  similar  fashion  a  harp  may  be  tuned 
so  that  a  sweep  of  its  strings  will  give  the  chord  of  minor  thirds  in- 
stead of  a  scale.  The  harp  has  the  fullest  and  richest  tone  of  all  the 
plucked-string  instruments,  and  is  well  suited  to  accompany  the 
voice. 

Bach  did  not  use  the  early  harp,  and  Handel  gave  it  very  few 
trials.  Beethoven  employed  it  only  once,  in  "Prometheus."  Weber 
would  not  use  the  improved  harp  in  any  of  his  operas;  but  Spohr 
wrote  much  for  it.  This  may  have  been  a  matter  of  domestic  a3 
well  as  musical  harmony;  for  he  married  the  harpist  Dorette  Scheid- 
ler,  and  wrote  many  sonatas  for  harp  and  violin,  in  which  she  took 
the  former  instrument  while  he  played  the  latter.  Berlioz,  in  his 
Childe  Harold  Ssmaphony,  produced  bell  effects  by  combining  harp 
and  horn  or  harp  and  flute.  Across  the  channel,  Cowen  used  much 
harp  work  to  add  local  color  to  his  Welsh  Symphony. 

To-day  the  harp  has  given  way  to  the  more  popular  piano;  but  in 
Erard's  time  it  held  its  own.  Once  its  popularity  was  threatened 
by  the  guitar,  when  a  troupe  of  Spanish  players  toured  England; 
butErard  was  equal  to  the  occasion.  He  bought  a  large  number  of 
guitars,  and  presented  them,  with  a  printed  method,  to  clerks,  shop 
girls,  and  so  on.  When  the  fashionable  people  saw  the  new  instru- 
ment in  the  hands  of  such  humble  folk,  they  at  once  gave  up 
their  newly-formed  plans  of  learning  it,  and  continued  to  buy  Erard 
harps. 

In  1898  the  French  firm  of  Pleyel,  Wolff  &  Co.  brought  out  a  chro- 
matic harp.  Its  strings  are  arranged  in  two  sets,  chromatic  and 
diatonic;  and  they  slant  so  as  to  cross  each  other  in  the  middle.  This 
instrument  has  good  tones,  as  its  strings  are  always  open,  and  need 
no  pedals;  but  it  has  not  become  very  popular  as  yet. 

The  guitar  is  not  considered  to  belong  to  the  orchestra.  Some* 


PLUCKED-STRING  INSTRUMENTS  417 

times  it  is  used  for  special  effects,  as  in  the  accompaniment  of  Alma- 
viva's  air  in  Rossini's  "Barber  of  Seville";  but  the  great  composers 
call  for  it  never.  Paganini,  who  once  gave  up  the  violin  for  the 
guitar  while  he  was  guest  of  a  certain  noble  lady,  wrote  quartets 
for  strings  with  guitar;  but  these  works  have  not  made  any  great 
impression.  The  guitar  tones  are  rather  too  soft  for  combination  or 
orchestral  work;  so  they  are  used  chiefly  in  solos  or  to  accompany 
the  voice. 

The  guitar  has  six  strings,  of  which  three  are  usually  catgut  and 
the  others  (the  lower  three)  made  of  silk  wound  with  fine  wire.  They 
are  tuned  in  fourths  with  one  third,  giving  the  notes  E,  A,  D,  G,  B, 
and  E  in  ascending  order.  The  lowest  E  as  written  is  the  one  just 
below  middle  C,  but  the  guitar  is  a  transposing  instrument,  and 
sounds  an  octave  deeper  than  the  written  part.  For  sharp  keys 
the  strings  may  be  tuned  to  E,  B,  E,  G-sharp,  B,  and  E.  On  the  neck 
are  frets  (little  horizontal  ridges),  to  show  where  the  strings  are  to 
be  pressed.  The  fingering  is  done  by  the  left  hand;  the  little  finger 
rests  on  the  face  of  the  instrument,  while  the  other  three  fingers 
take  the  upper  strings  and  the  thumb  the  lower  ones.  The  strings 
are  plucked  by  the  thumb  and  fingers  of  the  right  hand,  and  may 
be  played  either  in  the  chord  style  or  in  more  open,  running  fashion. 
The  tones  of  the  instrument  are  dreamy  and  melancholy  in  charac- 
ter. The  guitar,  like  the  mandolin  and  banjo,  is  too  often  devoted 
to  commonplace  music;  but  there  is  a  good  guitar  repertoire,  and 
the  gifted  Spanish  performers  can  make  the  instrument  remarkably 
expressive.  The  bandurria  is  an  extra  large  Spanish  guitar.  The 
Hawaiian  ukulele  is  a  small  instrument  of  guitar-like  shape  and 
tone  quaUty. 

The  mandolin  comes  in  several  forms,  but  the  most  usual  one  has 
four  pairs  of  strings,  tuned  like  the  violin  strings.  The  lowest  pair 
are  catgut  covered  with  silver  wire,  the  next  two  copper,  the  third 
pair  steel,  and  the  upper  ones  catgut.  They  are  played  by  a  pick, 
or  plectrum.  The  mandolin  can  give  chords,  but  is  more  effective 
in  rapid  melodic  work.  Its  tones  are  thin  and  tangy  in  quality,  but 
original  and  striking  enough  in  effect.  Composers  call  for  it  occa- 
sionally, and  Mozart  used  it  in  "Don  Giovanni"  to  accompany  that 
amorous  hero's  serenade,  though  nowadays  the  violin  pizzicato  is 
used  instead. 


418  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

This  passage  figured  in  an  anecdote  of  Joachim,  the  great  violin- 
ist. He  was  to  play  it  once  at  Leipsic;  but  just  before  he  began,  some 
one,  probably  a  conservatory  pupil,  managed  to  get  some  split  peas 
into  the  soimding-box  of  the  instrument.  Instead  of  the  usual 
dainty  pizzicato  runs,  the  soloist  produced  an  unexpected  series  of 
sudden  rattlings.  This  illustrated  the  fact  that  the  tone  of  the  in- 
strument is  caused  by  the  vibrations  of  the  sounding-box,  and  not 
the  strings  alone;  but  probably  the  artist  was  too  surprised  at  the 
time  to  care  much  about  acoustical  principles. 

The  banjo  is  essentially  an  American  product.  Some  derive  it  from 
the  bandore,  and  others  from  the  Senegambian  bania,  but  where- 
ever  the  name  came  from,  the  instrument  was  perfected  in  the 
United  States.  It  carries  a  negro  suggestion,  but  is  more  used  in 
reality  by  white  men  than  by  negroes.  It  consists  of  a  flat  tambour- 
ine-like parchment  sound-board  (if  the  term  board  is  permissible), 
held  by  a  flat  hollow  cylinder  of  metal;  a  long  neck,  with  frets;  and 
five  strings.  The  latter  are  tuned  upward  from  the  A  just  below 
middle  C,  and  give,  in  ascending  order,  the  notes  A,  E,  G-sharp, 
B,  and  E.  The  "Bass-tuned-to-B"  style  is  the  same  except  that  the 
lowest  string  is  raised  a  tone.  Six-stringed  banjos  exist,  but  are  not 
common.  The  banjo  quality  is  rather  tin-panny.  The  instrument 
has  not  entered  the  orchestra. 

The  Russian  balalaika  is  a  three-stringed  affair  with  a  triangular 
wooden  sound-box.  This  instrument  comes  in  various  sizes.  It  is 
not  powerful  in  solo  work;  but  bands  composed  of  balalaikas  have 
an  excellent  effect.  Its  tone  resembles  that  of  the  guitar. 

The  lute  is  now  obsolete,  but  was  an  important  instrument  two 
or  three  centuries  ago.  Sometimes  it  had  a  large  pear-shaped  body, 
and  as  many  as  thirteen  or  more  pairs  of  strings.  As  each  pair  had 
to  be  tuned  into  unison,  as  with  the  mandolin  to-day,  Mattheson 
claimed  that  if  a  lute-player  lived  to  the  age  of  eighty,  he  must  have 
spent  sixty  years  of  his  life  in  tuning  his  instrument.  Elizabethan 
England  had  some  gifted  lute  composers,  such  as  Dowland  and 
Ford.  The  lute  gave  rise  to  systems  of  musical  writing  known  as 
tablatures,  which  represented  the  music  by  some  characters  other 
than  the  usual  staff  notation.  For  the  lute,  the  tablatures  consisted 
of  numbers  showing  where  the  strings  were  to  be  fingered.  The  lute 
music  was  light  in  character,  but  very  dainty  and  attractive. 


PLUCKED-STRING  INSTRUMENTS  419 

The  zither  is  really  a  successor  of  the  lute.  It  consists  of  a  rec- 
tangular sounding-board,  lying  fiat  on  a  table  or  other  support, 
with  thirty  horizontal  strings.  The  lower  ones  are  played  with  a 
pick  on  a  ring  worn  on  the  performer's  thumb,  while  the  upper  ones 
are  plucked.  The  zither  is  much  used  in  Switzerland. 


XLVII 

FLUTE  AND  PICCOLO 

The  great  antiquity  of  the  flute,  and  its  prominence  in  Roman 
music,  has  been  already  described.  It  must  be  kept  in  mind,  how- 
ever, that  the  term  flute,  as  used  by  the  ancients,  often  included 
instruments  with  reed  mouthpieces  of  various  sorts,  like  our  oboes, 
clarinets,  etc. 

In  old  times  some  of  the  flutes  were  held  straight  out  from  the 
mouth,  and  played  by  direct  blowing  into  the  tube.  This  type  was 
known  as  the  flute-a-bec,  and  afterwards  called  beak  flute  from  its 
resemblance  to  a  bird's  beak.  Sometimes  such  a  flute  would  branch 
into  two  tubes,  in  which  case  one  may  have  played  a  drone-bass 
accompaniment. 

The  use  of  the  flute  in  the  Grecian  games  has  been  already  men- 
tioned. Flute-playing  was  considered  part  of  the  necessary  edu- 
cation of  the  rich  Greek  youths.  Great  flute-players  grew  very 
popular,  and  the  account  of  their  rivalries  reads  very  much  like  the 
story  of  opera  singers'  disagreements  in  our  own  day.  At  one  time 
Alcibiades  checked  the  growing  popularity  of  the  flute  somewhat, 
refusmg  to  play  the  instrument  because  he  feared  that  the  large 
mouthpiece  would  spoil  the  shape  of  his  mouth.  His  prestige  was  so 
great  that  he  altered  the  fashion  for  a  time;  but  some  unknown  flute- 
maker  obviated  the  difficulty  by  producing  a  flute  with  a  smaller 
mouthpiece  than  usual.  Flutes  were  much  prized,  the  most  ornate 
ones  selling  for  sums  as  great  as  three  thousand  dollars.  The  sal- 
aries of  the  best  professional  players  were  also  very  large.  One  of 
them,  Nichomachus,  earned  by  his  playing  enough  money  to  buy 
an  immense  collection  of  jewels.  Even  theatrical  flute-players  were 
well  paid,  receiving  more  from  the  choregus  (director)  than  all  the 
members  of  the  chorus.  This  must  have  been  a  comfortable  salary; 
for  the  Athenians  had  a  proverb  stating  that  the  way  to  ruin  a  man 
was  to  have  him  made  a  choregus. 

Egypt  had  its  flute  music  also.   In  the  year  280  B.C.,  Ptolemy 


FLUTE  AKD  PICCOLO  421 

Philadelphus  gave  a  great  festival  at  Alexandria,  with  singers,  kith- 
ara  players,  and  flutists,  amounting  to  six  hundred  in  all.  A  century- 
later,  Ptolemy  Physcon  was  a  great  patron  of  flute  music.  He  evi- 
dently had  his  full  share  of  "temperament";  for  on  marrying  his 
brother's  wife  he  killed  the  latter's  son,  and  after  a  later  marriage 
with  his  niece  (then  his  step-daughter)  he  despatched  all  the  fam- 
ily. Probably  he  regarded  music  as  a  solace  for  family  troubles. 
After  another  century  came  Ptolemy  Auletes,  father  of  Cleopatra, 
his  surname  of  "flute-lover"  showing  his  fondness  for  that  instru- 
ment. 

In  Rome,  flutes  were  used  on  almost  every  public  occasion.  They 
were  employed  at  funerals,  but  the  ostentation  and  luxury  of  these 
events  grew  so  great  that  a  law  was  passed  limiting  the  number  of 
flute-players  to  ten  at  each  funeral.  The  flute  was  used  also  as  a  pitch- 
pipe;  many  great  orators,  including  Caius  Gracchus,  would  have  a 
slave  stand  behind  them,  while  they  spoke,  and  sound  a  flute  at 
intervals  to  give  them  the  proper  pitch  for  their  declamatory  efforts. 

In  mediaeval  times  the  flute  was  rather  overshadowed  in  impor- 
tance by  the  harps  and  viols  of  the  Troubadours.  But  it  contin- 
ued in  use  nevertheless,  in  both  the  straight  and  the  traverse  form. 
The  latter,  in  which  the  tube  is  held  sidewise,  became  known  grad- 
ually as  the  German  flute.  The  old  English  beak  flute  was  known 
as  the  recorders,  and  is  mentioned  by  Shakespeare  in  "Hamlet." 
The  recorder  type  of  flute  had  a  large  hole  in  the  tube,  covered  with 
thin  bladder,  giving  it  a  distinctive  tone-color.  In  the  time  of  Heniy 
VII  it  was  described  as  producing  the  best  effects  in  the  middle  reg- 
ister, "  but  manifold  fingering  and  stops  bringeth  high  notes  from 
its  clear  tones." 

Another  royal  devotee  of  the  flute  was  Frederick  the  Great.  In 
1728,  while  still  crown  prince,  he  heard  the  famous  flute-player 
Quantz  at  Berlin,  and  was  so  captivated  that  he  arranged  immedi- 
ately to  have  the  great  performer  visit  him  periodically  and  teach 
him  the  flute.  The  old  king,  Frederick  I,  was  a  narrow  martinet 
who  cared  nothing  for  art,  so  the  lessons  were  taken  under  difficul- 
ties. Once  the  king  threatened  that  if  the  lessons  were  not  stopped 
he  would  break  the  flute  over  his  son's  head  and  hang  the  teacher. 
It  is  pretty  sure  that  he  would  have  done  this;  for  once,  when  the 
prince  ran  away  from  his  father's  harsh  rule,  the  latter  had  him  con- 


422  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

demned  to  death  as  a  deserter,  and  spared  him  only  at  the  interces- 
sion of  the  English  ambassador.  It  was  therefore  with  no  little  fear 
that  the  royal  pupil  and  his  teacher  saw  the  old  king  approach  dur- 
ing a  later  lesson.  All  that  saved  the  situation  was  a  friendly  chim- 
ney, up  which  Quantz  was  forced  to  crawl.  But  better  days  were  in 
store,  and  when  the  prince  became  king  he  made  Quantz  the  court 
composer.  Frederick  was  a  good  musician  and  composer  himself, 
writing  operas  and  playing  the  flute  \\ath  much  taste.  For  accom- 
panist he  had  another  famous  protege,  —  Carl  Philip  Emanuel 
Bach,  a  son  of  the  great  John  Sebastian  Bach. 

The  old  form  of  concert  flute  (German,  Flote;  French,  fiUte;  Ital- 
ian, flauto)  was  a  slightly  tapered  tube,  with  a  large  hole  near  one 
end  serving  as  mouthpiece,  and  six  finger-holes  near  the  other  end. 
With  the  finger-holes  closed,  the  flute  sounds  D  above  middle  C. 
As  the  tone  is  produced  by  the  vibration  of  the  air-column  in  the 
tube,  the  opening  of  the  finger-holes,  beginning  farthest  from  the 
mouthpiece,  will  continually  shorten  the  column  of  air,  and  give 
higher  tones.  The  six  holes  are  so  located  as  to  sound  the  diatonic 
scale  of  D.  There  are  also  keys  which  may  be  pressed,  resulting  in 
the  formation  of  sharps  and  flats.  Two  extra  keys  give  the  D-flat 
and  C  below  the  lowest  D.  By  increasing  the  force  of  blowing,  the 
player  can  make  the  air-colunm  divide  into  halves,  giving  a  new 
scale  an  octave  higher  than  the  first  one;  and  still  harder  blowing 
causes  a  further  subdivision,  and  higher  notes  yet.  The  compass  of 
the  flute  is  rated  at  three  octaves.  The  action  of  the  flute  and  other 
wind  instruments  is  described  in  detail  in  the  chapter  on  "  Acoustics." 

On  the  old  flute  it  was  rather  hard  for  the  player  to  manage  all 
the  holes  and  keys.  To  do  away  with  such  difficulties,  Theobald 
Boehm  improved  the  flute,  in  1832,  by  a  new  system  of  rings  and 
levers,  in  combination  with  keys,  which  brought  the  fingering  into 
much  smaller  space  than  before.  The  Boehm  flute  has  a  cylindrical 
tube. 

When  Boehm  took  his  improved  instrument  to  show  to  Rossini, 
he  found  that  composer  shaving.  While  waiting  in  the  anteroom, 
Boehm  started  to  demonstrate  the  worth  of  his  invention  by  play- 
ing all  sorts  of  trills,  runs,  and  roulades,  including  many  that  were 
impossible  on  the  older  instrument.  Rossini  listened  with  growing 
wonder,  and  at  last  rushed  in  with  the  soap  still  on  his  face.  "You 


FLUTE  AND  PICCOLO  423 

can't  play  that,"  cried  the  composer,  "it's  impossible."  "But  I 
am  playing  it,"  replied  the  inventor.  From  that  moment  Rossini 
became  an  ardent  devotee  of  the  new  flute. 

The  technical  points  of  flute-playing  have  reference  to  both  blow- 
ing and  fingering.  The  tone-color  varies  according  to  the  register,  or 
pitch,  the  lowest  octave  being  dull  and  soft,  the  middle  register 
sweet  and  full,  and  the  highest  notes  shrill  and  piercing.  In  general, 
flute  tones  express  a  melancholy  sweetness  that  is  noticeably  char- 
acteristic of  the  instrument.  Gluck  used  flutes  excellently  in  por- 
traying the  calm  and  passionless  joy  of  the  Elysian  Fields. 

A  staccato  on  the  flute  is  given  by  the  mouth,  and  not  the  fingers. 
If  the  player  wishes  a  full  and  abrupt  effect,  he  interrupts  his  breath 
by  pronouncing  the  letter  T.  To  obtain  a  slightly  less  marked  effect, 
he  will  use  the  sound  of  K.  Often  he  will  alternate  the  two,  as  if 
pronoimcing  the  words  "ticker"  or  "tucker."  This  effect  is  called 
double-tonguing;  and  the  use  of  still  another  consonant  results  in 
triple-tonguing. 

The  fingering  is  called  into  execution  by  the  many  rapid  runs  and 
frills  found  in  flute  music.  A  striking  instance  of  such  musical  agil- 
ity is  found  in  the  aria  "Sweet  bird,  that  shun'st  the  noise  of  folly," 
from  Handel's  "  II  Penseroso."  In  this  number  both  voice  and  flute 
give  alternate  imitations  of  a  feathered  warbler  indulging  in  all 
sorts  of  runs,  trills,  and  fioriture. 

The  flute  is  in  constant  service  in  the  orchestra,  taking  the  mel- 
ody for  the  wood-wind  group  just  as  the  violin  does  for  the  strings. 
Often  it  is  combined  with  the  violin  for  this  purpose.  The  lower 
wood-wind  instruments  have  for  some  time  consisted  of  the  oboe, 
the  clarinet,  and  the  bassoon,  while  more  recently  the  group  has 
grown  to  include  the  English  horn,  contrabassoon,  and  bass  clarinet. 
The  flute  is  the  highest  of  these,  and  is  surpassed  in  pitch  only  by 
the  piccolo,  which  is  a  half -sized  flute  used  chiefly  for  special  effects. 

The  flute  has  often  served  to  picture  birds,  and  Beethoven  used 
it  in  his  Pastoral  Symphony  to  represent  the  nightingale.  Mozart 
was  not  fond  of  the  instrument,  although  he  wrote  a  concerto  for 
harp  and  flute,  and  the  well-known  opera  "The  Magic  Flute." 
Scarlatti  detested  wind  instruments,  saying  that  they  were  never 
in  tune.  Cherubini  disliked  the  instrument  very  much,  and  said, 
"The  only  thing  worse  than  a  flute  is  two  flutes."   Mendelssohn, 


424  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

on  the  other  hand,  admh-ed  the  smooth  flute  tones  very  greatly. 
In  his  Reformation  Sjonphony,  when  he  wished  to  form  a  gradual 
climax  on  the  chorale  "Ein  feste  Burg  ist  unser  Gott,"  he  started 
by  giving  the  melody  to  the  flutes  alone,  —  an  effect  that  was  really 
too  soft,  although  the  later  climax  of  course  brought  full  power. 
Among  solo  flute  composers,  the  name  of  Kuhlau  is  so  prominent 
that  he  has  been  called  "The  Beethoven  of  the  Flute."  A  more 
recent  flute  devotee  was  the  poet  Sidney  Lanier,  who  made  the 
rather  too  partisan  prophecy  that  the  time  would  come  when  or- 
chestras would  have  as  many  flutes  as  violins.  Two  flutes  were 
enough  for  the  early  classical  composers,  but  now  three,  and  even 
four,  are  used  in  the  standard  orchestras. 

There  are  at  present  no  flutes  of  lower  compass  than  the  one  here 
described.  The  jiauto  d'amore,  which  sounded  a  minor  third  lower 
than  our  flute,  is  now  obsolete.  Massenet  had  a  bass  flute  made,  a 
fourth  lower  than  ours,  but  it  is  not  in  common  use.  It  is  probable 
that  this  deep  instrument  in  the  flute  family  will  be  a  success,  for 
the  soft,  smooth  quality  of  its  tone  sounds  well  in  the  low  notes. 
It  is  sometimes  called  the  alto  flute. 

There  is  a  flute,  rarely  used,  which  is  a  semitone  higher  than  the 
ordinary  flute.  This  is  called  the  D-flat  flute,  from  the  pitch  of  its 
lowest  note.  There  is  also  an  instrument  with  E-flat  for  its  lowest 
note.  This  is  called  the  tierce  flute,  and  its  crystalline  tones  were 
well  used  by  Gade  in  "The  Crusaders."  In  keeping  the  fingering 
the  same  on  all  three  kinds  of  flute,  the  pitch  will  vary;  and  in  order 
to  make  the  pitch  the  same  when  different  flutes  are  used,  the  fin- 
gering must  be  varied.  Thus  the  fingering  for  C  would  give  E-flat 
on  the  E-flat  flute;  and  in  order  to  make  this  flute  actually  sound 
the  C,  the  fingering  for  the  A  below  would  have  to  be  used.  Thus 
if  an  instrument  transposes  up  any  interval  for  a  certain  fingering, 
its  part  must  be  written  at  that  same  interval  below  where  it  is 
to  soimd,  in  order  to  prevent  alterations  in  fingering.  This  point 
will  be  more  fully  treated  in  connection  with  the  clarinets. 

The  piccolo  (German,  kleine  Flote;  French,  petite  fliite;  Italian, 
ottavina),  sometimes  classed  as  a  separate  instrument,  is  really  a 
half-size  flute,  giving  tones  an  octave  above  those  of  the  flute.  Its 
full  Italian  name,  flauto  piccolo,  means  simply  "little  flute."  It  is  a 
transposing  instrument,  sounding  an  octave  higher  than  the  written 


FLUTE  AND  PICCOLO  425 

part.  In  the  orchestra,  the  piccolo  is  sometimes  interchangeable 
with  one  of  the  flutes,  the  flute-player  using  the  smaller  instrument 
for  a  time.  As  the  piccolo  transposes  up  an  octave,  he  fingers  it 
exactly  the  same  as  he  would  a  flute  part.  Large  modem  orches- 
tras have  a  separate  player  for  the  piccolo.  The  compass  of  the 
piccolo  is  nearly  three  octaves.  It  begins  with  D  instead  of  C  (an 
octave  above  the  lowest  flute  D),  and  extends  up  to  the  highest  B 
on  the  piano.  Any  tone  above  that  is  too  piercingly  shrill  to  be  use- 
ful. 

As  the  last  sentence  suggests,  the  piccolo  is  the  shrillest  of  the 
orchestral  instruments.  Its  keenly  brilliant  tone-color  is  almost 
always  called  for  in  picturing  wild,  frenzied  merriment  or  infernal 
revelry.  Like  the  flute,  it  has  three  distinct  registers.  Its  lower 
octave  is  too  weak  and  hollow  for  orchestral  use;  its  second  octave 
is  bright  and  joyous;  while  its  upper  notes  have  the  piercing  quality 
that  gives  the  infernal  suggestion  to  this  "imp  of  the  orchestra." 
The  high  notes  may  also  give  a  martial  effect,  as  in  Meyerbeer's 
"Huguenots"  and  in  the  cadence  of  Beethoven's  "Egmont"  Over- 
ture. Gluck,  in  his  "Iphigenie  in  Tauris,"  pictured  the  frenzy  of 
the  barbarous  Scythians  by  using  piccolo  with  violin,  tambourine, 
and  cymbals.  Beethoven  made  rising  notes  on  the  piccolo  portray 
the  wind  in  the  storm  of  his  Pastoral  Symphony.  But  it  can  have 
softer  uses,  as  in  the  aria  "Ye  pretty  warbling  choirs,"  from  Han- 
del's "Acis  and  Galatea." 

Usually  one  piccolo  is  more  than  enough  for  its  purpose.  But 
Weber,  by  using  two  a  third  apart,  produced  an  inimitably  diabolic 
sneer  in  Caspar's  drinking-song,  from  "Der  Freischiitz."  Spontini, 
in  his  "Fernando  Cortez,"  used  two  piccolos,  with  almost  every- 
thing else  that  would  make  a  noise,  to  picture  the  march  of  the 
Mexicans.  Berlioz,  who  was  very  fond  of  exaggerated  infernal  pic- 
tures, called  for  three  piccolos  in  the  third  part  of  his  "Faust,"  and 
even  added  the  shrill  tones  of  an  E-flat  clarinet. 

There  are  two  transposing  piccolos,  giving  still  higher  tones;  but 
these  are  restricted  to  military  bands. 

The  flageolet  is  a  small  and  shrill  survival  of  the  old  straight-flute 
type.  It  is  not  used  in  the  orchestra,  though  Mozart,  in  his  "Ent- 
fiihrung  aus  dem  Serail,"  called  for  a  flageolet  in  G,  sounding  a 
twelfth  higher  than  written. 


426  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

The  tiny  and  innocent  appearance  of  the  flageolet  once  misled  a 
non-musical  minister  who  used  it  to  illustrate  his  point.  He  was 
speaking  of  building  a  character  thoroughly  in  its  smallest  details, 
and  mentioned  the  orchestra  as  an  example.  "During  a  certain 
rehearsal,"  he  said,  "the  director  suddenly  rapped  on  his  desk  to 
demand  a  halt,  and  said, '  Flageolet,  you  were  silent.'  In  the  midst 
of  all  the  mingled  sounds,  he  had  noticed  the  absence  of  one  tiny 
flageolet."  Unfortunately  for  his  illustration,  that  one  little  in- 
strument could  make  more  noise  than  almost  all  the  others  to- 
gether; and  none  but  a  deaf  man  could  fail  to  note  the  difference 
between  its  presence  and  absence  in  the  music. 


XLvm 

OBOE  AND   ENGLISH  HORN 

The  oboe  family  is  distinguished  by  having  a  mouthpiece  con- 
sisting of  two  small  tongues  of  reed.  Such  reed  mouthpieces  are  of 
great  antiquity,  being  represented  in  the  sculpture  and  painting 
of  ancient  Egypt.  Early  specimens  have  been  found  with  straws 
beside  them,  probably  for  making  the  mouthpiece.  The  oboe,  as 
well  as  the  clarinet,  was  mentioned  by  mediaeval  authors  as  the 
schalmei,  chalumeau,  shawm,  etc.  There  was  also  a  family  of  old 
oboes  called  bombardi,  or  pommers. 

The  double  reed  used  to-day  consists  of  two  thin  slips  of  cane, 
with  a  narrow  air  passage  between  them.  They  are  fastened  by  silk 
thread  to  the  thin  brass  tube  (called  staple)  that  fits  into  the  end 
of  the  main  tube.  The  English  horn,  bassoon,  and  contrabassoon 
have  similar  mouthpieces  of  larger  size.  These  are  deeper  instru- 
ments; so  that  while  the  flute  tjT)e  has  only  a  soprano  range,  the 
double-reed  type  has  a  much  larger  and  deeper  compass. 

The  name  oboe  (Grerman,  Oboe;  French,  hautbois;  Italian,  oboe) 
comes  from  the  French  term  "hautbois,"  or  high  wooden  instru- 
ment. The  oboe  has  a  conical  tube  expanding  away  from  the  mouth- 
piece, which  results  in  brightness  of  tone  and  increased  strength 
for  the  overtones.  The  natural  oboe  scale  is  that  of  D,  reaching  up 
two  octaves  and  a  minor  third  from  the  D  above  middle  C.  It  has 
extra  keys  to  close  holes  so  that  it  reaches  to  the  B  below  middle  C; 
and  the  French  instruments  go  a  semitone  lower.  The  second  oc- 
tave is  produced  from  the  octave  harmonic,  obtained  by  increased 
strength  of  blowing.  The  highest  notes  are  obtained  by  cross-fin- 
gering, producing  still  higher  harmonics.  The  oboe  can  give  trills, 
runs,  and  rapid  passages,  but  these  grow  more  difficult  as  the  key 
of  the  piece  is  farther  removed  from  D.  This  does  not  refer  to  dis- 
tance in  the  scale,  but  to  the  number  of  sharps  or  flats  called  for. 

The  lowest  notes  of  the  oboe  are  rather  harsh  and  nasal  in 
quality.  The  middle  register,  which  is  the  best,  has  a  reedy  and 


428  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

penetrating  quality,  still  somewhat  nasal;  while  the  highest  notes  are 
thin  and  more  piercing.  As  the  oboe  resembles  a  shepherd's  pipe, 
it  is  admirably  suited  to  portray  effects  of  pastoral  simplicity.  It 
is  also  used  to  picture  rustic  merriment.  Still  another  effect,  aris- 
ing from  the  artless  simplicity  of  its  tones,  is  that  of  pathos  and  grief. 
The  older  oboe,  retained  in  some  foreign  orchestras,  is  fuller  and 
more  nasal;  but  the  lighter  tone  of  our  instrument  is  amply  effec- 
tive, and  has  been  aptly  likened  to  a  silver  thread  in  the  orchestral 
web  of  sound. 

Unlike  most  wind  instruments,  the  oboe  demands  less  than  the 
natural  amount  of  breath.  The  player,  therefore,  has  too  little  work 
for  his  lungs;  and  in  long  passages  he  must  pause  to  exhale  before 
taking  breath  to  start  again.  The  older  composers  often  wrote  long 
oboe  passages,  which  the  performer  has  to  divide  into  sections. 
Schumann  once  made  the  same  error;  and  in  the  second  of  his  three 
Romances  for  oboe  and  piano  there  is  a  passage  of  eighty-fo\ir  bars 
without  a  rest. 

There  is  not  much  solo  music  for  the  oboe.  In  addition  to  the 
Schumann  pieces,  there  are  six  concertos  for  it  by  Handel;  one  by 
Mozart,  now  lost;  another  by  Kalliwoda;  and  a  four-movement 
trio  by  Beethoven  for  two  oboes  and  an  English  horn.  Among  re- 
cent composers,  Arthur  Foote  has  produced  a  set  of  three  pieces 
for  oboe  and  piano. 

In  orchestral  music  the  situation  is  different,  and  the  incisive 
tone  of  the  oboe  makes  it  a  favorite.  The  scores  of  Handel  are  full 
of  striking  passages  for  it,  and  in  his  time  it  came  near  being  a  rival 
to  the  violin.  The  old  composers,  in  fact,  had  many  more  wind  in- 
struments than  we  use,  and  sometimes  there  were  nearly  as  many 
oboes  as  violins.  With  Haydn  the  oboe  is  more  of  a  solo  instrument, 
in  light  and  playful  melodies.  It  is  often  used  antiphonally  with 
the  bassoon  in  the  musette-like  trios  found  in  his  symphonies;  but 
it  is  employed  also  in  "The  Seasons"  to  represent  the  crowing  of 
the  cock.  Saint-Saens  used  it  in  similar  fashion  in  his  "Danse 
Macabre,"  where  the  dance  of  the  riotous  skeletons  comes  to  an 
abrupt  end  at  dawn.  Mozart  employed  the  oboe  freely,  and  in  his 
Twelfth  Mass  (providing  he  wrote  that  work)  there  is  a  famous 
solo  passage  for  it.  Gluck  used  the  oboe  effectively  in  his  operas 
to  represent  pathos. 


1.  BASSOOX;    2.  OBOE;   3.  BASS  CLARINET;    4.  BASSET  HORN;   5.  CLARINET; 
6.  OLD  FLUTE  ;    7.  SAXOPHONE  ;    8.  ENGLISH  HORN ;  9.  BOEHM  FLUTE 


OBOE   AND  ENGLISH  HORN  429 

But  it  was  Beethoven  who  brought  out  most  fully  the  capabili- 
ties of  his  instruments;  and  we  find  him  employing  the  oboe  freely. 
Its  effect  of  sadness  is  prominently  used  in  the  funeral  march  of  the 
Heroic  Symphony,  and  cleverly  abandoned  for  'cellos  before  it  could 
become  monotonous.  In  the  Scherzo  of  the  Pastoral  Symphony 
the  oboe  plays  a  large  part  in  the  rustic  gayety  that  pictures  a  vil- 
lage festival.  In  the  opera  "Fidelio,"  the  oboe  is  employed  promi- 
nently when  the  hero,  Florestan,  awaits  death  by  starvation,  —  a 
rather  distant  fate,  to  judge  by  the  size  of  many  opera  singers. 
Among  other  instances,  the  "Egmont"  music  contains  an  effective 
oboe  passage,  this  time  in  the  florid  style. 

Among  very  many  later  examples.  Raff  lets  the  oboe  take  the 
theme  almost  alone  in  the  finale  of  his  fourth  symphony.  Most 
striking,  however,  is  the  dialogue  between  oboe  and  English  horn 
in  the  Symphonie  Fantastique  of  Berlioz.  This  represents  a  con- 
versation between  a  shepherd  and  a  shepherdess  in  the  fields,  and 
leads  into  one  of  the  many  orchestral  thunder-storms.  After  the 
storm,  the  English  horn  resumes,  as  if  inquiring;  but  there  is  no 
reply  from  the  oboe,  its  absence  giving  a  striking  suggestion  of 
tragedy. 

The  oboe  tone  quality  is  very  frequently  injured  by  tuning,  or 
any  alteration  in  pitch.  It  was  used,  therefore,  to  give  the  pitch 
for  the  rest  of  the  orchestra  to  adopt.  The  custom  has  continued 
from  Handel's  time  to  the  present;  although  the  clarinet,  which 
was  not  at  first  in  the  orchestra,  is  even  harder  to  tune.  Another 
difficulty  with  wood-wind  instruments  results  from  the  fact  that  the 
pitch  alters  as  they  expand  with  the  heat  of  the  player's  breath. 
When  an  orchestra  is  ready  to  tune,  the  oboe  gives  a  long-held  A. 
The  stringed  instruments  are  soon  set  at  the  proper  pitch,  but  the 
clarinet  player  will  continue  to  tootle  away.  He  is  not  doing  this 
for  exercise,  but  to  warm  the  tube  of  his  instrument  so  that  it  will 
not  vary  in  pitch  later  on. 

The  oboe  is  not  now  a  transposing  instrument,  but  transposing 
oboes  have  existed  in  the  past.  In  Handel's  "Flavio"  there  is  a 
song  in  B-fiat-minor,  for  which  the  oboe  part  is  in  A-minor,  suggest- 
ing an  oboe  a  semitone  higher  than  usual;  but  such  an  instrument 
is  not  found  elsewhere.  The  old  oboe  d'amore,  much  used  by  Bach, 
was  a  minor  thii'd  deeper  than  our  oboe.  Another  old  form  was  the 


430  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

oboe  di  caccia,  a  fifth  (sometimes  a  sixth)  below  our  instrument. 
This  was  in  use  as  late  as  Haydn's  day,  and  we  even  find  Rossini 
calling  for  it  in  his  "William  Tell"  Overture,  to  imitate  the  alpine 
horn  when  giving  the  "Ranz  des  Vaches,"  though  this  passage  is 
now  given  by  the  English  horn. 

The  English  horn  (German,  Englisches  Horn;  French,  cor  anglais; 
Italian,  corno  inglese)  is  simply  an  oboe  half  as  large  again  as  the 
smaller  instrument;  and  in  consequence  of  its  size,  its  pitch  is  a 
fifth  lower.  When  the  oboe  player  had  to  take  the  English  horn 
also,  the  music  for  the  latter  was  written  a  fifth  higher  than  it  was 
to  sound,  so  that  the  oboe  fingering  could  be  used,  while  the  size  of 
the  instrument  gave  the  low  pitch  desired.  Thus  for  a  piece  in  D 
the  English  horn  part  would  be  written  a  fifth  higher,  in  A,  but 
would  sound  in  D.  At  present  a  separate  man  is  needed  in  large  or- 
chestras for  the  English  horn,  so  the  part  could  be  written  in  the 
proper  key  and  played  by  him  accordingly;  but  the  custom  of  using 
the  transposition  has  not  yet  been  changed. 

The  English  horn  is  not  really  a  horn,  but  is  named  from  the  old 
shepherd's  pipe  used  in  England  and  known  as  the  hornpipe.  This 
is  mentioned  by  Chaucer,  in  his  "Romaunt  of  the  Rose,"  in  the 
lines, — 

"  Controve  he  wolde,  and  f oule  f ayle. 
With  hornpipes  of  Comewaile." 

The  word  "controve"  means  to  compose,  and  has  the  same  root  as 
"Trouvere."  Some  claim  that  the  instrument  was  the  "compipe," 
made  from  cornstalks,  just  as  the  chalumeau  was  named  from  the 
Latin  calamus,  a  reed.  But  the  com  may  also  come  from  the  Latin 
cornu,  a  horn,  as  is  the  case  with  the  word  comet. 

The  natural  scale  of  the  English  horn  is  that  of  G-major,  starting 
just  below  middle  C.  It  has  extra  keys  which  extend  its  compass 
downward  to  E.  Its  upward  limit  is  the  B-flat  two  and  a  half 
octaves  higher.  The  lowest  scale  of  G  comes  from  the  natural 
tones;  the  next  scale  is  produced  from  the  first  overtone,  obtained 
by  harder  blowing;  while  the  highest  notes  are  obtained  by  cross- 
fingering,  —  opening  the  holes  near  the  mouthpiece,  and  stopping 
others,  to  obtain  still  shorter  vibrating  air-columns. 

The  tone  quality  of  the  English  horn  is  quieter  and  more  solid 
than  that  of  the  oboe.  In  place  of  the  oboe's  appealing  pathos  we 


OBOE  AND  ENGLISH  HORN  43J 

have  here  a  dreamy  melancholy.  The  middle  and  lower  register  is 
especially  full,  rich,  and  sonorous.  The  earlier  masters  used  this 
instrument  very  little.  It  is  now  admitted  to  Bach's  music,  but 
only  to  replace  the  oboe  di  caccia.  Haydn  and  Mozart  called  for 
it  a  very  few  times.  Beethoven  may  have  used  it  in  the  trio  with 
two  oboes,  but  more  probably  called  for  an  oboe  di  caccia.  Schu- 
bert, Weber,  and  Mendolssohn  did  not  write  for  it  at  all.  It  would 
have  been  most  appropriate  after  the  storm  in  the  Pastoral  Sym- 
phony, instead  of  the  clarinet-horn  combination  that  Beethoven 
used.  Schumann  avoided  the  English  horn  for  the  most  part,  but 
he  gave  it  one  prominent  passage  in  his  "Manfred,"  where  that 
hero  hears  a  shepherd's  pipe  in  the  Alps.  The  "pipes  in  the  liberal 
air,"  about  which  the  hero  pauses  to  moralize,  are  well  represented 
by  the  English  horn.  Cowen  used  the  instrument  excellently  in 
his  Scandinavian  Symphony,  where  it  depicts  the  loneliness  of  the 
impressive  fiords.  The  French  composers  showed  more  appreciation 
of  the  instrument,  and  Meyerbeer  gave  it  due  prominence  in  the 
fourth  act  of  his  "Huguenots."  Wagner  understood  its  use  in 
pastoral  scenes,  and  in  "Tannhauser,"  when  the  hero  emerges 
from  the  Mountain  of  Venus,  he  finds  an  excellent  English  horn 
player  tending  sheep  in  the  fields  near  by.  An  expressive  English 
horn  theme  is  found  in  the  slow  movement  of  Dvorak's  beautiful 
"New  World"  Symphony.  In  modem  orchestras  the  English  horn 
is  regarded  as  indispensable.  Sibelius  uses  it  most  admirably  in  his 
"Swan  of  Tuonela,"  a  mythical  bird  that  sings  mournfully  while 
floating  on  the  River  of  Death. 

There  have  been  attempts  to  make  double-bass  oboes,  deeper 
than  the  English  horn;  but  these  have  not  yet  been  successful.  A 
small  oboe  in  E-flat,  found  in  some  bands,  is  a  minor  third  higher 
than  the  ordinary  instrument. 

The  musette  is  an  instrument  somewhat  like  a  bagpipe,  but  with 
two  pipes  where  the  latter  has  three.  It  has  the  very  penetrating 
quality  of  the  small  double-reed  instruments.  The  bagpipe,  which 
has  two  tubes  giving  a  drone-bass  while  the  third,  or  chanter,  plays 
the  melody,  has  been  found  in  many  forms,  such  as  the  ordinary 
Highland  bagpipe,  the  old  German  Sackpfeife,  the  French  cornemiLse, 
the  bignou  of  Brittany,  the  Calabrian  zumpogna,  and  the  old  Irish 
bagpipe,  all  blown  by  the  mouth;  while  the  French  musette,  the 


432  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Lowland  bagpipe,  and  some  other  forms,    were  blown   by  the 
bellows. 

The  Heckelphone,  made  by  the  German  Heckel,  is  practically  a 
baritone  oboe,  nearly  an  octave  lower  than  the  ordinary  oboe.  Its 
double  reed  is  between  those  of  the  English  horn  and  the  bassoon 
in  size.  The  Heckelclarind,  invented  by  the  same  maker,  has  the 
single  reed  of  the  clarinets.  It  was  intended  for  the  English  horn 
solo  in  the  third  act  of  "Tristan."  The  tarogato  is  another  conical 
wooden  pipe  with  clarinet  reed,  and  has  been  used  for  the  same  pur- 
pose. 


XLIX 

THE  BASSOONS 

The  bassoon  (German,  Fagott;  French,  basson;  Italian,  fagotto) 
is  probably  an  instrument  of  great  antiquity.  Its  name  suggests  an 
instrument  taking  a  bass  part,  just  as  tenoroon  has  been  used  for 
one  taking  the  tenor  part.  But  the  Arabians  had  an  instrument 
named  hesuin,  while  the  Egyptian  term  for  a  deep-toned  pipe  was 
zummarah-hi-soan.  The  use  of  the  term  busaine  or  buisine,  in  me- 
diaeval manuscripts,  points  to  an  Oriental  origin  for  the  instrument. 
Its  Italian  name,  fagotto,  comes  from  its  fancied  resemblance  to  a 
bundle  of  sticks,  also  called  fagotto.  The  Grecians  probably  had 
instruments  of  this  type;  for  the  sombre  effect  of  their  "Nome  of 
Kradias,"  or  march  to  execution,  had  just  the  sort  of  impressive 
gloom  that  the  bassoon  could  give. 

The  present  bassoon  is  the  work  of  Afranio,  canon  of  Ferrara,  in 
1540.  It  consists  of  a  tapering  tube,  doubled  upon  itself,  and  pro- 
vided with  a  brass  crook  to  hold  its  rather  large  mouthpiece.  Like 
that  of  the  oboe,  this  consists  of  two  pieces  of  reed.  The  bassoon 
scale  is  singularly  hard  to  play,  but  all  efforts  to  obviate  this  seem 
to  have  injured  the  tone-color. 

The  natural  scale  of  the  bassoon  is  that  of  G-major;  but  it  has  a 
number  of  extra  keys  that  enable  it  to  reach  down  to  the  B-flat  over 
two  octaves  below  middle  C.  Its  compass  extends  up  to  the  A-flat 
above  middle  C,  giving  it  a  range  of  nearly  three  octaves.  The 
lower  register  forms  a  good  bass  to  the  wood-wind  quartet,  which 
in  later  classical  times  consisted  of  flutes,  oboes,  clarinets,  and  bas- 
soons. The  middle  register  of  the  bassoon  is  dull  and  hollow,  while 
the  upper  tones  have  a  penetrating  power  that  is  not  unlike  a  cry  of 
agony.  The  tone-color  of  the  bassoon  is  sometimes  impressively 
sombre;  but  it  is  well  suited  to  grotesque  effects  also,  and  has  been 
called  "the  clown  of  the  orchestra." 

As  the  music  of  the  bassoon  is  written  in  either  bass  or  tenor  clef, 
it  may  be  well  to  enumerate  the  clefs  here.  Taken  in  order,  from 


434  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

the  highest  to  the  lowest,  they  alter  the  pitch  of  any  written  note 
by  thirds.  The  highest  clef  is  the  so-called  French  violin  clef,  plac- 
ing the  G  above  middle  C  on  the  lowest  line  of  the  staff.  This  clef 
is  not  used  now.  The  usual  G-clef  puts  this  G  on  the  second  line  of 
the  staff,  with  middle  C  on  the  first  line  below.  Then  there  is  a  set 
of  C-clefs,  placing  middle  C  on  the  various  lines  of  the  staff.  With 
C  on  the  lowest  line  we  have  the  soprano  clef;  on  the  second,  the 
mezzo-soprano;  on  the  third,  the  alto;  and  on  the  fourth,  the  tenor. 
The  baritone  clef  brings  the  F  below  middle  C  on  the  third  line  of 
the  staff;  while  the  bass  clef  puts  this  F  on  the  next  line  above  that, 
next  to  the  top  line.  The  G-clef  and  the  bass  clef  are  used  in  piano 
music,  but  for  orchestral  work  some  of  the  others  are  called  for, 
notably  the  alto  and  tenor  clefs.  Any  change  of  clefs  has  for  its 
object  the  keeping  of  the  notes  on  or  near  the  staff,  so  that  there 
will  be  no  need  for  many  extra  lines  (leger  lines)  above  or  below 
the  staff.   The  C-clefs  were  often  employed  in  old  vocal  music. 

Rapid  passages  on  the  bassoon  sound  best  in  its  natural  key  of 
G,  or  in  closely  related  keys.  Trills  are  practicable,  though  not  on 
every  note.  Staccato  notes  have  a  good  effect,  as  in  the  allegro 
of  Beethoven's  Fourth  Symphony.  But  in  general  the  tone-color  of 
the  instrument  is  so  striking  that  the  composer  need  only  write 
passages  of  straightforward  character  for  it,  without  making  it  do 
technical  tricks. 

In  Cambert's  "Pomone,"  given  at  Paris  in  1671,  we  find  the 
bassoon  used  merely  as  a  bass  instrument.  But  the  introduction  of 
still  lower  instruments,  and  the  improvement  in  the  bassoon's 
upper  (vox  humana)  notes,  has  left  it  free  for  special  effects. 

Handel  used  the  bassoon  little,  though  in  his  "Saul"  he  gave  it 
effective  phrases  when  the  Witch  of  Endor  raised  the  ghost  of  Sam- 
uel. Bach  sometimes  let  it  do  a  little  more  than  reinforce  the  bass 
part.  But  it  did  not  come  into  its  own  until  the  time  of  Haydn,  who 
used  its  expressive  upper  notes  very  freely.  Mozart  employed  its 
comic  effects  in  the  G-minor  symphony,  by  making  it  imitate  a 
violin  figure. 

Beethoven  showed  unusual  fondness  for  the  bassoon,  and  it  was 
really  his  favorite  instrument.  He  called  for  it  continually,  and  evi- 
dently imderstood  its  tone-color  absolutely.  In  the  first  movement 
of  his  Eighth  Symphony  it  is  used  with  exquisite  humor;  but  its  most 


THE  BASSOONS  485 

comical  effects  are  shown  in  the  scherzo  of  the  Pastoral  (sixth)  Sym- 
phony. In  this  is  a  picture  of  village  revehy,  in  which  a  rustic  band 
takes  part.  The  bassoon  player  of  the  band  is  inspired  by  the  occa- 
sion, and  perhaps  by  something  more  definitely  exhilarating.  He  is 
depicted  as  having  seen  better  days,  being  now  condemned  to  play 
on  an  instrument  which  has  only  three  keys  left.  These  keys  give 
F,  C,  and  F  in  descending  order;  and  the  bassoonist  comes  in  heavily 
with  them  every  time  they  are  needed,  and  even  indulges  in  them 
once  or  twice  when  they  could  be  spared. 

The  humor  of  the  great  composers  would  form  a  book  in  itself, 
and  not  the  least  important  part  of  it  would  be  that  dealing  with 
the  comical  effects  they  have  produced  with  the  instruments.  Thus 
Mozart  once  wrote  a  "Musikalischer  Spass,"  or  musical  joke,  in 
which  he  pictured  a  young  composer  struggling  to  write  an  ambi- 
tious piece.  The  weak  character  of  the  themes,  and  the  flimsy  at- 
tempts at  development,  are  duly  portrayed;  and  at  the  end,  when 
the  neophyte  tries  to  introduce  the  complex  form  of  a  fugue,  he  is 
soon  tangled  up,  and  has  to  cover  his  retreat  with  a  blare  of  noise. 

Where  Beethoven  used  the  bassoon  in  rather  grotesque  fashion, 
Mendelssohn  handled  it  more  daintily.  The  latter  composer  gave 
the  bassoon  many  bits  of  inimitable  humor  in  his  "Midsummer 
Night's  Dream  "  music.  Most  noticeable  among  them  are  the  quaint 
clowns'  march  for  two  bassoons  a  third  apart;  the  imitation  of  a 
rustic  band  in  the  funeral  march,  with  the  bassoon  making  a  ludi- 
crous cadence  by  itself  on  a  low  note;  and,  in  the  overture,  the  bray- 
ing of  the  transformed  Bottom. 

Wagner's  sense  of  humor  wins  unbounded  admiration,  and  in  his 
"Mastersingers  of  Nuremberg  "  it  is  worthy  to  rank  with  that  of  a 
Shakespeare  or  an  Aristophanes.  The  libretto,  which  he  wrote,  is 
such  a  superb  comedy  that  it  has  become  a  textbook  in  the  German 
schools.  But  the  score,  too,  is  full  of  delightful  passages,  such  as 
the  tapping  of  Sachs's  hammer  while  he  listens  to  Beckmesser,  the 
confusion  of  themes  in  the  riot  scene,  the  discordant  horn  of  the 
watchmen,  the  painful  attempts  of  the  beaten  Beckmesser  to  sit 
down,  or  the  latter's  fearful  and  wonderful  efforts  to  recollect  the 
melody  of  the  prize  song.  But  the  wood-wind's  share  of  fun  comes 
in  the  long  prelude.  Here  the  story  of  the  opera  is  foreshadowed, 
and  the  music  shows  how  the  narrow  masters  fail  at  first  to  recog- 


436  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

nize  the  freer  genius  of  the  hero,  Walther,  who  tries  to  enter  their 
guild  in  order  to  win  a  bride.  After  Walther's  first  song  has  been 
suggested,  the  masters'  theme  reasserts  itself.  It  is  given  to  the 
wood-wind  group,  and  made  to  sound  inimitably  fussy  and  self- 
conceited.  Fragments  of  Walther's  trial-song  recur,  but  are  con- 
stantly interrupted  by  bits  of  the  masters'  theme,  until  there  is 
practically  a  free  fight  in  the  orchestra,  calmed  only  by  the  appear- 
ance of  Walther's  second  trial-song,  which  the  masters  ultimately 
crown  with  a  prize.  In  all  this  the  bassoon  plays  a  most  prominent 
part. 

The  French  composers  used  the  bassoon  freely,  Cherubini  writ- 
ing a  great  solo  for  it  in  his  "Medee."  Meyerbeer,  in  "Robert  le 
Diable,"  used  the  hollow  middle  register  with  blood-curdling  effect 
in  the  scene  where  the  hero  plucks  a  branch  of  cypress  from  his 
mother's  grave,  amid  the  ghosts  of  faithless  nuns.  Berlioz,  with  his 
usual  wholesale  tendencies,  called  for  seven  bassoons  in  his  "Dam- 
nation de  Faust."  But  he  showed  that  he  knew  the  instrument  by 
his  use  of  it  in  the  fourth  movement  of  his  "Symphonie  Fantas- 
tique,"  where  it  gives  a  wonderful  picture  of  the  insistent  foot- 
steps of  the  crowd  surging  about  the  victim  on  his  way  to  the 
scaffold.  Ambroise  Thomas  employed  the  bassoon  to  represent 
Caliban  in  his  ballet  "The  Tempest,"  and  our  own  Professor  John 
K.  Paine  did  the  same  in  his  symphonic  poem  on  that  subject. 
A  more  recent  French  composer  to  use  the  bassoon  with  infinite 
humor  is  Paul  Dukas.  In  his  "Apprenti  Sorcier,"  picturing  the 
magician's  pupil  who  made  a  broom  produce  a  torrent  of  water 
but  forgot  how  to  shut  it  off,  various  skips  and  passages  on  the 
bassoon  lend  an  inimitably  comic  flavor  to  the  rushing  of  the  water 
and  the  growing  apprehensions  of  the  unlucky  apprentice. 

There  is  a  smaller  size  of  bassoon,  known  as  the  basson  quinte 
because  it  sounds  a  fifth  higher  than  the  ordinary  instrument.  It 
is  used  as  a  transposing  instrument,  and  therefore  must  be  written 
a  fifth  lower  than  desired,  to  allow  of  the  same  fingering  as  the  usual 
instrument.  It  is  not  used  in  the  orchestra,  and  is  not  of  great  im- 
portance, since  its  upper  register  is  much  like  the  tone  of  the  English 
horn. 

The  contrabassoon  (double  bassoon)  is  a  still  larger  and  deeper 
instrument  of  the  double-reed  family.  It  has  a  tapering  tube  about 


THE  BASSOONS  437 

sixteen  feet  long,  and  gives  an  octave  below  the  bassoon,  just  as 
the  contrabass  sounds  an  octave  below  the  'cello.  The  contrabas- 
soon  can  reach  as  low  as  the  lowest  D  on  the  piano,  while  some  con- 
trabassoons  even  reach  the  B-flat  below  that.  It  is  therefore  the 
deepest  instrument  of  the  orchestra.  Its  compass  extends  up  about 
two  octaves  from  the  lowest  D;  it  can  give  some  higher  notes,  but 
these  are  better  obtained  on  the  bassoon.  The  contrabassoon  is  a 
transposing  instrument,  soimding  an  octave  deeper  than  the  written 
part. 

The  contrabassoon  forms  a  broad  and  effective  bass  for  the  wood- 
wind group,  sounding  like  the  tone  of  a  deep-voiced  organ  pipe. 
Rapid  passages  are  not  suited  to  an  instrument  of  this  large  size, 
though  Beethoven  wrote  some  quick  phrases  for  it  in  his  Ninth  Sym- 
phony. It  was  first  used  by  Handel  at  the  coronation  of  George  II, 
in  1727.  Haydn  employed  it  well  in  "The  Creation,"  to  represent 
footsteps  at  the  phrase,  "By  heavy  beasts  the  ground  is  trod." 
Mozart  and  Spohr  used  it  in  nonets  for  wind  instruments.  Beetho- 
ven, in  the  grave-digging  scene  of  "Fidelio,"  called  for  it  in  combi- 
nation with  two  bassoons;  and  when  one  of  the  trio  of  players  was 
absent  from  a  rehearsal,  Beethoven  grew  very  angry  with  Prince 
Lobkowitz,  one  of  his  patrons,  for  suggesting  mildly  that  perhaps 
two  performers  would  do.  Beethoven  was  often  irascible,  but  the 
value  of  his  music  amply  excused  his  temper. 

Some  decades  ago  a  Frenchman  named  Sarrus  adapted  reed 
mouthpieces  to  brass  tubes.  His  instruments  have  not  entered  the 
orchestra,  though  they  are  much  used  in  military  bands,  where 
they  are  very  effective.  One  of  them,  the  sarrusophone,  has  a  double- 
reed  mouthpiece,  and  the  same  system  of  keys  as  that  used  on  the 
wood-wind  instruments.  Like  all  the  instruments  described  in  this 
and  the  preceding  chapter,  it  may  be  classed  as  a  member  of  the 
oboe  family.  It  sometimes  replaces  the  contrabassoon. 


THE  CLARINETS 

While  the  instniments  of  the  oboe  family  have  two  bits  of  reed 
in  their  mouthpieces,  the  clarinets  have  only  one.  This  is  a  broad 
strip,  narrowing  at  the  top  to  a  very  sharp  edge.  It  is  attached  to 
the  mouthpiece  of  the  instrument  by  two  metallic  bands  provided 
with  screws.  The  player  presses  the  end  of  the  reed  against  his 
lower  lip  while  performing,  and  the  vibrations  of  the  reed  cause  the 
air-column  in  the  tube  to  vibrate  also,  and  produce  the  tone. 

The  early  instruments  known  as  shawms,  and  probably  some  of 
the  old  Greek  auloi,  were  of  this  type.  But  the  clarinet  as  we  know 
it  is  due  to  Johann  Christopher  Denner,  of  Nuremburg,  who  per- 
fected it  in  1690.  This  instrument  was  improved  by  Stadler,  of 
Vienna,  and  by  Sax,  of  Paris;  but  it  is  not  suited  for  the  Boehm  sys- 
tem of  keys.  The  main  part  of  its  tube  is  cylindrical,  which  has 
some  effect;  but  the  size  of  the  reed  is  really  responsible.  While  the 
flute  and  oboe  act  Hke  open  pipes,  the  clarinet  behaves  like  a  stopped 
pipe,  closed  at  one  end.  One  result  is  a  deeper  pitch,  the  clarinet 
sounding  an  octave  below  a  flute  of  the  same  size;  while  another 
effect  is  found  in  the  fact  that  stopped  pipes  do  not  give  the  odd- 
numbered  harmonics.  This  pomt  is  explained  in  the  chapter  on 
"Acoustics."  The  first  harmonic,  an  octave  above  the  normal  tone 
in  pitch,  is  used  to  get  a  second  octave  scale  in  the  flute  or  oboe; 
but  it  does  not  exist  on  the  clarinet.  The  over-blowing  in  the  latter 
case  causes  the  air-column  to  vibrate  in  thirds  instead  of  halves, 
giving  a  rise  in  pitch  of  a  twelfth  instead  of  an  octave.  Thus  a  fin- 
gering based  on  octaves  must  be  supplemented  in  some  way. 

The  clarinet  (German,  Klarinette;  French,  clarinette;  Italian, 
clarino)  has  six  finger-holes,  played  by  three  fingers  on  each  hand. 
These  give  the  scale  of  G  major,  a  fifth  below  that  of  the  flute. 
There  are  extra  keys  to  close  holes  at  the  end  away  from  the  mouth- 
piece, thus  lengthening  the  air-column  and  lowering  the  compass 
to  the  E  below  middle  C.  The  usual  keys  for  sharps  and  flats  are 


THE   CLARINETS  439 

present,  completing  a  scale  from  G  to  F-sharp.  By  overblowing 
the  lowest  E,  the  B  a  twelfth  above  it  is  produced;  but  between  the 
F-sharp  and  the  B  are  four  semitones  which  must  be  obtained  by- 
special  devices.  One  of  these  is  produced  by  lifting  the  thumb  off 
an  extra  finger-hole,  while  the  other  three  are  provided  for  by  keys 
which  open  holes  near  the  mouthpiece.  The  fingering  begins  again 
at  the  twelfth  instead  of  the  octave,  while  the  highest  tones  are  pro- 
duced by  cross-fingering. 

The  compass  of  the  clarinet  is  from  E  below  middle  C  to  the  C 
three  octaves  above  it.  This  compass  is  divided  into  four  registers, 
though  some  authorities  speak  of  only  three.  The  natural  scale, 
sometimes  including  the  "medium"  notes  with  special  keys,  is 
called  the  chalumeau  register,  after  the  obsolete  instrument  of  that 
name.  It  has  a  rich,  full,  and  somewhat  reedy  tone.  The  acute  reg- 
ister is  the  scale  which  the  keys  obtain  from  the  harmonic  of  the 
twelfth;  while  the  upper  register  includes  the  highest  notes. 

With  its  many  registers,  the  clarinet  is  also  capable  of  many  gra- 
dations in  power  of  tone.  This  makes  it  the  most  expressive  of  the 
wood-wind  group.  Owing  to  the  complex  fingering,  it  is  hard  to  play 
the  C  clarinet  in  keys  containing  many  sharps  or  fiats.  Many  trills 
are  practicable,  but  in  certain  signatures  some  of  these  become  im- 
possible, as  the  finger  would  have  to  skip  from  key  to  key.  Rapid 
passages  in  the  medium  register  are  impracticable  because  of  the 
fingering;  while  passages  that  cross  and  recross  the  "break,"  or 
change  in  pressure  of  blowing,  can  never  be  played  at  all  swiftly. 
In  these  changes  there  is  always  danger  that  the  tone  may  break 
into  harsh  noises,  called  "couacs." 

To  obviate  these  difficulties,  the  clarinet  is  made  in  several 
pitches.  The  one  already  described  is  called  the  clarinet  in  C.  For 
fiat  keys  there  is  a  B-fliat  clarinet,  sounding  a  tone  lower;  and  for 
sharp  keys  an  A  clarinet,  a  minor  third  lower.  As  the  Germans 
speak  of  our  B-flat  as  B  (our  B  being  called  H),  German  scores  will 
call  for  the  B  clarinet,  meaning  what  we  know  as  the  B-fiat  instru- 
ment. 

The  two  lower  clarinets  are  transposing  instruments.  The  same 
fingering  that  gives  C  on  the  C  clarinet  would  give  B-flat  and  A  on 
the  two  lower  instruments.  So,  to  keep  the  fingering  the  same,  the 
part  for  the  B-flat  clarinet  is  written  a  tone  above  where  the  instru- 


440  THE   BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

ment  will  make  it  sound,  and  for  the  A  clarinet  a  minor  third  above. 
The  same  player  will  use  these  different  instruments  in  different 
pieces;  so  that  here,  at  least,  the  transposition  is  still  of  use  to  the 
player.  But  modem  p>erformers  could  dispense  with  it;  and  many 
efforts  are  now  being  made  to  do  away  with  such  transpositions, 
and  have  all  parts  written  as  they  sound,  even  though  the  player 
has  to  alter  his  fingering.  At  present,  if  a  piece  in  D  calls  for  the  A 
clarinet  the  part  must  be  written  in  F  (and  fingered  for  F)  to  sound 
in  D.  For  a  piece  in  E,  the  A  clarinet  would  be  fingered  as  if  for  G, 
thus  making  the  player  figure  for  only  one  sharp,  whereas  four 
sharps  would  be  necessary  if  the  C  clarinet  were  used.  But  if  the 
clarinet  part  were  written  in  E  and  meant  to  sound  there,  the  player, 
using  the  A  clarinet,  could  play  it  just  as  easily,  as  he  would  know 
instantly  that  he  would  need  the  G  fingering  anyway. 

It  will  be  seen  from  all  this  that  orchestral  keys,  unlike  those  on 
the  piano,  are  limited  by  the  nature  of  certain  instruments.  The 
keys  with  few  sharps  or  flats  are  most  practicable.  Of  course  other 
considerations  guide  the  composer,  such  as  bringing  out  the  best 
registers  of  certain  instruments;  but  he  ought  not  to  call  for  such 
keys  as  G-flat,  or  D-flat,  or  B,  for  example.  Some  of  Liszt's  Hun- 
garian Rhapsodies,  when  taken  from  the  piano  and  scored  for  or- 
chestra, are  purposely  transposed,  to  make  the  instrumental  work 
easier. 

Composers  favor  the  B-flat  clarinet,  and  after  that  the  A  clari- 
net, because  both  of  them  have  a  sweeter  and  richer  tone  than  the 
instrument  in  C.  The  tone-color  of  the  clarinet  is  weird  and  sombre 
in  the  chalumeau  register,  and  full  and  clear  in  the  second  scale. 

The  clarinet,  like  the  oboe,  is  influenced  by  heat,  and  the  player 
must  blow  into  the  tube  to  warm  it  up  before  he  starts.  The  process 
of  tuning  an  orchestra  is  not  the  most  agreeable  in  the  world,  al- 
though a  Chmese  dignitary  once  applauded  it  and  preferred  it  to 
the  later  numbers  that  he  heard.  The  oboe,  as  already  stated,  gives 
the  pitch  by  sounding  a  prolonged  and  repeated  A.  The  string 
players  then  get  their  A-strings  to  this  pitch,  after  which  they  tune 
the  others  in  a  series  of  empty  fifths  and  fourths  that  would  shock 
a  harmony  teacher.  Then  the  clarinetists  begin  "tootling"  on  their 
instruments,  to  warm  up  the  tubes  and  adjust  them  to  the  pitch. 
The  other  wood-wind  instruments  do  the  same,  while  grunts  from 


THE  CLARINETS  441 

the  tubas  and  other  brass  instruments  add  to  the  varied  mixture  of 
tone. 

Handel  once  tried  to  obviate  this  disturbance  by  having  the  in- 
struments tuned  beforehand.  But  while  the  audience  was  coming 
in,  some  practical  joker  got  at  the  orchestra  and  put  a  number  of 
instruments  out  of  tune.  In  due  time  the  players  took  their  places; 
but  when  the  leader  gave  the  signal  for  the  opening  chord,  there 
was  a  grand  crash.  The  composer  tumbled  over  a  few  instruments 
in  his  hurry  to  find  out  who  would  do  "such  a  vicked  thing,"  but 
he  never  discovered  the  joker. 

The  clarinet  was  the  last  instrument  to  enter  the  classical  or- 
chestra. Handel  left  an  incomplete  work  for  two  clarinets  and  a 
horn,  while  Johann  Christian  Bach,  son  of  the  great  Bach,  used  the 
clarinet  in  1763  in  his  "Orione."  Gluck  employed  the  old  chalu- 
meau  in  his  early  scores,  and  Haydn  wrote  some  clarinet  passages 
in  his  oratorios;  but  Mozart  was  the  first  to  bring  out  its  chief  possi- 
bilities. One  of  his  three  last  and  greatest  symphonies,  the  one  in 
E-flat,  is  often  called  the  clarinet  symphony,  from  the  prominence 
he  gave  to  the  instrument  when  writing  it.  The  clarinets  now  used 
in  Handel's  "Messiah"  were  introduced  into  the  score  by  Mozart. 
Beethoven  was  very  fond  of  the  clarinet.  In  the  Pastoral  Symphony 
it  imitates  the  call  of  the  yellow-hammer;  in  the  first  movement  of 
that  work  it  has  a  difficult  passage  that  includes  the  break;  while 
after  the  thunderstorm  it  is  combined  with  horns  to  give  the  shep- 
herd's call.  Weber  made  wonderful  use  of  the  clarinet's  ghostly 
chalumeau  effects  in  the  supernatural  scenes  of  "Der  FYeischiitz." 
Mendelssohn  employed  it  admirably  in  the  Scotch  Symphony.  The 
clarinet  is  an  integral  part  of  the  modem  orchestra.  It  has  a  solo 
repertoire,  and  Spohr  wrote  a  concerto  for  clarinet  and  orchestra. 

Still  other  clarinets  exist.  Thus  Mozart,  in  his  "Idomeneo," 
called  for  a  clarinet  in  B,  transposing  a  semitone,  and  very  useful 
in  keys  with  many  sharps.  It  is  not  in  use  now,  however.  Clarinets 
which  transpose  upward  are  found  in  the  keys  of  D,  E-flat,  F,  and 
A-flat.  Wagner  and  Cherubini  have  used  the  instrument  in  D. 
That  in  E-flat  is  too  shrill  for  orchestral  use;  but  Berlioz,  the  great 
experimenter,  called  for  it  in  his  "Symphonie  Fantastique."  In 
that  gory  work,  a  lover  has  killed  his  sweetheart  in  a  fit  of  jealousy. 
He  is  marched  to  execution,  and  beheaded  by  the  full  orchestra; 


442  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

but  he  is  not  allowed  to  rest  even  then.  An  extra  movement  shows 
his  reception  into  the  infernal  regions.  In  this  movement  the  E- 
flat  clarinet  aids  the  piccolo  in  making  the  revels  truly  satanic.  The 
F  clarinet,  still  more  piercing,  was  formerly  employed  by  German 
military  bands;  while  that  in  A-fiat,  the  shrillest  instrument  in  exist- 
ence, is  used  in  Austria. 

Tenor  clarinets  exist,  which  transpose  a  fifth  and  a  sixth  down- 
ward, but  the  former  is  practically  the  same  as  the  basset  horn. 
The  basset  horn  thus  bear  the  same  relation  to  the  C  clarinet  as  the 
English  horn  does  to  the  oboe.  The  basset  horn  is  a  transposing 
instrument,  with  a  compass  beginning  an  octave  below  middle  C. 
It  is  less  brilliant  than  the  clarinet,  but  has  a  sombre  richness  of 
tone  well  suited  to  religious  or  funereal  subjects.  Mozart  used  it  well 
in  his  Requiem,  in  which  the  only  reed  instruments  are  two  basset 
horns  and  two  bassoons.  He  employed  it  also  in  the  temple  scene  of 
"The  Magic  Flute." 

The  bass  clarinet  is  a  still  larger  and  deeper  instrument  of  this 
family.  It  has  a  crook  for  the  mouthpiece  and  a  large  bell  at  the 
other  end.  The  usual  form  sounds  an  octave  below  the  B-flat  clari- 
net. It  is  treated  as  a  transposing  instrument,  sounding  a  ninth 
lower  than  written.  A  bass  clarinet  in  C  exists,  and  Wagner  called 
for  a  deeper  one  in  A.  The  compass  of  the  B-flat  instrument  ranges 
from  the  D,  nearly  two  octaves  below  middle  C,  to  the  F  an  octave 
and  a  half  above  that  C.  The  highest  notes  are  seldom  used.  The 
lower  register,  corresponding  to  the  chalumeau  of  the  clarinet,  is 
the  best.  It  is  excellent  in  combination,  and  may  be  made  to  have 
either  the  weu'd  quality  of  the  chalumeau  or  the  solemn  effect  of 
an  organ  pipe.  It  has  been  well  used  by  Meyerbeer  in  his  "  Hugue- 
nots" and  it  even  takes  the  melody  for  a  time  in  the  coronation 
march  from  his  "Proph^te." 

In  recent  years  a  Parisian  maker  named  Besson  has  produced  a 
clarinet  an  octave  deeper  than  the  preceding,  known  as  the  pedal 
clarinet.  This  instrument  can  reach  the  lowest  D  on  the  piano. 

Like  the  double  reed,  the  clarinet  reed  has  been  adapted  to  brass 
tubes.  The  resulting  instruments  are  known  as  saxophones,  from 
the  name  of  their  inventor,  Adolphe  Sax.  The  saxophones  come  in 
several  sizes,  and  resemble  the  clarinets  in  appearance.  The  saxo- 
phones have  tapering  tubes,  and.,  unlike  the  clarinets,  can  produce 


p 


THE  CLARINETS  443 

all  the  overtones.  The  fingering,  therefore,  resembles  that  of  the 
oboe.  There  are  in  all  twelve  varieties  of  saxophone,  in  the  six 
classes  of  sopranino,  soprano,  alto,  tenor,  baritone,  and  bass.  All 
the  instruments  except  the  one  in  C  are  transposing.  They  are 
much  used  in  the  French  military  bands,  but  have  not  entered  the 
orchestra.  Gevaert  describes  the  saxophone  color  as  "a  voice  rich 
and  penetrating,  the  rather  veiled  quality  of  which  partakes  at  once 
of  the  'cello,  the  English  horn,  and  the  clarinet,  with  more  fulness  of 
tone."  Thus  it  would  almost  seem  to  be  an  orchestra  in  itself. 
Bizet,  in  his  ever-beautiful  "Arlfeienne"  music,  wrote  a  charming 
melody  for  the  alto  saxophone  in  E-flat,  with  orchestra;  but  up  to 
the  present  very  few  have  followed  this  lead. 


LI 

HORNS,  TRUMPETS,  AND   CORNETS 

The  wood-wind  group  of  instruments  derive  their  tone  from  the 
vibration  of  reeds,  even  the  flute  being  considered  to  have  an  air- 
reed,  or  space  of  compressed  air  near  the  blow-hole  acting  like  a 
reed.  In  the  brass  instruments  there  is  no  such  device.  The  player 
presses  his  lips  against  a  brass  mouthpiece,  and  blows  through  a 
narrow  opening  between  them.  If  his  lips  are  loose,  no  tone  will 
result;  but  if  he  stiffens  them,  they  vibrate  regularly,  and  transmit 
their  vibrations  to  the  air  column  in  the  tube.  By  increasing  the 
stiffness  of  the  lips,  the  player  can  make  them  vibrate  more  quickly, 
and  cause  the  air-column  to  subdivide,  giving  overtones.  While 
only  a  few  such  overtones  are  used  in  the  wood-wind  group  (ob- 
tained by  increased  force  of  blowing),  a  much  larger  number  of 
overtones  can  be  produced  on  the  brass  instruments.  In  the  so- 
called  natural  instruments,  such  as  the  bugle  or  the  Waldhom 
(forest  horn),  these  overtones  (harmonics)  are  the  only  notes  that 
can  be  obtained.  On  the  valve  instruments  there  are  valves  (keys) 
which  act  by  throwing  in  extra  sections  of  tubing  and  lowering  the 
pitch.  Still  other  brass  instruments,  such  as  the  trombone  and  slide 
trumpet,  are  made  with  inner  and  outer  tubes,  so  that  the  length  of 
tube  used  can  be  altered  by  pulling  or  pushing,  as  with  a  telescope. 
The  mouthpiece  of  the  brass  instruments  is  a  metal  cup,  or  cone, 
against  which  the  lips  are  pressed. 

The  simplest  brass  instrument  is  the  natural  horn,  or  Waldhom. 
This  is  merely  a  tube  with  a  mouthpiece.  Horns  of  this  sort  have 
been  known  from  ancient  times.  They  were  much  used  for  military 
signals,  and  in  the  middle  ages  for  hunting  calls.  The  simplest 
horn  of  to-day,  the  post-horn,  consists  of  a  mouthpiece  and  a 
straight  tube.  The  hunting-horn  was  bent  in  a  single  curve  at  first, 
and  later  on  in  a  threefold  circle,  so  that  it  could  be  hung  on  the 
shoulder.  Louis  XV,  with  his  master  of  the  hunt,  systematized 
the  horn-calls,  giving  a  meaning  to  each,  and  making  some  of  them 
quite  intricate. 


1.  VALVE  TROMBONE;    2    SLIDE  TROMBONE;   3.  TRUMPET;  i.  SERPENT;   5.  HORN; 
6.  BASS  TUBA;   7.  CORNET;   8.  OPHICLEIDE 


HORNS,  TRUMPETS,  AND  CORNETS  445 

The  horn  (German,  Horn ;  French,  cor;  Italian,  corno)  was  used 
as  an  orchestral  instrument  by  Scarlatti,  Bach,  and  Handel,  while 
Gossec  introduced  it  in  Paris.  It  seems  strange  to  think  that  the 
horn  was  opposed  at  first;  for  now  its  smooth  tones  are  highly  prized 
among  the  orchestral  colors.  Yet  when  it  first  entered  the  orchestra, 
it  was  considered  coarse  and  vulgar,  and  unfit  to  mingle  with  the 
more  delicate  violins  and  oboes. 

The  natural  horn,  without  keys  or  valves,  is  an  expanding  tube, 
curved  upon  itself,  having  a  tapering  mouthpiece  at  the  narrow 
end,  and  a  large  bell,  or  expanded  opening,  at  the  other  end.  When 
the  player  puts  his  lips  firmly  against  the  mouthpiece  and  blows 
to  make  them  vibrate,  he  produces  only  the  harmonic  series,  with- 
out ever  being  able  to  get  the  fundamental  note  from  which  the 
harmonics  are  derived.  Thus  a  tube  eight  feet  long  should  give  the 
C  two  octaves  below  middle  C;  but  the  eight-foot  horn  (C-alto) 
starts  with  the  C  only  one  octave  below  middle  C,  which  is  the  first 
harmonic  of  its  series.  This  series  consists  of  the  following  notes, 
in  ascending  order:  C,  G,  C,  E,  G,  B-flat,  C,  D,  E,  F-sharp,  G, 
and  so  on  in  decreasing  intervals.  It  may  be  stated  in  passing  that 
the  bugle  cannot  sound  even  the  first  harmonic  with  any  good 
effect,  but  begins  with  the  second.  Thus  its  tones  have  inter- 
vals corresponding  to  the  notes  G,  C,  E,  and  G  in  ascending 
order. 

The  lack  of  intermediate  notes  in  the  lower  register  of  the  natural 
horn  prevents  the  solo  player  from  getting  any  real  melody.  But 
as  horns  exist  in  many  keys,  orchestral  composers  could  call  for 
horns  in  several  keys,  and  combine  them  into  chords.  The  C-alto 
horn,  little  used  now,  is  the  highest  of  the  family,  and  is  written  as 
it  sounds.  The  lower  horns,  transposing  downward  in  accordance 
with  their  pitch,  are  in  B-flat  alto.  A,  A-flat,  G,  F,  E,  E-flat,  D,  C, 
and  B-flat  basso,  the  last  transposing  downward  a  major  ninth. 
The  natural  horns  are  provided  with  crooks  of  various  sizes,  or  in 
rare  cases  a  slide,  which  may  alter  the  length  of  the  tube  and  en- 
able the  player  to  get  all  keys. 

The  lowest  horn  is  eighteen  feet  long.  As  longer  tubes  give  more 
overtones,  it  follows  that  the  compass  of  the  lower  horns  is  greater 
than  that  of  the  higher  ones.  But  the  low  notes  sound  best  on  the 
shorter  instruments.   The  natural  tones  are  best  on  the  horns  in 


446  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

F,  E,  and  E-flat.  Extreme  intervals  are  not  easy  on  the  horn,  as 
they  imply  a  sudden  and  great  change  in  force  of  blowing  and  stiff- 
ness of  lips.  Trills  are  practicable  only  in  the  high  register,  the  com- 
pass of  these  horns  being  nearly  three  octaves. 

The  beauty  of  the  horn  tones  is  seen  in  nearly  every  orchestral 
piece.  Among  the  most  famous  examples  is  the  great  horn  passage 
in  the  scherzo  of  Beethoven's  "Heroic  Symphony."  In  the  finale 
of  Schubert's  C-major  symphony  these  instruments  come  in  softly, 
like  "horns  of  elf -land,  faintly  blowing,"  and  gradually  swell  into 
the  richest  of  harmonies.  The  horn  quartet  in  "Der  Freischutz" 
is  another  well-known  example;  and  still  another  is  found  in  the 
third  movement  of  Mendelssohn's  Italian  Symphony, 

The  performer  must  influence  the  tones  of  the  horn  by  inserting 
his  hand  into  the  bell,  more  or  less  deeply,  and  relaxing  his  lips. 
The  lowest  open  note  can  thus  be  lowered  by  several  semitones,  the 
new  notes  being  called  factitious,  or  artificial.  The  upper  harmon- 
ics are  similarly  treated,  and  for  deep  insertions  the  tone  is  called 
stopped,  or  muted.  Such  tones  have  a  veiled  quality,  but  when 
blown  loudly  become  very  harsh  and  ugly.  Muted  horn  tones  are 
freely  used  to  picture  evil,  as  when  Faust  is  asked  to  sign  the  con- 
tract with  Mephistopheles,  in  Gounod's  opera,  or  when  Siegfried 
is  killed,  in  the  second  act  of  Wagner's  "  Gotterdammerung." 
Massenet  found  a  clever  use  for  muted  horns  when  he  let  them 
represent  the  cracked  village  bell  in  the  Angelus  movement  of  his 
"Scenes  Pittoresques." 

The  valve  horn  now  replaces  the  natural  form,  and  gives  tones 
that  are  almost  as  good,  though  some  difference  is  caused  by  the 
valves,  or  ventils.  These  are  three  in  number.  The  first  valve 
throws  into  use  enough  extra  tubing  to  lower  the  pitch  a  tone;  the 
second  will  lower  the  pitch  a  semitone,  and  the  third,  a  tone  and  a 
half.  The  first  two  played  together  give  about  the  same  result  as 
the  thu*d,  but  are  sometimes  used  in  preference,  as  the  third  is  played 
by  a  weak  finger.  The  largest  interval  between  two  horn  tones  is 
the  fifth  between  the  first  and  second  harmonics.  Again  taking  the 
C  horn  as  an  illustration,  this  interval  will  be  from  the  lowest  C 
to  the  G  above  it.  Now  on  the  valve  horn  the  second  valve  will 
lower  the  G  to  F-sharp;  the  first  will  lower  it  to  F;  the  third  (or  the 
first  and  second),  to  E;  the  second  and  third  to  E-flat;  the  first  and 


HORNS,  TRUMPETS,  AND  CORNETS  447 

third  to  D;  and  all  three  valves  together  will  lower  the  G  to  D-flat. 
This,  it  will  be  seen,  makes  the  complete  scale  possible  upon  the 
horn.  As  each  of  these  altered  pitches  has  its  own  series  of  har- 
monics, it  becomes  possible  for  the  player  to  produce  high  notes 
in  several  different  ways. 

Although  all  tones  in  its  compass  are  possible  on  the  valve  horn, 
which  can  thus  modulate  freely,  it  is  still  advisable  for  the  composer 
to  keep  to  the  natural  tones  as  much  as  possible,  as  they  sound  best. 
But  since  the  horn  in  F  has  about  the  best  quality,  composers  wdll 
often  call  for  it,  even  when  the  piece  is  not  in  F,  and  write  its  part 
in  the  requisite  key.  If  the  horn  part  written  in  C  sounds  in  F  on  the 
F  horn,  then,  for  example,  if  a  piece  is  in  A,  the  part  for  the  F  horn 
must  be  written  in  E. 

The  post-horn  is  a  straight  tube  four  feet  in  length,  usually  in  the 
key  of  C  or  B-flat,  giving  the  first  five  harmonics.  The  bugle  gives 
the  same  number  of  harmonics,  though  in  both  instruments  the 
lowest  one,  being  dull  in  quality,  is  not  used. 

The  trumpet  was  widely  known  in  ancient  times,  playing  its  part 
in  the  fall  of  Jericho,  and  even  in  the  Trojan  War.  The  Romian  lituus 
was  a  curved  affair  coming  from  Oscan  models,  while  the  tuba  was 
of  Etruscan  origin.  Trumpets  were  martial  and  royal  instruments 
through  the  middle  ages,  and  the  trumpeters'  guild  became  import- 
ant and  influential.  This  guild  existed  down  to  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, when  we  find  the  Duke  of  Saxe- Weimar  having  to  pass  an 
examination  for  admission,  under  just  the  same  rules  that  applied 
to  the  humblest  aspirant. 

The  trumpet  (German,  Trompete;  French,  trompette;  Italian, 
tromba)  differs  from  the  horn  in  having  its  tube  cylindrical,  except 
near  the  bell,  or  enlarged  open  end.  Its  mouthpiece  is  a  hemispheri- 
cal cup  instead  of  a  cone,  and  its  shape  nearly  oblong.  The  trumpet 
in  C  is  eight  feet  long,  like  the  C-alto  horn.  Its  lowest  note  is  the 
first  harmonic,  but  the  real  trumpet  quality  begins  with  the  sec- 
ond. As  with  the  horns,  crooks  of  different  length  maybe  inserted 
to  vary  the  key,  while  the  music  is  written  in  C.  There  are  trum- 
pets transposing  upward  in  F,  E,  E-fiat,  and  D,  that  in  C  sound- 
ing as  written  and  the  one  in  B-flat  transposing  a  tone  downward. 
The  trumpet  compass,  like  that  of  the  horn,  is  rated  at  three 
octaves,  but  it  rarely  extends  over  two  and  a  half. 


448  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

In  Monteverde's  time  we  find  two  kinds  of  trumpet,  —  the  clarino 
(clarion),  a  small,  high  instrument,  and  the  tromba,  larger  and 
deeper.  The  music  of  Bach  and  Handel  shows  this  distinction,  the 
so-called  "Clarinblaser"  taking  the  upper  parts,  while  the  "Princi- 
palblaser"  gave  the  lower  notes.  The  "Clarinblaser"  had  a  shallow 
mouthpiece,  by  the  aid  of  which  they  could  give  the  most  brilliant 
passages.  In  the  classical  period  of  Haydn,  Mozart,  and  Beetho- 
ven, the  trumpet  was  less  prominent.  Wagner  employed  it  well  in 
some  of  his  operas,  though  it  has  not  regained  its  old-time  bril- 
liance. The  trumpet,  like  the  horn,  is  provided  with  a  mute,  a 
pear-shaped  affair  that  can  be  held  in  the  bell  in  place  of  the  per- 
former's fist.  Muted  trumpets  are  not  much  used,  though  Wagner 
had  them  imitate  the  tiny  trumpets  of  the  toy-makers'  guild  in 
"Die  Meistersinger."  The  usual  color  of  the  trumpet  is  bold  and 
martial,  and  its  ringing  fanfares  can  be  heard  easily  through  the 
tones  of  an  entire  orchestra. 

The  older  composers  were  fond  of  writing  duets  for  voice  and 
trumpet.  Such  a  duet,  for  bass,  is  "The  trumpet  shall  sound,"  in 
Handel's  "Messiah."  Another  instance  is  the  song  "Let  the  bright 
seraphim,"  this  time  for  soprano.  The  trumpet  does  not  always 
win  in  such  a  comparison.  Thus  the  great  basso  Lablache  could 
dominate  an  entire  orchestra  with  his  voice.  The  famous  tenor 
Farinelli  once  out-sang  a  trumpet,  and  held  his  tones  much  longer 
than  those  the  trumpeter  could  give.  Mrs.  Billington,  the  famous 
English  soprano,  so  exceeded  the  trumpet  in  volume  of  tone  that 
once  a  conductor  and  trumpeter  almost  came  to  blows  because  of 
the  latter's  inability  to  balance  her  voice. 

The  natural  trumpet  has  been  modified  by  slides  and  by  valves. 
Thomas  Harper,  a  famous  English  trumpeter  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, used  the  slide  trumpet,  in  which  the  tube  has  a  double  joint 
so  that  it  can  be  elongated  slightly,  like  the  trombone,  though  drawn 
toward  the  player.  The  slide  can  be  used  to  correct  certain  harmon- 
ics that  are  out  of  pitch  with  our  scale,  such  as  the  sixth  and  the 
tenth,  which  would  be  the  B-flat  and  the  F-sharp  in  the  series  from 
C,  given  above.  The  valve  trumpet  has  three  valves,  similar  to  those 
of  the  horn.  The  old  florid  passages  can  be  readily  played  with  the 
aid  of  the  valves,  but  the  natural  (open)  tones  are  still  the  best  in 
quality.  Wagner  has  used  a  hcjss  trumpet,  a  valve  instrument  an 


HORNS,  TROIPETS,  AND  CORNETS  449 

octave  deeper  than  the  usual  form;  but  its  tones  lack  the  nobility  of 
the  higher  trumpets. 

The  comet,  known  also  as  the  cornet-a-pistons,  is  a  tapering  brass 
tube  a  little  over  four  feet  in  length,  and  with  a  bore  that  is  notice- 
ably wide  in  proportion.  Its  natural  key  is  B-flat,  though  crooks 
may  be  used  to  set  it  in  A,  A-fiat,  or  G.  It  is  treated  like  the  trans- 
posing instruments  of  the  wood-wind,  having  its  part  written  in  C 
when  the  key  in  which  it  is  set  is  used.  The  small  size  of  the  comet 
makes  it  sound  an  octave  higher  than  the  trumpet  in  the  same  key. 
Thus  when  the  trumpet  and  comet  play  the  same  scale,  the  comet 
is  giving  lower  harmonics,  based  on  a  higher  fundamental  note,  than 
that  of  the  trumpet.  PYom  this  it  follows  that  there  will  be  fewer 
changes  of  blowing  on  the  comet,  and  more  notes,  in  a  given  scale, 
derived  from  a  single  harmonic.  This  is  the  cause  of  the  great 
fluency  shown  by  the  comet  in  comparison  with  the  trumpet.  The 
cometist  can  give  rapid  passages,  trills,  and  other  embellishments 
with  great  ease. 

The  tone-color  of  the  comet  is  below  that  of  the  trumpet  in  value. 
Where  the  trumpet  tones  are  bold  and  clear,  those  of  the  cornet 
sound  blatant  and  vulgar,  although  the  skilful  cometist  will  make 
its  notes  sound  fairly  agreeable.  Comets  are  so  much  easier  to  play 
than  trumpets  that  many  small  orchestras  make  this  substitution; 
but  when  a  really  good  conductor  comes  along,  he  will  insist  on 
banishing  the  cornet  and  recalling  the  trumpet.  The  tone-color  of 
the  comet  is  due  in  part  to  the  width  of  its  tube,  and  in  part  to  its 
mouthpiece,  which  is  a  deeper  cup  than  that  of  the  trumpet.  Some- 
times the  performers  put  a  comet  mouthpiece  on  a  trumpet  tube. 
The  comet  has  been  used  brilliantly  in  Italian  opera.  The  French 
composers  have  at  times  employed  the  instrument  for  its  own  color; 
but  it  has  never  been  really  accepted  in  the  orchestra.  Berlioz, 
with  his  usual  fondness  for  novelty,  tried  comets  and  trumpets  in 
combination.  He  claimed  that  this  gave  a  good  effect,  but  later 
composers  have  not  agreed  with  him.  Meanwhile  the  fluent  char- 
acter of  the  comet  makes  it  a  favorite  at  popular  concerts,  where  it 
has  no  real  rival. 


LH 

TROMBONES  AND  TUBAS 

The  trombone,  like  the  trumpet,  is  of  ancient  origin.  The  prin- 
ciple of  the  slide,  or  elongation  of  tubes  within  tubes,  has  been 
ascribed  to  Tyrtaeus,  in  685  B.C.,  and  even  to  the  mythical  Osuis. 
Such  slides  have  not  been  found  in  ancient  relics,  but  the  early 
writers  describe  them.  Arcadius,  writing  in  a.d.  200,  used  as  a  simile 
the  contrivance  that  could  make  the  aulos  elongate.  Another  an- 
cient passage,  attributed  to  Apuleius,  states  that  when  the  channels 
(canales)  of  the  trumpet  (tuba)  are  moved  in  or  out  by  the  right 
hand,  different  musical  sounds  are  produced. 

At  the  close  of  the  middle  ages,  trombones  were  well  known  in 
Germany,  Hans  Menschel  being  a  celebrated  trombone  maker  in 
1520.  A  century  later,  Praetorius  gave  pictures  of  trombones  in 
sizes  corresponding  to  the  alto,  tenor,  bass,  and  contrabass  instru- 
ment. Bach  used  these  various  sizes,  as  well  as  a  still  smaller  so- 
prano trombone.  The  soprano  trombone  stood  in  B-flat,  its  first 
harmonic  being  a  tone  below  middle  C.  This,  like  the  other  forms, 
was  sometimes  used  to  reenforce  the  voice  part  in  concerted  music. 
The  alto  trombone  was  a  fourth  lower,  in  F.  The  tenor  trombone, 
the  one  usually  employed  now,  is  a  fifth  lower  yet,  in  B-flat,  with  its 
first  harmonic  a  ninth  below  middle  C;  while  the  bass  trombone  is 
in  G,  F,  or  E-flat.  Wagner  called  for  a  contrabass  trombone,  an 
octave  below  the  tenor  form.  With  the  use  of  the  slide,  it  can  get 
down  to  the  lowest  E  on  our  pianos;  and  this  tonal  growl  is  found  in 
the  opera  of  "Siegfried." 

The  name  trombone  (German,  Posaune;  French,  trombone; 
Italian,  trombone)  comes  from  tromba,  and  means  a  large  trumpet, 
just  as  violone  means  a  large  viol.  The  old  English  name  of  sackbut 
is  said  to  have  been  derived  from  the  Moorish  word  sacabuche,  mean- 
ing pump;  and  this  term  is  decidedly  expressive  in  suggesting  the 
player's  motions  as  he  draws  the  slide  in  or  out.  This  slide  is  entirely 
separate  from  the  rest  of  the  instrument.  It  is  a  long  tube  doubled 
on  itself  in  the  form  of  a  narrow  U.   Both  ends  of  the  U  fit  over 


TROMBONES  AND  TUBAS  451 

tubes,  one  of  these  canying  the  mouthpiece  while  the  other  con- 
tinues the  instrument  to  the  bell.  The  sliding  U  can  be  made  to 
lengthen  the  tube.  When  nearest  the  performer,  it  is  in  the  first 
position;  and  he  can  move  it  away  through  six  other  positions,  each 
higher  one  lowering  the  pitch  a  semitone.  He  can  also  give  any  in- 
termediate tone,  or  correct  the  pitch  of  the  sixth  harmonic,  or  create 
glissando  effects. 

The  trombone  most  used  in  orchestral  work  is  the  tenor  instru- 
ment. Its  tube  is  about  nine  feet  long,  giving  the  B-flat  a  ninth  be- 
low middle  C  as  its  first  harmonic.  The  trombone  compass  is  smaller 
than  that  of  the  horn,  running  up  only  two  octaves  from  its  first 
harmonic,  although  solo  players  sometimes  go  higher.  Like  the 
valve  instruments,  the  slide  trombone  can  give  high  notes  in  more 
than  one  way.  Thus,  for  example,  the  B-flat  just  below  middle  C 
could  be  either  the  third  harmonic  from  the  first  position,  or  the 
fourth  harmonic  from  the  fifth  position. 

But  while  the  trombone  cannot  go  so  high  in  proportion  as  the 
horn,  it  can  give  its  fundamental  note,  an  octave  below  the  first 
harmonic,  which  is  impossible  on  the  smaller  brass  instruments. 
Theoretically,  each  of  the  seven  positions  has  its  own  fundamental, 
or  pedal  tone.  The  French  maker  Sax  devised  a  piston  to  produce 
the  notes  between  the  lowest  harmonic  and  the  highest  pedal  tone, 
but  it  is  not  much  used.  On  the  tenor  trombone,  the  pedal  tones 
may  be  obtained  in  reality  only  from  the  first  four  positions.  But 
these  few  tones  are  considered  quite  valuable,  having  a  gruff  and 
ponderous  quality  that  is  very  striking,  and  well  repays  the  per- 
former for  the  rather  difficult  task  of  mastering  them.  Pedal  tones 
on  the  bass  trombone  are  unusually  fierce  in  character. 

The  orchestras  of  the  present  generally  contain  three  tenor  trom- 
bones, though  when  they  are  used  in  three  separate  parts,  the  names 
given  to  them  are  somewhat  misleading.  The  trombone  parts  are 
written  as  they  sound.  The  parts  for  the  smaller  instruments  were 
in  various  clefs,  but  the  tenor  trombone  alone  may  have  its  music  in 
the  alto,  tenor,  or  bass  clef.  The  bass  trombone,  with  its  music 
in  the  bass  clef,  is  called  for  only  when  its  lowest  tones  are  desired. 
It  is  hard  to  play,  as  it  demands  much  breath  from  the  player. 
Composers  therefore  employ  it  for  only  a  few  notes  at  a  time,  with 
frequent  rests. 


452  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

The  use  of  the  slide  makes  fairly  rapid  passages  possible  on  the 
trombone,  especially  if  they  lie  largely  in  one  harmonic  series,  and 
can  be  blown  without  much  change  of  position.  Passages  that  de- 
mand the  same  harmonic  in  different  positions,  or  that  do  not  have 
any  abrupt  change  in  blowing,  ai*e  limited  in  speed  only  by  the 
strength  of  the  performer's  arm  as  he  moves  the  slide.  Rapid  execu- 
tion may  be  used  by  a  solo  player  to  dazzle  an  audience;  but  in 
orchestral  work  the  trombone  is  treated  more  slowly. 

The  trombone  is  a  most  important  instrument  in  picturing  heroic 
emotions,  as  its  tones  in  orchestral  work  may  be  made  grand  and 
noble.  It  may  portray  almost  every  broad  emotion,  from  sacred 
calm  to  the  wildest  strains  of  martial  glory.  It  has  also  a  portentous 
and  threatening  quality,  and  its  sombre  tones  are  thus  excellently 
fitted  for  tragic  effects  also. 

The  threatening  color  of  the  trombone  has  been  well  used  by 
Gluck  to  accompany  the  chorus  of  the  Furies  in  his  "Iphigenie  in 
Tauris."  In  his  "Alceste,"  also,  they  give  a  wrathful  chord  in  re- 
sponse to  Alceste's  defiance  of  the  powers  of  death.  Mozart  ob- 
tained a  similar  effect  in  "Don  Giovanni,"  where  that  hero's  ribald 
invitation  to  the  statue  of  his  victim  to  sup  with  him  brings  an 
unexpected  acceptance,  amid  trombone  chords  of  solemn  warning. 
The  impressive  quality  of  the  trombones  is  present  also  in  the  relig- 
ious service  of  "The  Magic  Flute."  Beethoven  knew  something  of 
the  instrument,  but  did  not  use  it  in  his  earlier  works.  It  entered  the 
symphonic  orchestra  when  he  wrote  his  Fifth  Symphony;  but  here,  as 
in  the  Sixth,  it  does  not  play  an  important  part.  When  Beethoven's 
career  was  nearly  over,  in  1823,  he  put  many  eager  questions  to  a 
visiting  trombone  player,  inquiring  especially  about  the  use  of  the 
instrument  in  high  passages.  His  resultant  knowledge  is  shown  in 
the  Ninth  Symphony,  and  in  a  letter  that  he  wrote  afterwards  to  his 
publisher  Schott.  Having  occasion  to  make  a  complaint  in  the  letter, 
he  ended  it  with  a  few  lines  of  half -humorous  abuse,  and  added  to  his 
signature  a  trombone  trill,  with  the  word  minacciando  (threaten- 
ingly), on  a  bit  of  staff  scored  for  the  sixteen-foot  bass  instrument. 
Mendelssohn  admired  the  trombone  very  much,  reserving  it  for  the 
most  solemn  occasions.  Schubert  obtained  good  effects  by  using  soft 
trombone  tones  against  the  strings.  The  wholesale  Berlioz,  in  pic- 
turing the  Day  of  Judgment  in  his  Requiem,  called  for  four  extra 


TROMBONES  AND  TUBAS  45S 

groups  of  brasses,  including  trombones.  His  score  required  a  com- 
plete band  of  strings,  four  flutes,  two  oboes,  four  clarinets,  eight 
bassoons,  an  English  horn,  twelve  brass  horns,  four  cornets,  sixteen 
tenor  trombones,  two  tubas,  four  ophicleides,  twelve  trumpets, 
sixteen  kettledrums,  two  bass  drums,  three  pairs  of  cymbals,  and  a 
gong,  —  certainly  enough  instruments  to  represent  the  crack  of 
doom.  Trombone  chords  make  an  admirably  triumphant  effect  in 
Ldszt's  "Tasso." 

A  valve  trombone  exists,  which  has  no  slide,  but  obtains  its  scale 
by  means  of  ventils,  or  pistons,  similar  to  those  used  on  the  other 
brass  instruments.  This  is  easier  to  play  than  the  slide  form,  and 
admits  of  more  rapid  execution.  But  this  advantage  is  more  than 
offset  by  its  inferiority  of  tone-color.  For  this  reason  most  orchestras 
do  not  use  it;  and  it  is  found  chiefly  in  military  bands. 

The  modem  tuba  (German,  Tube;  French,  tuba;  Italian,  tuba), 
like  the  trombone,  exists  in  many  sizes.  There  are  six  of  these,  — 
soprano,  alto,  tenor,  baritone,  bass,  and  contrabass.  The  smaller 
members  of  this  family  are  not  found  in  the  orchestra,  but  take  part 
in  military  bands,  especially  in  France,  under  the  name  of  sax- 
horns. The  tenor  tuba,  and  a  small-bored  baritone  instrument,  are 
called  alt-horns.  The  two  lowest  instruments  are  known  as  tubas, 
and  used  in  modem  orchestral  scores. 

The  bass  tuba,  or  bombardon,  is  the  usual  form  employed.  It 
consists  of  a  rather  wide  tapering  brass  tube,  curved  in  a  fairly  short 
and  rounded  oblong,  and  provided  with  a  mouthpiece  like  that  of 
the  trombone.  It  has  the  usual  pistons,  or  valves,  but  is  provided 
with  an  extra  one  that  lowers  the  pitch  a  fourth.  The  four  pistons 
thus  enable  the  player  to  produce  a  scale  of  an  octave  below  any 
given  open  tone  on  the  instrument.  Sometimes  a  combination  of 
pistons  will  throw  a  tone  off  its  proper  pitch,  but  as  the  tuba  is 
played  with  comparatively  loose  lips,  the  performer  can  correct  such 
tones  by  regulating  his  blowing.  In  passing,  it  may  be  said  of  valves 
that  as  a  general  rule  they  injure  tone  quality  somewhat  by  making 
the  air-column  pass  through  too  many  curves,  each  piston  lengthen- 
ing the  tube  by  making  the  air  go  through  a  short  additional  curved 
section  of  tube. 

The  bass  tuba  can  give  the  lowest  E-flat  on  the  piano,  and  stands 
in  the  key  of  that  note.  Its  deeper  tones  are  full,  and  somewhat 


454  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

forcible,  almost  brutal,  in  quality.  Its  compass  extends  upward 
about  two  and  a  half  octaves.  A  form  of  tenor  tuba,  known  as  the 
euphonium,  sounds  a  fifth  higher,  in  the  key  of  B-fiat,  and  is  in  uni- 
son with  the  tenor  trombone.  Its  notes  are  w^,ker  than  those  of 
bombardon.  The  contrabass  tuba  is  an  octave  lower  than  the  eu- 
phonium, and  gives  gruff,  heavy  notes.  Wagner  gave  an  impetus  to 
the  use  of  tubas,  calling  for  five  in  his  Trilogy.  Here  the  two  bass 
tubas  are  in  F  instead  of  E-flat.  The Jjiiba  has  been  used  as  bass  for 
three  trombones  in  four-part  harmony.  It  often  takes  the  bass  part 
of  the  brass  group,  sometimes  in  unison  with  the  deeper  trombones; 
and  it  has  even  been  employed  as  a  bass  for  strings. 

The  tuba  has  not  the  smooth  quality  of  the  trombone,  but  its 
gruff  harshness  can  be  made  very  effective.  Wagner  employed  this 
tone-color  in  the  first  act  of  "Die  Walkiire,"  to  picture  the  fierce 
character  of  Hunding.  The  weary  Siegmund,  driven  by  storm  and 
pursuit,  has  taken  refuge  in  Hunding's  forest  hut.  Soon  the  foot- 
steps of  the  returning  warrior  are  heard  outside;  and  just  as  he  en- 
ters the  door,  the  four  tubas  play  the  short,  pregnant  motive  that 
represents  him  in  the  music.  The  effect  of  these  tubas  by  themselves 
is  impressively  savage.  In  "Siegfried,"  when  the  hero  has  found  the 
lair  of  the  dragon,  that  redoubtable  monster  utters  many  dragonine 
curses  on  the  tubas,  before  meeting  a  well-merited  death. 

The  group  of  keyed  bugles  was  at  one  time  much  in  evidence,  but 
is  not  now  found  in  the  orchestra.  Its  most  prominent  member  was 
the  ophicleide,  used  until  recent  years,  but  now  superseded  by  the 
tuba.  The  name  ophicleide  is  derived  from  two  Greek  words  mean- 
ing key  and  serpent,  which  describe  the  instrument  appropriately, 
as  it  had  a  curved  form  and  was  provided  with  keys.  Alto  ophi- 
cleides  exist,  but  their  quality  was  unpleasant,  and  their  pitch  inac- 
curate. Bass  ophicleides  in  C  and  in  B-flat  were  frequently  em- 
ployed, while  a  contrabass  form,  still  deeper,  demanded  excessive 
lung  power.  The  ophicleide  tone  is  powerful  and  obtrusive,  and 
does  not  blend  well  with  other  instruments,  which  is  one  reason  why 
it  has  given  way  to  the  tubas.  But  it  is  often  found  in  old  scores.  In 
fairly  recent  times  Schumann  used  it  in  his  "Paradise  and  the  Peri"; 
but  its  most  famous  employment  is  in  Mendelssohn's  "Midsum- 
mer Night's  Dream"  music,  where  it  gives  a  comical  picture  of  the 
snores  produced  by  Bottom  the  weaver  in  his  drunken  slumber. 


TROMBONES  AND  TUBAS  455 

The  serpent,  now  entirely  obsolete,  was  a  wooden  tube  a  trifle 
over  eight  feet  long,  provided  with  keys.  The  old  cometto  was  a 
smaller  member  of  the  serpent  family,  and  not,  as  the  imwary  might 
think,  a  comet.  The  serpent  is  named  from  its  shape.  It  was  spar- 
ingly used  by  Beethoven  and  Mendelssohn,  and  Wagner  admitted  it 
only  to  his  earlier  scores.  Its  tone  was  powerful,  but  very  rough;  so 
that  Handel,  on  hearing  it  for  the  first  time,  said  that  he  held  it 
too  unattractive  to  have  been  the  serpent  that  seduced  Eve. 


LIII 

INSTRUMENTS  OF  PERCUSSION 

The  preceding  instruments  have  been  more  or  less  suited  to  me- 
lodic work,  and  have  been  played  by  bowing,  plucking,  or  blowing. 
Besides  these  there  are  a  large  number  of  instruments  which  are 
simply  struck  with  a  drumstick,  hammer,  or  similar  object,  and 
L.  which  are  mostly  incapable  of  melody.  Instruments  that  are  struck 
are  known  as  percussion  instruments,  and  sometimes  alluded  to  in 
an  orchestra  as  the  battery.  The  instruments  of  percussion  may  be 
further  divided  into  those  that  have  a  definite  pitch  and  those  that 
do  not. 

By  far  the  most  important  are  the  kettledrums  (German,  Pauken; 
French,  timbales;  Italian,  timpani).  These  consist  of  hollow  hemi- 
spheres of  copper,  supported  on  tripods,  and  covered  with  a  parch- 
ment called  the  head.  This  head  is  attached  to  the  body  of  the  drum 
by  a  metal  ring,  in  which  are  screws  that  may  be  used  to  tighten  or 
loosen  it.  The  kettledrum,  or  simply  drum,  as  it  is  often  called  in 
the  orchestra,  has  a  definite  pitch,  in  spite  of  its  drum-like  char- 
acter; and  the  screws  are  used  to  tune  it. 

Not  only  does  the  kettledrum  have  pitch,  but  a  skilful  player  can 
make  its  tone  vary  in  quality  also.  Two  pairs  of  drumsticks  come 
with  it,  one  pair  of  wood  and  the  other  with  tips  of  fairly  soft  sponge. 
Sometimes  a  third  pair,  tipped  with  leather,  is  used;  while  Strauss 
once  called  for  birch  rods.  These  different  kinds  of  stick  give  dif- 
ferent sorts  of  tone;  and  the  performer  can  also  vary  the  tone  by 
striking  at  different  places.  A  stroke  near  the  side  gives  the  sharpest 
and  brightest  tone,  while  one  in  the  middle  is  duller.  The  usual  spot 
chosen  is  about  halfway  between  these  two.  The  drum  may  also  be 
muffled,  for  which  purpose  it  is  covered  by  a  piece  of  cloth,  which 
will  deaden  and  shorten  the  tone. 

In  the  orchestra  are  at  least  two  kettledrums,  of  different  sizes 
and  pitches,  played  by  one  performer.  The  larger  drum  can  be 
timed  to  any  note  of  the  fifth  between  F  and  C,  an  octave  below 


1,  SNARE  DRUM;  2.  TRIANGLE;  3.  CHINESE  GONG;  4.  GLOCKENSPIEL;  5.  CASTANETS; 
6.  XYLOPHONE;   7.  KETTLEDRUMS;   8.  BASS  DRUM;   9.  CYMBALS;  10.  CELESTA 


INSTRUMENTS  OF  PERCUSSION  457 

middle  C.  The  smaller  drum  can  be  tuned  to  any  note  from  the 
B-flat  of  the  large  drum  to  the  F  next  above  it.  The  notes  of  the 
dnmis  are  now  written  as  played,  except  for  the  fact  that  no  ac- 
cidentals are  used.  Thus  a  drum  part  in  B-flat  would  use  the  note 
B-natural,  though  "timpani  in  B^"  or  some  such  phrase  would  be 
written  at  the  beginning  of  the  score. 

For  a  long  time  the  drums  were  tuned  to  the  tonic  and  dominant 
of  the  key  used  in  a  piece,  and  employed  merely  for  rhythm  or  noise. 
Thus  Haydn,  in  his  "Surprise  Symphony,"  creates  the  surprise  by 
having  a  forcible  drum-stroke  come  at  the  close  of  a  soft  passage. 
The  drums  can  give  fairly  long  tones,  or  be  stopped  off  short,  and 
are  also  capable  of  sustained  rolls,  or  trills.  When  more  than  two 
drums  are  used,  they  can  give  an  actual  melodic  phrase;  and  this 
can  be  done  even  with  two  notes,  as  shown  in  the  first  symphony  by 
Sibelius.  In  that  work  a  much-used  figure  is  repeated  accurately 
by  two  drums. 

Beethoven  made  the  kettledrum  more  important  than  his  pre- 
decessors did,  sometimes  using  it  on  other  degrees  than  the  tonic  or 
dominant.  Mendelssohn  also  gave  it  various  tunings.  In  his  time 
the  orchestral  composers  began  to  use  three  drums,  the  third  being 
often  tuned  to  the  subdominant,  or  fourth  note  of  the  scale,  the 
dominant  being  the  fifth.  The  thunderstorm  in  the  "Sjnnphonie 
Fantastique  "  of  Berlioz  is  one  of  the  most  famous  uses  of  the  instru- 
ment. Wagner,  who  led  the  way  to  our  complex  modem  orchestra- 
tion, gave  the  kettledrum  a  new  employment  by  using  it  to  empha- 
size suspense  or  dread.  In  a  moment  of  sudden  orchestral  silence, 
he  makes  the  drums  give  soft,  irregular  strokes  that  intensify  the 
emotion,  and  seem  almost  like  anxious  heartbeats.  This  device  is 
found  in  "Lohengrin,"  where  Telramund  drops  dead  at  the  sight  of 
the  holy  sword  of  the  knightly  hero;  in  "The  Flying  Dutchman," 
when  Senta  is  suddenly  confronted  by  that  unfortunate  mariner; 
and  in  "  Die  Gotterdammerung,"  when  Siegfried  is  killed.  Another 
striking  solo  phrase  for  the  kettledrum  is  foimd  in  "Die  Walkiire," 
where  it  echoes  the  rhythm  of  the  Hunding  motive.  The  most 
extensive  use  of  this  instrument  was  made  by  Berlioz,  who  called 
for  sixteen  kettle-drums  and  ten  drummers  in  his  Requiem. 

The  famous  kettledrummer  Pfundt  tried  to  introduce  an  in- 
strument that  could  be  tuned  mechanically,  by  a  rod  that  moved  a 


458  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

system  of  levers;  but  it  has  not  proven  a  success.  Pfundt  also  pub- 
lished a  kettledrum  method.  He  became  able  to  produce  remark- 
ably fine  tones.  Once,  however,  he  created  an  unusual  effect.  He 
was  very  miserly,  and  dunned  a  fellow-performer  immercif ully  for 
the  return  of  a  small  loan.  The  latter  finally  brought  the  money  in 
pennies,  and  spread  them  secretly  around  the  rim  of  the  drum;  so 
that  Pfimdt's  first  stroke  was  followed  by  an  unexpected  shower  of 
coppers. 

The  kettledrummer  has  few  notes  and  long  rests  in  orchestral 
music.  He  should  count  these,  but  in  practice  he  either  knows  the 
music,  or  has  a  bit  of  it  written  out  to  give  him  the  cue,  or  gets  the 
signal  from  the  conductor.  There  is  a  story  that  the  kettledrummer 
of  Richter's  Vienna  orchestra  could  count  automatically,  which  en- 
abled him  to  go  out  for  refreshment  in  long  pauses  and  return  on 
time;  but  it  sounds  a  little  apocryphal.  There  is  no  real  solo  reper- 
toire for  the  instrument.  Yet  the  English  drummer  Gordon  Cleather 
wrote  a  concerto  for  kettledrums,  and  rapped  it  out  in  front  of  the 
orchestra  on  six  drums  of  various  pitch.  The  German  composer 
Tausch  wrote  a  similar  work  calling  for  five  drums. 

Paderewski  has  perfected  an  affair  that  he  calls  the  tonitruone, 
which  he  has  used  in  some  of  his  works  to  imitate  thunder.  But  the 
new  instrument  has  not  replaced  the  kettledrum  for  this  purpose. 

The  subject  of  storms  suggests  the  wind  machine,  used  by  Richard 
Strauss  in  his  "Don  Quixote."  This  contrivance,  borrowed  from 
the  theatre,  consists  of  a  simple  sheet  of  canvas  held  against  a  re- 
volving cylinder.  As  the  cylinder  increases  in  speed,  the  realistic 
sound  grows  higher  in  pitch,  and  vice  versa.  It  is  used  in  the  passage 
representing  Don  Quixote's  blmdfold  flight  in  the  air. 

The  bass  drum  (German,  grosse  Trommel;  French,  grosse  caisse; 
Italian,  gran  cassa)  has  not  the  definite  pitch  of  the  kettledrum. 
Bass  drums  are  used  for  their  aid  in  a  rhythmic  capacity.  They  are 
played  with  different  sticks,  one  small  and  one  large;  while  the 
French  have  a  stick  called  the  mailloche,  which  is  held  in  the  middle 
by  the  player  and  has  a  knob  on  each  end.  A  roll  on  the  bass  drum 
may  also  be  given  with  the  kettledrum  sticks.  Berlioz,  Verdi,  and 
others  have  tried  to  obtain  definite  pitch  on  the  bass  drum,  but 
without  success. 

The  ordinary  drum,  known  also  as  the  snare-drum  or  side-drum 


INSTRUMENTS  OF  PERCUSSION  459 

(German,  kleine  Trommel;  French,  tambour;  Italian,  tamburo),  can 
be  suitably  used  for  martial  scenes.  It  can  give  both  single  taps  and 
long  rolls,  and  can  aid  in  working  up  great  climaxes,  such  as  the 
scene  of  the  benediction  of  the  poniards  in  Meyerbeer's  "Hugue- 
nots." An  oddly  dull  and  rattling  sound  can  be  produced  by  playing 
with  the  drum-head  somewhat  loosened. 

A  medium-sized  drum  exists,  known  as  the  tenor  drum.  The 
tambourine  (Basque  dnmi)  is  practically  a  very  flat  drum  with  one 
end  open.  It  is  struck  by  the  hand,  though  the  performer  may  vary 
this  effect  by  rubbing  it  with  his  thumb.  It  has  bits  of  metal  at- 
tached, which  give  a  jingling  noise  when  it  is  struck.  The  tambourine 
is  used  in  connection  with  Spanish  or  gypsy  effects,  while  Berlioz 
employed  it  also  in  his  Roman  Carnival  Overture  and  his  "  Childe 
Harold"  Symphony. 

Bells  (German,  Glocken;  French,  cloches;  Italian,  campane)  are 
used,  when  desired,  as  instruments  of  definite  pitch.  ^  Wagner,  in  his 
"Parsifal,"  has  a  striking  four- toned  bell  figure,  but  in  this  case  the 
sounds  come  from  steel  bars  struck  by  hammers.  Some  composers 
have  used  a  piano  note  from  behind  the  scenes  to  give  bell  effects. 
Tschaikovsky's  overture  "  1812,"  which  celebrates  the  Russian  vic- 
tory over  Napoleon,  was  first  given  at  an  outdoor  festival,  with  real 
cathedral  bells  joining  in  the  jubilant  finale.  Long  steel  tubes  are 
often  used  for  bell  notes.  An  actual  bell  may  be  used  in  some  cases; 
but  the  tone  of  a  large  bell  is  not  always  pure. 

The  Glockenspiel,  or  carillon,  is  a  set  of  fiat  steel  plates,  giving  a 
series  of  sweet,  bell-like  tones  when  struck  with  a  mallet.  The  bell- 
harmonica,  in  which  musical  glasses  are  struck,  has  a  somewhat 
similar  tone.  The  Glockenspiel  can  give  entire  melodies,  though  each 
of  its  strips  can  only  sound  a  single  pitch.  Mozart  used  its  saccharine 
tones  in  his  "Magic  Flute";  and  Wagner  called  for  them  in  the 
slumber  scene  of  "Die  Walkiire,"  as  well  as  at  the  entrance  of 
the  toy-makers'  guild  in  "Die  Meistersinger."  The  usual  compass 
of  the  Glockenspiel  is  about  two  octaves,  beginning  an  octave  above 
middle  C,  but  written  an  octave  lower  than  it  soimds. 

The  celesta  is  a  modem  bell  instrument,  looking  much  like  an 
upright  piano  with  the  upper  four  (formerly  five)  piano  octaves. 
Its  keys  are  played  by  hand,  causing  the  hammers,  inside  the  in- 
strument, to  strike  steel  plates  placed  over  wooden  resonators. 


460  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Tschaikovsky  employed  the  celesta  with  good  effect  in  his  "Casse- 
Noisette"  music.  The  dulcitone,  or  typophone,  is  somewhat  like  the 
celesta,  but  less  powerful. 

c/  The  gong,  or  tam-tam,  is  sometimes  heard  with  the  orchestra. 
Like  many  large  bells,  it  does  not  produce  a  pure  tone,  but  gives  a 
note  that  is  blended  with  a  mixture  of  so-called  "by-tones."  Its 
sharp  and  noticeable  effect  has  been  employed  in  representing  any 
sudden  catastrophe.  Soft  strokes  on  the  gong  produce  a  weird  re- 
sult. Meyerbeer  has  called  for  them  in  "Robert  le  Diable,"  to  go 
with  the  rising  of  the  ghostly  nuns;  and  Rossini  used  them  in  "Semi- 
ramide,"  when  the  tomb  of  Ninus  opens  to  show  that  monarch's 
spirit. 

'  Still  another  bell-like  tone  comes  from  the  triangle  (German,  Tri- 
angel;  PYench,  triangle;  Italian,  triangolo).  This  is  a  small  steel  bar 
bent  into  triangular  shape,  which  is  held  on  a  string  and  played  by 
a  pencil-like  rod  from  the  inside.  Its  high,  tinkling  note  has  no  very 
definite  pitch.  It  is  used  whenever  a  tinkling  effect  is  desired,  and 
sometimes  merely  to  mark  rhythm.  Its  proper  place  is  in  rather 
light  musici  though  it  is  found  in  scores  of  Haydn,  Beethoven,  and 
Schumann.  Weber  used  it  to  add  color  to  the  gypsy  scenes  in  his 
"Preciosa."  Its  most  important  occurrence  to  date  is  in  Liszt's 
piano  concerto  in  E-flat,  where  it  starts  a  theme  by  announcing  its 
rhythm  in  solo  notes. 

Cymbals  (German,  Becken;  French,  cymhales;  Italian,  piatti)  con- 
sist of  a  pair  of  round  metallic  plates,  made  of  copper  and  tin,  to  be 
clashed  together  by  the  performer.  They  are  of  Oriental  origin, 
coming  from  either  Turkey  or  Arabia.  Sometimes  they  are  played 
by  the  bass  drummer,  with  one  of  the  pair  of  plates  tied  to  his  in- 
strument; but  a  better  tone  is  produced  if  they  are  held  in  the  hands 
and  struck  against  each  other  slantingly.  Their  notes  are  often  con- 
sidered the  same  as  those  of  the  bass  drum,  which  are  with  a  double 
stem  when  the  cymbals  are  desired  also.  The  loud  tones  of  the  cym- 
bals do  not  last  very  long,  but  they  may  be  stopped  abruptly  if  the 
plates  are  held  against  the  performer's  coat.  Such  loud  strokes  give 
an  excellent  suggestion  of  combat,  or  of  wild  revelry.  Wagner  used 
them  thus  in  the  Venus  scenes  of  "Tannhauser."  In  the  same  place 
he  produced  a  mysterious  tremolo  effect  by  having  the  two  plates 
rattled  together  softly.  Elsewhere  he  has  created  new  effects  by  a 


INSTRUMENTS  OF  PERCUSSION  461 

single  stroke,  and  a  drum-roll  also,  on  a  hanging  cymbal.  The  cjmi- 
bals  give  no  definite  pitch,  as  their  vibrations  are  too  irregular.  In 
the  "Symphonic  Fantastique,"  the  last  note  (if  it  can  be  called  a 
note)  is  a  drumstick  stroke  on  a  hanging  cymbal. 

Castanets,  or  castagnettes,  are  bits  of  ebony  or  boxwood,  to  be 
clicked  together  by  hand.  These,  like  the  tambourines,  are  much 
used  for  Spanish  or  gypsy  music,  or  in  tropical  dances.  They  are 
employed  for  such  suggestions  by  the  composers,  though  they  rarely 
appear  in  the  concert  orchestra.  They  figure  excellently  in  the  dance- 
scene  of  the  second  act  in  Bizet's  beautiful  "Carmen." 

The  xylophone  resembles  the  Glockenspiel,  but  has  its  plates  made 
of  wood  instead  of  steel.  The  xylophone  can  thus  play  melodies;  but 
its  tone-color  is  not  exactly  musical.  Its  first  important  passage  in 
the  orchestra  is  found  in  the  "Danse  Macabre"  of  Saint-Saens,  al- 
ready mentioned  for  several  of  its  instrumental  devices.  In  this 
piece,  which  represents  the  skeletons  dancing  to  the  fiddle  of  Death, 
the  xylophone  is  used  to  represent  the  bones  of  the  skeletons  knock- 
ing together.  Reznicek  called  for  a  xylophone  in  his  "Schlemihl," 
to  aid  in  picturing  revelry. 

With  the  exception  of  the  kettledrum,  the  percussion  instruments 
are  not  held  to  be  a  regular  part  of  the  orchestra.  But  all  large  or- 
chestras have  them,  as  they  are  called  for  in  very  many  modem 
works.  In  the  old  days,  when  musical  beauty  was  its  own  excuse 
for  being,  they  were  not  especially  needed.  But  at  present,  when 
almost  every  composer  is  trying  to  write  programme  music,  and 
picture  some  definite  scene  or  event,  they  have  nearly  all  come 
into  constant  use. 


PART  V 
SPECIAL  TOPICS 


LIV 

SOME  FAMOUS  PIANISTS 

Nearly  two  centuries  ago,  in  a  large  German  city,  a  certain  man 
sat  playing  industriously  at  a  harpsichord,  while  a  second  man  lis- 
tened from  a  concealed  nook.  There  came  from  the  performer's  fin- 
gers a  series  of  beautiful  works,  in  many-voiced  and  orderly  succes- 
sion; but  the  hidden  hearer  did  not  seem  pleased,  and  after  a  time 
he  took  a  secret  but  hurried  departure. 

The  player  was  Bach;  the  listener,  Marchand.  Bach's  works  do 
not  usually  drive  their  hearers  away.  But  Marchand  was  to  have 
met  Bach  in  a  contest  in  harpsichord  playing;  and  after  hearing  his 
rival,  Marchand  knew  that  he  could  not  hold  his  own  in  such  an 
unequal  competition. 

Yet  Marchand  was  rated  highly  in  his  native  France.  Once  he  had 
boasted  that  he  could  add  an  embellishment  to  every  note.  The 
many  turns,  trills,  and  other  fioriture  of  the  eighteenth-century  music 
came  into  being  because  the  clavichord  and  harpsichord  could  not 
sustain  their  tones  for  any  length  of  time.  Any  long-held  note  needed 
to  be  prolonged  by  some  embellishment,  to  prevent  a  period  of  si- 
lence before  the  next  note.  But  embellishments  were  used  also 
because  of  their  decorative  effect. 

Before  Bach's  time,  the  thumb  was  not  generally  used  in  playing, 
and  scales  were  given  by  letting  the  fingers  overpass  one  another. 
When  the  thumb  came  in,  it  was  first  marked  by  an  0,  and  later  by 
an  X,  the  fingers  being  numbered  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 

Carl  Philipp  Emanuel  Bach,  son  of  the  great  John  Sebastian,  was 
a  master  of  expression,  as  is  shown  by  his  book  on  "The  True  Art  of 
Playing  the  Clavier,"  —  the  term  clavier  was  used  to  designate  all 
keyboard  instruments;  but  his  brother,  Johann  Christian  Bach,  who 
settled  in  London,  was  the  real  piano  devotee  of  the  family. 

Handel,  like  Bach,  was  a  masterly  player.  Handel  used  to  con- 
duct his  own  operas  from  the  keyboard  of  a  harpsichord,  as  custom 
then  dictated. 


466  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Domenico  Scarlatti  was  the  pioneer  in  the  early  Italian  school, 
introducing  many  new  effects.  One  of  these  was  cross-hand  work. 
When  he  grew  old  and  fat,  and  unable  to  reach  across  easily,  he 
dropped  the  cross-hand  work  from  his  compositions.  Scarlatti  met 
Handel  at  Venice,  in  one  of  the  usual  competitions.  A  draw  resulted 
at  the  harpsichord,  but  Handel  was  awarded  the  victory  at  the  organ. 
It  is  said  that  after  this  event  Scarlatti  would  cross  himself  when- 
ever he  heard  Handel's  name  mentioned. 

Muzio  Clementi  was  a  leader  among  the  early  pianists,  his 
"Gradus  ad  Pamassum"  being  still  considered  a  valuable  training 
in  technique  for  the  student. 

Mozart  was  a  child  prodigy  in  piano  playing  as  well  as  composing, 
and  traveled  about  with  his  sister,  under  paternal  care,  giving  con- 
certs when  only  six  years  old.  When  he  reached  the  age  of  twenty, 
one  critic  said  of  him,  "Mozart  plays  with  great  power,  and  reads 
whatever  is  put  before  him;  but  that  is  all  that  can  be  said.  Beecke 
is  far  greater."  Later  on,  however,  Rieder  speaks  of  Mozart's  bold 
flights  of  fancy,  "heavenly  harmonies,"  and  skill  in  improvisation. 
Mozart  and  Clementi  indulged  in  one  of  the  usual  competitions, 
after  which  the  latter  set  to  work  to  imite  Mozart's  "singing  touch" 
with  his  own  technical  skill. 

A  concert  given  by  Mozart  at  Mantua  shows  that  genius  was  ex- 
pected to  display  itself  in  many  ways.  The  programme  included  a 
symphony  of  his  own ;  a  piano  concerto  to  be  read  by  him  at  sight;  a 
sonata  to  which  he  should  add  variations,  with  repeat  in  a  new  key; 
the  words  of  a  song,  which  he  should  sing,  improvising  both  melody 
and  accompaniment;  themes  given  by  the  audience,  upon  which  he 
would  make  a  sonata  and  a  fugue;  a  trio  for  which  he  would  im- 
provise the  violin  part;  and  another  of  his  symphonies. 

Franz  Duschek  was  a  Viennese  pianist  of  the  Mozart  school.  An- 
other was  Anton  Eberl,  who  imitated  Mozart's  style  of  composition 
so  well  that  his  works  were  sometimes  said  to  be  by  Mozart. 

Another  of  this  school  was  Johann  Nepomuk  Hummel,  who  stud- 
ied with  Mozart  when  young.  Hummel  once  visited  John  Field  in 
St.  Petersburg.  As  his  name  was  not  announced,  he  pretended  to 
be  merely  a  humble  stranger,  anxious  to  hear  the  great  Field.  The 
latter  played  for  a  time,  and  then  thought  of  having  some  amuse- 
ment by  making  his  visitor  play.  Field  expected  the  strumming  and 


SOME  FAMOUS  PIANISTS  467 

stumbling  of  some  fourth-rater;  but  instead,  he  heard  a  most  bril- 
liant performance,  which  made  him  cry  out,  "You  must  be  Hum- 
mel." Field  played  in  a  rather  suave  fashion,  well  suited  to  the 
smooth  style  of  his  own  nocturnes. 

Beethoven  displayed  the  breadth  of  the  Clementi  school.  He 
showed  passionate  strength,  and  made  technique  a  means  to  an  end. 
Beethoven  improvised  wonderfully,  and  the  passing  nature  of  his 
extemporizations  must  be  a  great  loss  to  art. 

Daniel  Steibelt  was  a  precocious  virtuoso.  His  later  show-pieces 
have  caused  him  to  be  called  a  charlatan,  but  he  had  real  technique. 
Once  he  challenged  Beethoven  to  a  contest;  but  he  ran  away  after 
hearing  the  great  composer  play. 

Johann  Ladislaus  Dussek  was  the  first  to  sit  sidewise  on  the  stage. 
He  introduced  the  harmonica,  or  set  of  musical  glasses  invented  by 
Benjamin  Franklin. 

Johann  Baptist  Cramer  was  Beethoven's  favorite,  —  perhaps  be- 
cause he  devoted  himself  to  Beethoven's  works.  Cramer  showed 
enough  spirit  at  first,  but  when  he  grew  older  his  work  was  called 
"dry,  wooden,  harsh,  and  without  cantilena." 

Joseph  Woelfl,  another  rival  of  Beethoven,  had  very  large  hands. 
He,  too,  could  extemporize  readily;  and  once,  when  a  passing  band 
disturbed  his  tempo,  he  changed  the  rh5rthm  to  suit  that  of  the  band, 
and  kept  with  it  until  it  was  out  of  hearing.  Czemy  spoke  of 
"Woelfl,  distinguished  for  bravura  playing;  Gelinek,  popular  be- 
cause of  his  brilliant  and  elegant  execution;  and  Lipansky,  a  great 
sight  reader,  renowned  for  his  playing  of  the  Bach  fugues." 

Czerny  was  a  good  pianist,  but  better  known  as  a  teacher,  as  his 
much-used  "Velocity  School"  would  indicate.  Among  his  pupils 
were  Liszt,  Thalberg,  and  Queen  Victoria. 

Ferdinand  Ries,  Beethoven's  pupil,  adopted  his  master's  powerful 
methods  of  expression.  The  critics  often  spoke  of  his  romantic  fire, 
but  his  emphatic  manner  led  one  of  them  to  call  him  "a  woodchopper 
at  the  piano."  Ries  composed  sonatas  and  concertos,  and  wrote  in- 
teresting reminiscences  of  Beethoven. 

Francesco  Pollini  was  a  Mozart  pupil  who  became  prominent  in 
Italy. 

Kalkbrenner  was  another  child  prodigy,  and  grew  up  into  a  bril- 
liant, if  rather  mechanical,  performer.   The  Englishman  Cipriani 


468  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Potter  excelled  him  in  expressive  power.  Kalkbrenner  invented 
a  guide-bar  to  support  the  wrist,  but  it  was  not  of  great  use.  Me- 
chanical aids  to  the  hand  have  never  seemed  really  effective.  Schu- 
mann tried  to  strengthen  his  fourth  fingers  by  a  puUey-and-weight 
system,  but  only  succeeded  in  injuring  his  hand.  This  was  the 
world's  gain,  as  it  drove  him  into  composition.  Few  pianists  excel 
in  this  field,  though  Liszt  and  Rubinstein  managed  to  do  so. 
Usually  the  pianist  is  too  busy  to  compose  well,  while  the  composer 
does  not  play  enough  to  be  a  great  pianist.  The  latter  case  is  illus- 
trated by  Schubert,  who  has  been  mentioned  as  breaking  down 
several  times  in  one  of  his  own  fantasias. 

Ignaz  Moscheles,  who  lived  until  1870,  was  held  foremost  in  his 
day.  He  was  precise,  exact,  and  vigorous  in  his  playing,  with  ac- 
curate attention  to  rhythm  and  accent.  These  qualities  were  well 
suited  to  the  more  important  classics,  which  he  favored.  He  could 
not  appreciate  the  nuances  of  the  romantic  school,  as  exemplified  by 
Chopin  and  Liszt.  Mendelssohn  was  one  of  his  pupils  and  admirers. 

Chopin's  playing  was  essentially  soft  and  delicate.  Even  in  his 
moments  of  fiery  ardor,  his  fortissimo  was  less  than  that  of  Moscheles, 
and  much  less  than  Liszt's.  A  critic  called  Chopin's  performance 
light  and  airy,  and  said  that  his  fingers  "seemed  to  glide  sidewise, 
as  if  all  technique  were  a  glissando."  Chopin  was  naturally  a  master 
of  the  ruhato  that  his  works  demand,  —  an  expressive  retarding  or 
hurrying  of  the  melody  over  an  accompaniment  that  goes  on  stead- 
ily. In  playing,  as  well  as  by  his  compositions,  he  fairly  earned  the 
title  of  "the  Poet  of  the  Piano." 

Stephen  Heller  was  another  performer  of  excessive  refinement. 
He  was  too  sensitively  organized  to  be  a  steady  success  in  public, 
but  when  in  proper  mood  he  played  with  much  grace  and  vivacity. 
Like  nearly  all  the  pianists,  he  composed  for  his  instrument,  pro- 
ducing works  that  show  much  sentiment  and  poetry. 

Adolf  Henselt  was  a  pianist  of  phenomenal  power  and  expression. 
His  legato  was  remarkably  good,  and  he  composed  special  studies 
to  develop  a  large  reach  in  this  style.  His  other  works  include  a 
concerto,  many  excellent  etudes,  and  some  attractive  solo  pieces. 
He  was  always  nervous  at  concerts,  and  retired  from  public  playing 
in  later  life.  When  appearing  with  an  orchestra,  he  would  rush  on 
at  the  last  instant;  and  once  he  caused  great  amusement  by  forget- 


SOME  FAMOUS  PIANISTS  469 

ting  to  leave  his  cigar  behind.  Henselt  was  a  great  Bach  player,  and 
used  to  practise  that  master's  fugues  with  the  piano  strings  muffled 
by  quills.  When  young,  he  despaired  of  success  on  hearing  Thal- 
berg's  "singing  tone";  but  he  soon  set  to  work  and  acquired  it  him- 
self. 

Alexander  Dreyschock's  repertoire  was  limited  mostly  to  his  own 
works,  and  these  showed  display  rather  than  depth.  He  excelled  in 
handling  tremendously  difficult  passages  in  thirds,  sixths,  or  octaves. 
He  became  very  proficient  in  works  for  the  left  hand  alone. 

Sigismund  Thalberg  was  another  who  devoted  himself  largely  to 
his  own  works.  In  his  case,  however,  the  compositions  were  expres- 
sive enough.  He  inclined  somewhat  to  the  light  type  known  as 
salon  music,  but  he  excelled  in  both  melodic  and  brilliant  passages. 
He  could  embroider  accompaniment  about  a  melody  with  such  skill 
that  it  seemed  as  if  he  must  have  three  hands.  He  became  an  idol 
of  the  matinee  girls.  His  "Art  du  Chant  applique  au  Piano"  is  a 
valuable  method  even  now. 

The  greatest  of  all  pianists  was  undoubtedly  Franz  Liszt.  His  own 
works  have  become  standards  of  difficult  piano  execution.  "In 
comparison  with  Liszt,"  wrote  Tausig,  "we  other  artists  are  all 
blockheads."  A  French  critic  said,  "Thalberg  is  the  first  pianist, 
but  Liszt  is  the  only  one."  His  wild  power  shocked  the  conserva- 
tives; and  we  find  Mendelssohn  calling  his  performances  "a  heathen 
scandal,  in  both  the  glorious  and  the  objectionable  sense  of  the 
term."  On  the  other  hand,  Rubinstein  said,  "Liszt  plays  like  a  god, 
Thalberg  like  a  grocer."  Rubinstein  knew  of  Liszt's  prowess  by 
experience.  When  the  Russian  showed  Liszt  his  manuscript  Fan- 
tasie  for  two  pianos,  the  latter  suggested  that  they  play  it  at  a  cer- 
tain social  gathering.  After  the  guests  were  assembled,  Liszt  looked 
over  the  manuscript  casually  for  a  few  moments.  When  the  per- 
formance began,  the  crowd  was  divided  equally  about  the  two 
artists;  but  before  it  ended,  every  one  present  was  watching  Liszt, 
and  Rubinstein  found  himself  left  alone.  On  another  occasion 
Grieg  brought  a  new  violin  sonata  to  Liszt,  and  was  astonished  by 
hearing  him  read  it  off  at  once,  adding  the  violin  part  to  the  piano 
accompaniment,  and  bringing  it  out  with  the  most  exquisite  balance. 

Liszt's  style  has  been  aptly  termed  the  orchestration  of  the  piano. 
It  is  well  shown  by  some  of  his  song  transcriptions  for  piano,  which 


470  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

have  broad  sweeps  of  melody  combined  with  great  antiphonal 
effects  for  accompaniment.  His  original  works,  too,  show  the  great- 
ness of  the  new  style,  whether  in  the  broadly  powerful  sonata  or  the 
more  delicate  "Sermon  to  the  Birds." 

Liszt  was  a  great  admirer  of  Paganini,  and  did  for  piano  what 
Paganini  did  for  violin,  —  that  is,  wrote  pieces  of  such  brilliance 
and  difficulty  that  his  successors  have  sometimes  been  hardly 
able  to  master  them.  Liszt's  hands  were  not  unduly  large,  but  the 
rapidity  of  his  skips  made  some  of  his  hearers  think  that  he  had  an 
unheard-of  reach.  In  1839,  Liszt  employed  the  words  "piano 
recitals "  as  a  new  title  for  his  solo  concerts. 

As  stated  in  a  preceding  chapter,  Liszt  always  made  it  a  point  to 
uphold  the  dignity  of  the  musician's  position.  But  the  day  had  gone 
by  when  it  was  possible  for  geniuses  to  receive  the  indignities  that 
were  heaped  upon  Mozart.  When  Princess  Mettemich  asked  Liszt 
if  he  had  done  well  on  a  certain  tour,  and  he  replied,  "Madame,  I 
am  in  music,  not  business,"  the  remark  was  not  nearly  so  bold  as  if 
it  had  been  made  six  or  seven  decades  earlier.  The  French  Revolu- 
tion and  the  disturbances  of  1848  had  helped  individual  freedom. 
Beethoven  was  far  more  independent  in  reality;  and  when  some  one 
talked  during  a  duet  given  by  him  and  Ries  at  Count  Browne's 
house,  he  stopped  abruptly,  and  said,  "I  play  no  more  for  such 
hogs." 

Henri  Herz  was  one  of  the  first  great  pianists  to  tour  America. 
He  played  his  own  works  for  the  most  part,  which  were  superficially 
brilliant.  Once,  at  Baltimore,  he  expressed  a  willingness  to  im- 
provise upon  themes  given  by  the  audience;  but  trouble  arose,  for 
several  dozen  people  tried  to  give  him  their  favorite  theme  by 
whistling,  singing,  or  shouting  it.  In  New  Orleans  he  arranged  a 
piece  for  eight  pianos  and  sixteen  performers.  When  one  of  the 
players  did  not  appear  in  time  for  the  concert,  he  impressed  the 
services  of  a  lady  from  one  of  the  boxes.  She  said  she  could  not  play, 
but  he  told  her  that  she  would  only  need  to  go  through  the  motions. 
But  he  forgot  a  certain  passage  where  all  parts  had  a  rest;  and  the 
audience  was  pleasantly  surprised  by  seeing  her  continue  in  dumb 
show  while  the  other  players  were  silent. 

Gottschalk  was  more  successful  in  meeting  a  similar  difficulty  at 
San  Francisco.  One  of  his  fourteen  performers  fell  ill,  and  was  re- 


SOME  FAMOUS  PIANISTS  471 

placed  by  an  insistent  substitute  who  could  not  play  at  all  well.  In 
order  to  avoid  trouble,  Gottschalk  had  the  hammers  removed  from 
the  substitute's  piano  just  before  the  concert.  Gottschalk  played 
in  a  romantic  style  well  suited  to  his  own  works,  which  were  mostly 
exotic  tone-pictures  of  peculiar  charm,  such  as  "Le  Bananier," 
"La  Savane,"  and  so  on. 

But  the  greatest  pianist  to  tour  America  was  Rubinstein.  He 
was  a  player  of  leonine  temperament,  and  showed  the  most  tremen- 
dous emotional  power.  He  was  not  always  accurate;  and  when  a  lady 
auditor  once  began  to  cover  him  with  gushing  adulation,  he  re- 
marked, "Madame,  I  could  give  another  concert  with  the  notes  I 
left  out."  When  he  forgot  parts  of  his  selections,  he  would  some- 
times proceed  to  improvise  until  he  could  get  back  to  a  later  section 
of  the  piece  in  question.  He  made  various  tours  with  the  violinist 
Wieniawski.  Once,  in  Boston,  the  pair  drew  a  very  small  audience; 
and  on  being  asked  if  they  would  return  for  another  concert,  Wie- 
niawski rephed,  "  We  fear  that  if  we  did  so  we  should  get  out  of  the 
habit  of  playing  in  public."  But  they  returned  after  all,  and  had  the 
pleasure  of  appearing  before  a  much  larger  audience.  Rubinstein's 
brother  Nicolai  was  a  great  pianist  also,  as  well  as  a  conductor  and 
composer. 

Theodor  Leschetizky,  known  as  a  world-famous  teacher,  was 
associated  with  Rubinstein  at  first,  and  toured  Europe  before  set- 
tling in  Vienna.  He  played  his  own  pieces,  among  others. 

Hans  von  Billow  was  a  pupil  of  Liszt  who  became  renowned 
partly  by  playing  his  master's  works;  but  his  taste  was  eclectic,  and 
he  could  excel  in  all  schools.  His  technique  was  admirable,  and  his 
remarkable  memory  was  of  great  service  to  him.  He  arranged  his 
programmes  in  a  way  that  almost  always  helped  to  improve  popular 
knowledge  and  taste.  It  is  an  interesting  physiological  fact  that  he 
was  unmusical  during  childhood,  his  musical  taste  appearing  at  the 
age  of  nine,  after  he  had  received  a  severe  blow  on  the  head.  This 
blow,  it  was  afterwards  found,  resulted  in  some  sort  of  lesion  on  his 
brain,  which  must  have  had  the  effect  of  making  it  sensitive  to 
vibrations.  It  would  be  hasty  to  adopt  a  rule  that  unmusical  people 
should  be  knocked  on  the  head;  but  in  this  case  the  blow  seemingly 
changed  its  victim  into  a  music-lover. 

Carl  Tausig,  the  son  of  a  pianist,  was  Liszt's  best  pupil,  and  gained 


472  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

such  astonishing  control  over  the  keyboard  that  he  actually  out- 
shone his  master  in  certain  cases.  Tausig  was  a  thorough  musician 
in  the  best  sense  of  the  word,  endowed  with  a  sympathetic  touch, 
passionate  power  of  expression,  and  real  artistic  balance.  His  tech- 
nique was  so  remarkable  that  Liszt  once  called  him  "the  infallible, 
with  fingers  of  brass."  When  an  ambitious  young  pianist  once 
played  rather  poorly  for  Liszt,  the  latter  exclaimed,  "Such  playing! 
And  for  me,  who  have  heard  Tausig  so  often!"  Cosima,  afterwards 
Mme.  Wagner,  said  of  Tausig,  "He  has  no  touch,  no  individuality; 
he  is  a  caricature  of  Liszt."  But  this  was  in  Tausig's  early  student 
days,  before  he  matured;  and  no  doubt  Cosima  was  partial  to  Liszt 
because  he  was  her  father.  Tausig  died  at  the  age  of  thirty. 

William  Mason  deserves  mention  for  his  valuable  work  in  raising 
the  taste  of  our  own  country.  After  study  with  Moscheles,  Drey- 
schock,  and  Liszt,  he  made  a  well-deserved  name  by  his  playing  and 
teaching. 

A  curiosity  among  pianists  is  Count  Geza  Zichy,  of  Hungary. 
When  seventeen  years  old,  he  lost  his  right  arm  in  a  hunting  acci- 
dent. But  his  love  for  music  did  not  let  this  prevent  him  from  be- 
coming a  famous  pianist.  He  studied  with  Liszt  until  he  became 
a  great  artist.  The  repertoire  of  music  for  the  left  hand  is  fairly 
large;  and  he  increased  it  by  writing  a  number  of  left-hand  pieces 
for  his  own  use. 

Those  pianists  now  before  the  public  may  well  be  left  to  the  tender 
mercies  of  the  critics.  Some  of  them  grow  famous  as  specialists  in  the 
works  of  one  composer,  like  De  Pachmann,  who  prefers  Chopin's 
works.  Some,  like  Rosenthal  and  Godowski,  are  in  the  virtuoso 
class  because  of  their  astounding  mastery  of  technique,  although 
they  may  not  be  lacking  in  expressive  power.  Others,  like  Busoni, 
are  best  in  intellectual  and  classical  works.  Paderewski's  greatness 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  he  is  not  a  specialist,  but  succeeds  in  all 
schools  and  styles. 

Among  the  women  pianists,  Clara  Schumann  won  high  regard, 
not  alone  for  her  ability  as  a  performer,  but  for  her  service  in  making 
her  husband's  works  known  to  the  public.  Ernst  Pauer,  himself  a 
great  performer,  made  a  list  of  the  twelve  greatest  pianists  at  the 
middle  of  last  century,  and  included  three  women,  —  Clara  Schu- 
mann, Mme.  Clauss-Szavardy,  and  Arabella  Goddard.  Miss  God- 


SOME  FAMOUS  PIANISTS  473 

dard  married  her  teacher,  Davison;  which  made  "Punch"  assert 
that  her  life's  harmony  was  transposed  from  G  to  D,  in  accordance 
with  her  initials.  Davison  devoted  himself  to  furthering  her  cause; 
and  a  Paris  wit  declared  that  whenever  a  pianist  started  to  cross 
the  channel  to  England,  Davison  would  appear  on  the  Dover  cliffs, 
and  shout,  "No  more  pianists  needed  here;  we  have  Arabella  God- 
dard." 

To-day  there  are  many  well-known  women  pianists.  Katharine 
Goodson,  Helen  Hopekirk,  Olga  Samaroff,  Antoinette  Szumowska, 
and  Germaine  Schnitzer  are  but  a  few  of  the  most  prominent  names. 
The  leader  of  the  older  generation  is  Teresa  Carreiio,  noted  for  her 
fiery  brilliance  of  expression  and  her  devotion  to  the  works  of  Mac- 
Dowell,  who  studied  with  her  in  his  younger  days. 

In  bringing  this  very  incomplete  list  to  a  close,  one  may  be  par- 
doned for  advising  the  hearer  to  seek  breadth  of  vision.  Not  all 
pianists  are  alike.  Some  have  one  virtue,  some  another;  and  if  we 
are  taught  to  give  even  the  devil  his  due,  we  should  certainly  make 
it  our  duty  to  give  any  pianist  full  credit  for  whatever  good  qualities 
he  may  have.  The  performer  may  be  limited  to  one  school  or  style; 
but  the  listener  should  make  himself  able  to  appreciate  the  good 
points  of  all. 


LV 

SOME  FAMOUS  SINGERS 

A  LITTLE  over  two  centuries  ago,  a  young  student  of  singing  went 
to  a  famous  Italian  teacher  for  lessons.  The  teacher  accepted  the 
pupil,  and  wrote  him  out  a  set  of  exercises  for  practice.  Although 
these  exercises  covered  no  more  than  a  single  page,  the  pupil  was 
kept  at  them  for  a  year.  At  length  he  mustered  up  courage  enough 
to  ask,  "When  may  I  sing?"  "Not  yet,"  was  the  reply,  and  more 
work  on  the  exercises  followed.  In  another  year  the  pupil  repeated 
his  query,  but  received  the  same  answer, —  "Not  yet."  Still  a  third 
year  was  spent  on  the  exercise  sheet,  sung  with  syllables  instead  of 
vowels.  Again  came  the  question,  "When  may  I  sing?"  This  time 
the  teacher  answered,  "You  are  now  the  greatest  singer  in  Italy." 
The  teacher  was  Porpora,  the  singer  Farinelli.  Some  doubt  has  been 
cast  upon  this  anecdote;  but  it  deserves  to  be  true,  if  only  as  an  ex- 
ample showing  students  how  valuable  it  is  for  them  to  stick  to  their 
exercises. 

Farinelli  sang  in  the  operas  of  Handel,  and  made  a  tremendous 
success  in  England.  An  enthusiastic  woman  once  spoke  of  "One 
God,  one  Church,  and  one  Farinelli."  Yet  he  was  not  the  "only 
one,"  though  perhaps  he  was  the  greatest  of  his  class.  Senesino  was 
another  favorite  in  England,  and  was  made  the  recipient  of  many 
attentions  and  laudatory  verses.  Caffarelli,  too,  grew  famous.  All 
of  these  stars  belonged  to  the  extinct  class  of  male  sopranos,  who 
were  prevented,  by  surgery,  from  having  the  usual  change  of  voice 
during  youth.  One  of  them,  Bemacchi,  founded  a  famous  singing 
school. 

With  the  adulation  that  singers  of  both  sexes  received,  it  was  no 
wonder  that  some  of  them  indulged  in  rivalries  worthy  of  spoiled 
children.  Even  to-day  the  singers  do  not  all  love  one  another  with 
genuine  fervor.  In  Handel's  time,  the  greatest  disagreement  came 
between  the  two  most  famous  sopranos,  Francesca  Cuzzoni  and 
Faustina  Bordoni.  Each  of  these  two  supplemented  an  enthusiastic 


SOME  FAMOUS  SINGERS  475 

estimate  of  her  own  powers  by  a  low  opinion  of  her  rival's;  and  the 
matter  became  so  public  that  the  London  opera-goers  took  sides. 
The  two  principals  actually  came  to  blows,  and  bore  marks  of  each 
other's  prowess  when  separated.  Cuzzoni  finally  held  the  field  alone, 
for  Faustina  married  the  composer  Hasse. 

Cuzzoni  was  imperious  to  all,  but  she  met  her  match  in  Handel. 
Once,  when  he  had  everything  ready  for  her  at  a  certain  rehearsal, 
she  refused  to  go  on.  Handel  held  her  out  of  the  window,  and  threat- 
ened to  drop  her  unless  she  consented  to  sing.  In  her  position  (a  very 
aerial  one)  she  found  herself  unable  to  decline,  and  gave  in  as  grace- 
fully as  she  could.  Such  caprices  on  the  part  of  the  singers  were  only 
a  natural  result  of  great  public  adulation.  Cuzzoni's  popularity  may 
be  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  dress  she  wore  in  "Rodelinda"  was 
adopted  as  a  national  uniform  of  feminine  youth  and  beauty. 

Elizabeth  Weichsel,  better  known  as  Mrs.  Billington,  is  held  to 
have  been  the  greatest  singer  ever  bom  in  England.  Like  Farinelli, 
she  could  out-sing  a  trumpet  and  excel  the  trumpeter  in  length  and 
power  of  tone.  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  painted  her  in  the  attitude  of 
listening  to  an  angel  choir  above  her;  whereupon  Handel  said, 
"That  is  a  mistake;  you  should  have  painted  the  angels  listening 
to  her." 

A  singer  with  an  unusual  range  was  Lucrezia  Agujari,  who  lived 
toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  She  was  probably  the 
highest  soprano  ever  known.  The  ordinary  soprano  singer  can  reach 
the  second  G  above  middle  C.  With  that  G  begins  the  so-called  alt- 
octave,  running  up  to  F-sharp  just  below  the  next  G.  Most  high 
sopranos  think  they  are  doing  very  well  if  they  can  reach  D  or  E  in 
alt  with  a  tone  of  fair  quality.  Agujari  could  sing  not  only  the  alt 
octave,  but  the  one  above  it,  the  altissimo,  as  far  as  F,  —  the  highest 
F  on  the  piano.  Mozart,  who  heard  her,  said  that  these  high  notes 
were  pure  and  of  good  quality. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  Angelica  Catalani  was 
the  leader  of  the  colorature  singers.  She  could  give  embellishments 
a.nd  fiorituri  with  such  ease  that  she  often  sang  ornate  solos  intended 
for  the  violin.  Her  accuracy  in  this  caused  the  Parisians  to  nick- 
name her  "L 'instrument  Catalani.'  She  had  a  most  marvellous 
accuracy,  and  could  sing  six  distinct  intervals  within  the  compass  of 
a  semitone.  She  had  little  artistic  conscience,  and  would  stoop  to 


476  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

almost  anything  to  catch  the  public;  but  her  private  career  was 
marked  by  uprightness  and  generosity. 

Henrietta  Sontag  was  another  famous  singer  of  the  same  period. 
Catalani  said  of  Sontag,  "  She  is  first  in  her  style,  but  her  style  is  not 
the  first."  This  remark  should  have  been  somewhat  of  a  boomerang, 
for  Sontag's  style  was  similar  to  Catalani's. 

Giuditta  Pasta  was  a  more  admirable  artist,  if  not  a  greater 
vocalist.  Her  voice  was  originally  weak,  limited,  and  unattractive; 
but  hard  and  faithful  work  enabled  her  to  obtain  a  compass  of  over 
two  octaves  and  a  rich  fulness  of  tone.  She  never  entirely  equalized 
all  her  notes;  but  she  gave  them  a  dramatic  significance  far  beyond 
the  power  of  even  those  who  were  endowed  with  better  voices.  She 
was  the  first  to  introduce  real  acting  into  opera,  the  most  conven- 
tional gestures  having  served  before  her  advent. 

Mme.  Maria  Malibran  and  Mme.  Pauline  Viardot  were  both 
daughters  of  Manuel  Garcia  the  elder,  and  sisters  of  the  younger 
man  of  that  name.  All  four  were  famous  singers.  The  father  was 
exceptionally  long-lived,  dying  in  the  twentieth  century  at  the  age 
of  a  hundred  and  one. 

The  elder  Garcia  was  a  very  severe  disciplinarian,  and  sometimes 
would  even  beat  his  daughters.  The  neighbors  occasionally  heard 
shrieks  issuing  from  the  singer's  home;  but  they  shrugged  their 
shoulders  and  said,  "  It  is  only  Monsieur  Garcia  teaching  his  daugh- 
ters to  sing." 

i  Maria's  debut  was  brought  about  by  his  severity.  When  she  was 
seventeen,  he  was  called  upon  to  sing  in  a  certain  performance  of 
Rossini's  "Otello";  and  he  insisted  on  her  taking  the  part  of  Des- 
demona.  She  declined,  because  little  time  was  left  for  her  to  prepare 
for  it;  but  he  made  her  go  on,  and  threatened  that  if  she  did  not  do 
her  best  he  would  use  his  weapon,  which  was  a  real  dagger.  Naturally 
she  obeyed;  but  in  the  last  act,  which  he  gave  with  great  intensity, 
she  had  a  renewed  access  of  fear.  She  cried  out  in  terror,  "  For  God's 
sake,  do  not  kill  me";  but  the  audience  thought  this  only  a  bit  of 
realistic  acting,  and  applauded  her  wildly. 

Malibran's  voice  was  very  intractable,  but  her  father's  excellent 
tuition  enabled  her  to  overcome  its  defects,  with  the  aid  of  constant 
practice.  She  had  a  very  large  range,  covering  both  soprano  and 
alto  registers;  and  this  enabled  her  to  charm  by  variety  of  effect. 


SOME  FAMOUS  SINGERS  477 

Her  marriage  to  M.  Malibran,  in  New  York,  proved  unfortunate, 
as  he  merely  wished  to  use  her  money  in  paying  his  debts.  After  his 
death  she  married  the  violinist  De  Beriot,  with  happier  results;  but 
her  career  was  soon  cut  short  by  a  fatal  fall  from  a  horse. 

While  she  was  undergoing  matrimonial  misadventures,  her  father 
too  met  with  a  financial  reverse.  While  travelling  in  Mexico,  he  and 
his  family  were  "held  up"  by  brigands,  and  relieved  of  the  proceeds 
of  their  tour.  To  add  insult  to  injurj^  the  brigands  made  the  famous 
tenor  sing  for  them  before  they  would  release  him. 

In  spite  of  Maria's  earnest  work,  Pauline  was  her  father's  favorite 
child.  He  said  once,  "Pauline  can  be  guided  by  a  thread  of  silk, 
where  Maria  needs  a  hand  of  iron."  Pauline's  voice,  like  her  sister's, 
seemed  to  combine  soprano  and  contralto  registers,  though  the 
upper  notes  had  to  be  built  out  of  nothing  by  hard  work.  Her  sing- 
ing, like  that  of  her  sister,  was  very  dramatic  in  character.  She  be- 
cam.e  known  as  a  teacher  and  composer.  Her  musical  intelligence 
was  remarkable,  and  she  sang  at  sight  a  r61e  in  an  act  of  "Tristan 
and  Isolde"  when  the  other  artists  engaged  for  the  work  were  giving 
it  up  as  being  too  difficult. 

Mme.  Tietjens  was  another  singer  of  the  dramatic  type  who 
flourished  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century. 

Giulietta  Grisi  was  a  member  of  the  famous  "Puritani"  quartet, 
that  made  Bellini's  opera  of  that  name  well  known  in  Paris.  The 
other  singers  in  this  remarkable  group  were  Rubini  the  tenor,  Tam- 
burini  the  baritone,  and  Lablache,  greatest  of  bassos.  Grisi  was  not 
commandingly  original,  but  she  sang  and  acted  with  spirit  and 
ability.  She  married  Mario,  the  tenor  who  soon  replaced  Rubini  in 
the  quartet.  When  the  Czar  met  her  with  her  children,  he  asked  if 
they  were  "little  Grisettes";  whereupon  she  repUed,  "No,  sire, 
little  Marionettes."  Grisi  was  delicate  as  a  child,  but  she  became 
strong  later,  perhaps  largely  from  the  gymnastics  of  singing;  and 
in  a  career  of  over  thirty-five  years  she  scarcely  ever  had  to  cancel 
a  performance  because  of  illness. 

Lablache  had  the  most  tremendous  of  bass  voices,  and  could  roar 
down  an  entire  orchestra.  His  voice  was  flexible,  too,  as  well  as 
strong;  and  once  he  mimicked  a  soprano,  following  faithfully  all  her 
trills,  turns,  and  other  rapid  embellishments. 

Jenny  Lind  is  known  to  Americans  by  her  very  profitable  trips 


47B  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

under  the  management  of  the  late  (and  great)  Barnum.  Lind  was 
another  example  of  the  value  of  hard  work.  During  her  youth  she 
overworked  her  voice;  and  when  she  came  to  Garcia  for  lessons,  she 
broke  down  in  trying  to  sing  for  him.  He  said,  "  It  would  be  useless 
to  teach  you,  for  you  have  no  voice  left."  She  persuaded  him  to  try 
to  bring  her  voice  back;  but  she  had  to  start  over  at  the  very  begin- 
ning, with  scales,  vocalises,  and  breathing  exercises.  In  ten  months 
the  damage  was  more  than  repaired.  Her  devotion  to  work  is  shown 
by  the  hours  she  spent  in  practising  the  pronunciation  of  one  German 
word,  —  "zerschmettert." 

Mendelssohn  admired  Lind  greatly.  Expecting  her  to  sing  in  his 
"Elijah,"  he  put  into  the  solo  "Hear  ye,  Israel"  a  high  F-sharp,  a 
tone  especially  resonant  in  her  voice.  But  she  could  not  come  after 
all,  and  the  prim  and  precise  Caradori-Allan,  who  replaced  her, 
found  the  solo  "not  ladyhke."  Carlyle  wrote  of  Lind's  performance 
in  "La  Somnambula,"  "She  seemed  to  me  a  very  true,  clean,  gen- 
uine little  creature,  with  a  voice  of  extraordinary  extent.  .  .  .  She 
sang,  acted,  etc.,  with  consummate  fidelity,  but  had  unfortunately 
nothing  but  mere  nonsense  to  sing  or  act. ' '  Carlyle  thus  showed  him- 
self a  better  critic  than  most  authors,  and  a  refreshing  contrast  to 
Ruskin,  who  spoke  of  "The  Mastersingers"  as  "baboon-headed 
stuff." 

The  name  of  Adelina  Patti  brings  memories  of  perennial  farewell 
tours.  She  gave  a  concert  as  recently  as  1908,  which  seems  wonder- 
ful when  one  remembers  that  her  debut  occurred  in  1859.  Such  a 
long  career  is  amazing,  and  means  that  the  singer  must  have  taken 
great  care  of  her  health,  besides  having  a  strong  constitution  to  begin 
with.  Patti's  voice,  in  its  prime,  was  of  the  most  bird-like  clearness 
and  flexibility.  She  had  no  very  high  ideals  of  art,  but  as  a  colora- 
ture  singer  she  charmed  two  continents  for  five  decades.  Her  sister 
Carlotta  was  more  dramatic,  but  did  not  have  a  long  career. 

The  health  of  singers  is  a  valuable  commodity  that  demands 
much  care.  They  must  avoid  catching  cold,  and  keep  away  from 
draughts  and  dampness.  Even  the  moisture  of  a  new  house  may 
prove  harmful;  and  the  Spaniards  have  a  saying  that  runs,  "Give 
your  newly  built  house  for  the  first  year  to  your  enemy,  for  the  sec- 
ond to  your  friend,  and  stay  in  it  yourself  only  when  the  third  has 
come."  Many  singers  take  excessive  care  of  their  diet,  though  here 


ADELIXA   PATTI 


SOME  FAMOUS  SINGERS  479 

the  matter  is  an  individual  one.  The  only  general  rule  places  the 
ban  on  hotly  spiced  dishes,  and  on  nuts,  which  cause  huskiness.  Add 
to  incessant  care  the  need  for  constant  practice,  and  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  singer's  career  is  not  an  uninterrupted  round  of  pleasure. 
He  must  act  on  the  proverb  Per  aspera  ad  astra;  and  in  his  case  it 
may  be  taken  to  mean  that  a  rough  voice  will  not  prevent  him  from 
becoming  one  of  the  stars,  if  he  takes  pains  enough. 

Many  singers  are  helped  by  certain  drinks  or  foods  taken  just 
before  performance;  and  a  few  of  these  may  be  mentioned.  In 
Handel's  time  a  warm  drink  spiced  with  fennel  was  very  popular, 
though  tradition  does  not  tell  us  of  what  the  drink  consisted.  Here 
the  warmth  was  probably  the  most  beneficial  factor;  and  a  contem- 
porary singer  uses  in  similar  fashion  a  raw  egg  beaten  into  hot  beef 
tea.  Farinelli  would  often  eat  an  anchovy,  although  the  Italians  as 
a  rule  opposed  salt  fish  before  singing.  Jenny  Lind  often  ate  a  salt 
pickle  before  appearing  in  concert.  Lemon-juice  and  vinegar  have 
been  used  by  some  and  abused  by  others.  Cold  tea  with  lemon  is 
another  prescription.  It  was  said  that  Malibran  sipped  champagne; 
but  in  reality  she  used  merely  an  effervescent  powder.  A  raw  egg, 
either  alone  or  in  sherry,  is  a  favorite  with  many;  and  the  white  of 
the  egg  undoubtedly  soothes  the  throat.  Oysters  have  been  used  for 
a  similar  purpose. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  last  century,  Christine  Nilsson  was  held  by 
some  to  be  a  rival  of  Patti.  Her  voice,  however,  was  of  somewhat 
different  quality,  being  pure  and  appeaUng  where  Patti's  was 
brilliant. 

In  Patti's  early  days  she  found  a  more  formidable  rival  for  popu- 
larity in  Pauline  Lucca,  a  native  of  Vienna.  After  her  first  engage- 
ment, at  Olmutz,  Lucca's  triumphs  began,  in  the  shape  of  serenades 
and  a  torchlight  procession.  After  a  Prague  performance,  she  was 
rather  startled  to  see  an  elderly  man  walk  in  and  kiss  her  on  both 
cheeks;  but  the  man  was  Meyerbeer,  who  had  come  to  give  her  a 
Berlin  engagement.  Here  Lucca  and  Patti  met,  and  became  firm 
friends.  London  gave  Lucca  an  ovation,  and  Berlin  decorated  her 
house  with  flowers;  but  the  climax  came  in  St.  Petersburg,  where 
streets  were  illuminated  in  her  honor,  students  took  out  her  horses 
and  drew  her  carriage  themselves,  the  orchestra  and  audience  gave 
her  presents,  and  even  the  royal  family  sent  her  a  gift  of  jewelry. 


480  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Such  tributes  were  fairiy  earned;  for  Lucca  was  endowed  with  orig- 
inal genius,  and  had  a  sympathetic  voice  that  imparted  vitality 
to  the  tamest  r61e.  Her  expressive  voice  and  impassioned  acting 
made  the  critics  speak  of  her  as  "  transcendentally  human." 

Certain  singers  have  grown  famous  by  being  identified  with  a 
composer.  One  of  these,  Sophie  Amould,  deserves  mention  for  her 
singing  in  Cluck's  operas.  She  displayed  a  wit  and  vivacity  that 
captivated  our  own  Franklin.  When  Piccini  was  brought  to  Paris 
as  a  rival  to  Cluck,  and  both  composers  set  the  same  libretto, 
"Iphigenia  in  Tauris,"  Amould  helped  to  make  Cluck's  work  a 
success.  When  her  rival  in  the  Piccini  work  showed  traces  of  in- 
toxication, it  was  she  who  said, "  This  is  not  Iphigenia  in  Tauris,  but 
Iphigenia  in  Champagne." 

Wilhelmine  Schroeder-Devrient  was  identified  with  the  earlier 
Wagnerian  performances.  She  was  the  first  to  show  the  possibilities 
of  really  dramatic  singing,  and  she  always  made  her  voice  echo  the 
emotion  of  the  text  or  situation.  In  her  early  years  she  scored  a  great 
success  as  Leonora  in  Beethoven's  "Fidelio."  At  first  she  nearly 
broke  down  with  stage  fright,  but  the  audience,  thinking  that  her 
emotion  belonged  to  her  tragic  part,  was  loud  in  its  applause.  She 
evidently  was  not  again  troubled  with  stage  fright.  In  this  opera  she 
has  to  give  the  starving  Florestan  a  crust  of  bread;  and  once,  when 
he  forgot  to  take  it,  she  had  coolness  enough  to  whisper, "  What 's  the 
matter?  Do  you  want  it  buttered?  "  It  is  well  to  get  past  the  days 
of  stage  fright,  but  a  due  amount  of  nervousness  is  not  at  all  bad  if 
it  keeps  the  singer  eager  to  do  the  best  possible  work. 

Lilli  Lehmann  is  now  remembered  by  her  Wagnerian  rSles;  but 
she  excelled  also  in  the  smoother  style  of  Mozart  and  the  Italians, 
and  Paris  critics  gave  high  praise  to  her  slow  coloratura.  Her  Wag- 
nerian career,  like  that  of  the  De  Reszkes,  Nordica,  and  others, 
showed  that  Wagner's  music  did  not  need  to  be  howled,  but  could 
be  given  with  smoothness  and  good  method  as  well  as  expressive 
power. 

Some  of  the  many  Wagnerian  singers  who  deserve  mention  are 
Niemann,  Van  Dyck,  Schott,  Winkelmann,  Fischer,  Scaria,  Brandt, 
Brema,  and  Temina.  Most  devoted  of  them  all,  if  not  absolutely 
the  best  singer,  was  the  full-voiced  Amalia  Matema.  Her  work 
at  Bayreuth  and  elsewhere  was  always  intended  to  further  the 


SOME  FAMOUS  SINGERS  481 

composer's  cause;  and  her  later  poverty,  caused  partly  by  her  gener- 
osity to  needy  relatives,  should  be  a  matter  of  reproach  to  Wagner's 
widow. 

Singers  seem  to  grow  either  very  rich  or  very  poor.  Their  large 
salaries  are  fairly  earned,  not  merely  by  excellence  in  performance, 
but  by  the  long  years  of  faithful  study  that  precede  it.  Some  are 
well-balanced  enough  to  strike  an  average;  but  too  many  are  either 
spendthrifts  or  misers.  The  spendthrifts,  however,  do  more  good 
than  the  miserly  ones.  Once  the  husband  of  a  close-fisted  singer  was 
asked  how  the  pair  spent  their  leisure  hours.  "  We  economize  in  the 
morning,"  was  the  reply,  "and  then  we  have  a  light  lunch  and  go  on 
economizing."  Matema  was  not  one  of  these. 

Among  the  men,  the  English  singers  must  be  given  full  credit  for 
their  excellent  pronunciation.  Incidentally,  we  should  not  attempt 
opera  in  English  until  every  member  of  a  cast  can  manage  that  lan- 
guage without  any  foreign  accent. 

An  early  school  of  ballad-singing  was  well  represented  by  In- 
cledon,  whom  Thackeray  praises  highly  in  "The  Newcomes." 
Braham  exemplified  the  same  school  at  a  later  date,  and  found  an 
easy  method  of  getting  rid  of  his  salary  by  trying  to  manage  an 
opera  company  of  his  own.  A  story  of  Braham  will  illustrate  the 
tricks  sometimes  played  by  memory.  Once  he  could  not  remember 
how  to  begin  "Sally  in  our  alley,"  a  popular  favorite  that  he  had 
sung  hundreds  of  times.  Finally  he  said,  "I've  forgotten  the  first 
line";  whereat  nearly  the  entire  audience  sang  it  at  him.  Such 
lapses  may  come  from  excitement  or  overwork. 

Sims  Reeves  was  another  famous  ballad-singer,  known  also  in 
opera.  His  audiences  could  not  be  sure  of  his  appearance  until  he 
actually  came  on  the  stage;  for  he  would  break  an  engagement  if 
he  were  not  in  best  form.  Another  singer  who  took  good  care  of 
his  voice  was  Brignoli.  Once,  when  a  Boston  audience  applauded 
him  vociferously,  the  manager  suggested  an  encore,  saying  that 
the  public  insisted.  "What  do  I  care,"  replied  BrignoU;  and  he 
pointed  to  his  throat,  saying,  "  This  is  my  capital." 

Singers  are  usually  trained  from  early  youth;  but  they  are  some- 
times discovered  later  in  life.  Such  a  case  was  that  of  the  cab-driver 
Wachtel,  son  of  a  stable-keeper.  Once,  at  an  operatic  performance, 
the  tenor  was  absent  as  one  of  his  arias  became  due.  When  Wachtel 


482  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

said  he  could  sing  the  air,  he  was  taken  to  the  stage;  not  because 
people  believed  him,  but  because  they  thought  it  would  be  a  good 
joke  to  have  fun  at  his  expense.  But  Wachtel  turned  the  joke  upon 
the  others  by  singing  so  well  that  he  was  retained  in  opera.  His 
favorite  r61e  was  "The  Postilion  of  Longjumeau,"  in  which  his  early 
training  as  cab-driver  enabled  him  to  be  wholly  true  to  life. 

One  may  close  this  very  brief  survey  by  an  account  of  the  "re- 
vival," if  not  "discovery,"  of  Barron  Berthald  as  an  opera  singer,  — 
an  event  well  remembered  in  Boston.  The  Metropolitan  company  had 
announced  "Lohengrin."  Rothmiihl  was  to  have  taken  that  celestial 
hero's  part;  but  when  the  time  came,  he  was  not  in  condition  to  ap- 
pear. Alvary  was  sent  for,  but  felt  too  comfortable,  or  too  comatose, 
to  leave  his  room.  Consternation  reigned  after  this,  until  some  one 
remembered  that  Berthald,  who  had  sung  in  "Lohengrin"  six  years 
before,  was  appearing  in  "Bonnie  Prince  Charlie,"  at  the  Castle 
Square  Theatre.  At  once  the  director  rushed  to  that  theatre,  nearly 
a  mile  away,  and  requisitioned  Berthald.  An  understudy  replaced 
him  in  the  light  opera,  and  he  was  bundled  into  a  cab  headed  for  the 
old  Boston  Theatre,  the  home  of  grand  opera  for  many  seasons.  On 
the  way,  Berthald  stated  that  he  had  not  sung  a  note  of  the  role  of 
Lohengrin  for  six  years;  but  the  management  would  not  listen  to 
any  objections,  and  insisted  on  taking  the  chance  that  he  would 
remember  the  part.  He  was  coached  on  the  way,  hurried  into  his 
shining  armor,  and  sent  out  upon  the  stage.  After  only  an  instant's 
hesitation,  he  plunged  into  the  work,  and  carried  it  through  to  the 
end  successfully. 

With  this  partial  list  of  celebrities,  the  singers  may  be  dismissed. 
Those  who  desire  to  pursue  the  subject  farther  will  find  material  of 
recent  date  in  Henry  T.  Finck's  "Success  in  Music";  while  the  older 
celebrities  are  treated  in  H.  C.  Lahee's  "Famous  Singers." 


LVI 

VIOLINISTS  AND   VIOLIN  MUSIC 

The  monodic,  or  harmonic,  style  made  its  appearance  in  opera  by 
about  A.D.  1600.  If  melody  had  not  been  formally  recognized  in 
opera,  it  would  have  forced  itself  to  notice  in  violin  music.  Indeed, 
the  violin  works  began  to  show  themselves  before  the  Florentines 
strove  for  melodic  opera.  Gasparo  da  Salo  and  the  first  Amati  had 
perfected  the  violin  in  the  last  half  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  was 
essentially  a  solo  instrument,  and  composers  naturally  began  to 
write  music  for  it.  Giovanni  Gabrieli  composed  the  earliest  violin 
pieces  that  are  now  known. 

About  1626,  Carlo  Farina  published  five  sets  of  chamber  works, 
containing  little  tone-pictures.  Uccellini,  Neri,  and  Legrenzi  im- 
proved the  repertoire,  the  latter  writing  chamber-sonatas.  The 
chamber-sonata  was  a  dance-suite,  in  which  stately  sarabands  and 
allemandes  alternated  with  the  more  rapid  gavottes  and  gigues. 
Somewhat  in  contrast  was  the  church  sonata,  which  grew  to  con- 
sist of  a  prelude  (often  fugato),  an  allegro,  a  slow  movement,  and  a 
brilliant  finale.  The  violist  Giovanni  Vitali  raised  the  standard  still 
more,  while  his  son  Tommaso  became  a  famous  violinist,  and  com- 
posed striking  sonatas  for  various  combinations. 

The  first  really  great  violinist,  however,  was  Arcangelo  Corelli. 
Before  1685  he  won  immense  renown  as  player,  composer,  and 
teacher.  His  few  known  works  show  real  feeling,  and  an  accurate 
comprehension  of  his  instrument.  He  was  an  artist  of  marked  ex- 
pressive power. 

It  is  said  that  the  German  violinist  Strungk  once  visited  Corelli  to 
hear  him  play.  When  the  Italian  had  finished,  he  politely  asked  his 
guest  to  perform  in  turn.  Strungk  hesitated,  and  then  played  a 
short  piece  in  a  careless  manner,  which  caused  Corelli  to  give  him 
some  friendly  advice  and  say  that  he  might  become  a  good  player  in 
time.  This  was  evidently  what  Strungk  had  planned  for.  He  then 
proceeded  to  astonish  his  host  by  putting  the  strings  out  of  tune. 


484  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

and  playing  with  the  most  amazing  rapidity,  correcting  the  false 
pitch  of  the  strings  by  his  fingering.  The  startled  Corelli  cried  out, 
"Sir,  they  call  me  an  archangel  [Arcangelo];  but  you  must  be  an 
arch-devil." 

Giuseppe  Torelli  belonged  to  the  same  period.  He  helped  Corelli 
to  develop  the  concerto  and  the  concerto  grosso,  in  which  a  single 
instrument  or  a  group  of  instruments  was  played  against  a  concerted 
orchestral  or  other  accompaniment.  Other  Italian  composer-per- 
formers were  Marini,  Fontana,  Laurenti,  and  Antonio  Veracini; 
while  Germany  produced  Briegel,  Schmelzer,  Pesel,  Walther,  and 
others.  Lully  was  a  violinist  when  he  first  won  recognition  in  Paris. 

Giuseppe  Tartini,  who  lived  until  1770,  shared  with  Corelli  the 
honor  of  being  a  violin  pioneer.  He  united  Corelli's  finished  style 
with  more  vigor,  passion,  and  daring;  and  at  the  same  time  he  de- 
veloped a  far  more  advanced  technique  in  handling  embellishments, 
rapid  passages,  and  double-stopping.  He  composed  many  famous 
works. 

Italy  still  continued  to  hold  the  lead  in  the  number  of  famous 
violinists.  From  the  late  sixteenth  to  the  late  eighteenth  century, 
Italy  was  preeminent  in  music,  though  Bach  and  Handel  had  fore- 
shadowed the  coming  of  German  supremacy.  It  was  this  early  ex- 
cellence of  Italy,  in  contrast  to  its  later  sterility,  that  made  Von 
Billow  say,  "Italy  was  the  cradle  of  music,  —  and  remained  the 
cradle." 

The  eighteenth  century  saw  Italy's  leadership  in  the  violin  world 
upheld  by  such  masters  as  Vivaldi,  Francesco  Veracini,  Geminiani, 
Locatelli,  Tessarini,  and  Somis.  Vivaldi  expanded  the  concerto  tc 
orchestral  size.  Geminiani  wrote  an  early  violin  method,  based  on 
Corelli's  ideas.  Veracini  was  an  intense  player  of  the  Tartini  school. 
Locatelli  was  one  of  the  first  to  use  violin  tricks  and  special  tunings 
in  public ;  while  Somis  served  as  a  link  between  the  Italian  and  French 
players.  France  produced  Leclair  and  Guignon,  the  latter  of  whom 
became  unpopular  by  trying  for  a  musical  monopoly.  Germany  was 
the  home  of  Pisendel,  Johann  Graun,  Franz  Benda,  Johann  Stamitz, 
and  the  Italian  Giardini. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  century,  the  leadership  began  to  pass. 
Pugnani  upheld  the  broad  Corelli  school  in  Italy,  while  Nardini 
followed  the  brilliant  Tartini  standards.  Greater  than  either  was 


VIOLINISTS  AND  VIOLIN  MUSIC  485 

Pugnani's  pupil  Viotti,  called  "the  father  of  modern  violin-playing." 
But  Viotti  went  to  Paris,  and  started  a  school  there.  The  members 
of  this  Paris  group  were  Rodolphe  Kreutzer,  the  German-born  artist 
to  whom  Beethoven  dedicated  the  "  Kreutzer  Sonata";  Pierre  Rode, 
of  broad  and  sympathetic  tone;  and  Frangois  Baillot,  Rode's  friend 
and  rival.  The  works  of  these  men  are  of  great  value  to-day,  and 
their  breadth  of  tone  made  them  the  most  artistic  players  of  their 
time.  The  more  showy  technical  side  had  been  represented  by 
Pierre  Gavinies,  called  by  Viotti  "the  French  Tartini."  Italy  had 
an  amazing  technical  virtuoso  in  Lolli,  of  Bergamo.  Leopold  Mozart 
may  be  mentioned  among  the  Germans,  though  he  spent  most  of 
his  later  life  in  guiding  his  precocious  and  famous  son.  Another  Ger- 
man violinist,  of  slightly  later  date,  was  Andreas  Romberg,  com- 
poser of  symphonies  and  other  works. 

The  violin  repertoire  by  this  time  was  of  ample  proportions.  Its 
value,  too,  is  shown  by  the  frequency  with  which  modern  players 
draw  upon  the  old  music  for  their  programmes.  Kreisler  won  a 
great  success  with  Couperin's  "Chanson  Louis  XIII  et  Pavane," 
and  followed  it  by  pieces  from  Pugnani  and  others  of  his  time,  be- 
sides the  usual  Tartini  display.  Ysaye  scored  a  tremendous  triumph 
with  a  Vitali  Chaconne  for  violin  and  organ,  and  supplemented  it 
by  an  interesting  Vivaldi  concerto.  The  old  violin  music  has  nearly 
as  much  classical  value  as  the  fugues  of  Bach  have  in  the  piano  reper- 
toire. 

While  the  Paris  school  developed  expressive  power,  Italy  added 
to  her  celebrities  the  greatest  technical  master  of  the  violin  that 
the  world  has  ever  seen  —  Nicolo  Paganini.  He  was  not  merely  a 
virtuoso,  for  he  showed  sympathy  and  pathos  in  slow  work,  as  well 
as  matchless  brilliance  in  rapid  passages.  His  ups  and  downs  of  life, 
and  his  strange  persecutions,  in  combination  with  his  marvellous 
ability  and  odd  personality,  make  his  life  read  like  a  romance. 

Paganini  was  bom  at  Genoa  in  1782.  He  was  compelled  to  prac- 
tise without  many  periods  of  rest;  and  if  he  had  not  loved  the  violin, 
he  might  have  been  turned  against  it  by  parental  harshness.  As 
it  was,  he  soon  began  to  spend  much  time  and  patience  in  master- 
ing new  difficulties  of  his  own  invention.  This  persistence,  and 
faithful  practice,  were  probably  responsible  for  his  amazing  tech- 
nique.  Yet  many  thought  him  possessed  of  some  special  secret. 


486  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

In  after  life,  while  he  stopped  at  a  certain  hotel,  a  guest  peeped  in 
at  him  to  discover  this  secret;  but  instead  of  finding  anything  un- 
usual, the  observer  saw  only  a  tall,  thin  man  fingering  certain  violin 
chords  repeatedly,  without  using  the  bow.  In  his  later  days,  Paga- 
nini  traded  on  the  reputation  that  the  supposed  secret  gave  him. 
It  is  a  strange  fact  that  he  made  his  pupil  Catarina  Colcagno  play 
with  astonishing  brilliance  when  she  was  only  fifteen;  but  his  own 
great  knowledge  of  technique  would  account  for  his  abihty  to  im- 
part it. 

He  began  to  play  in  public  himself  at  the  age  of  thirteen.  Three 
years  later  he  ran  away  from  home,  and  developed  a  taste  for  dis- 
sipation and  gambling.  He  devoted  some  years  to  the  guitar,  in 
consequence  of  the  preference  of  a  noble  lady  at  whose  castle  he 
stayed.  The  result  shows  in  his  quartets  for  strings  and  guitar, 
recently  revived.  After  this  he  returned  to  the  violin,  and  began 
to  investigate  the  use  of  single  strings.  This  procedure  arose  in  part 
from  his  admiration  for  a  certain  lady,  for  whom  he  wrote  and 
played  love-dialogues  between  the  first  and  fourth  strings.  His 
great  facility  on  the  G-string  was  developed  at  this  time.  On  a  cer- 
tain occasion,  the  breaking  of  an  E-string  during  a  concert  com- 
pelled him  to  play  a  number  of  difficult  pieces  on  the  remaining 
three  strings. 

The  persistence  with  which  strange  stories  followed  Paganini 
was  most  marked.  Even  to-day  innocent  men  are  sometimes  made 
victims  of  waves  of  popular  persecution;  but  among  the  credulous 
Italian  peasantry  of  a  century  ago,  almost  any  story  would  find 
believers.  The  most  common  idea  about  Paganini  consisted  in  a 
certainty  that  he  was  aided  by  the  devil;  and  not  a  few  of  his  hear- 
ers claimed  to  have  seen  that  satanic  individual  standing  beside 
the  performer  and  helping  him. 

Paganini's  excellence  on  the  G-string  was  explained  by  another 
story.  It  was  claimed  that  in  a  fit  of  jealousy  he  had  murdered  his 
mistress,  in  consequence  of  which  he  had  spent  eight  years  in  prison. 
He  was  allowed  to  keep  his  violin;  but  the  dampness  of  the  cell 
caused  the  upper  strings  to  break,  finally  leaving  him  only  the 
G-string;  and  upon  this  he  was  compelled  to  play,  if  he  played  at 
all.  The  simplest  investigation  proves  this  story  not  only  false,  but 
impossible.  He  lived  at  home  for  nearly  sixteen  years;  and  with  the 


PAGANINI 


VIOLINISTS  AND  VIOLIN  MUSIC  487 

exception  of  the  guitar  period,  during  which  he  was  easily  traced, 
he  was  constantly  before  the  public.  If  he  committed  such  a  crime 
before  becoming  a  public  perfonner,  he  must  have  done  it  at  the 
mature  age  of  eight,  and  had  his  family  and  friends  agree  to  pre- 
tend that  he  was  at  home  studying.  Yet  in  spite  of  its  utter  lack  of 
possibility,  the  story  persisted. 

Paganini's  technique  was  wonderful  enough  to  make  the  credu- 
lous ones  believe  that  he  must  have  had  some  unusual  aid,  whether 
from  the  devil  or  from  some  other  obliging  spirit.  The  player's 
personality  helped  to  sustain  the  idea  of  strangeness;  for  he  was 
tall,  thin,  and  pale,  with  brusque  manners  that  heightened  his 
cadaverous  effect.  His  technique  does  not  appear  superhuman 
when  looked  at  from  the  standpoint  of  present-day  virtuoso  play- 
ing; but  it  must  have  seemed  tremendously  striking  in  contrast 
with  the  lesser  attainments  of  his  period.  His  ability  is  proved  by 
many  anecdotes.  One  of  these  relates  that  the  Neapolitan  artists, 
jealous  of  his  fame,  engaged  the  young  composer  Danna  to  write 
a  violin  piece  bristling  with  unheard-of  difficulties;  and  when  Paga- 
nini  arrived,  they  asked  him  to  read  the  piece.  Paganini  saw  the 
trap  they  had  set;  but  his  ability  was  so  great  that  the  merest  glance 
at  the  work  enabled  him  to  play  it  with  the  utmost  ease.  His  pro- 
ficiency in  double-stopping,  harmonics,  left-hand  pizzicato,  and 
G-string  work  must  have  been  marvellous,  to  judge  from  his  com- 
positions as  well  as  his  press  notices.  His  use  of  very  thin  strings 
probably  gave  him  a  mastery  over  harmonics.  A  favorite  trick  of 
his,  already  mentioned,  was  to  tune  his  instrument  a  semitone  sharp, 
and  transpose  the  music  a  semitone  down,  thereby  getting  the  proper 
pitch  of  a  work,  but  an  unusually  brilliant  quality  of  tone. 

Paganini  has  been  called  ignoble,  selfish,  self-indulgent,  and  mi- 
serly. These  accusations  are  not  devoid  of  truth;  but  on  one  occa- 
sion he  showed  a  most  excellent  and  discriminating  generosity.  It 
was  in  Paris,  and  he  was  at  a  concert  where  a  new  work  was  given 
—  a  symphony  by  the  young  and  struggling  composer  named  Ber- 
lioz. Paganini  was  so  impressed  by  the  work  that  he  sent  to  its 
composer  the  sum  of  twenty  thousand  francs.  It  is  said  that  self- 
indulgence,  and  the  use  of  a  quack  medicine,  brought  on  his  last 
illness  and  death,  which  took  place  in  1840.  His  body  was  re- 
fused burial  at  Nice,  and  was  taken  to  Parma  for  interment.   His 


488  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

favorite  violin,  a  large  Guarnerius,  has  been  kept  on  exhibition  in 
a  showcase,  but  would  probably  be  in  better  condition  if  played 
upon. 

There  were  other  Italian  violinists  after  Paganini,  such  as  Polle- 
dro,  but  none  of  overwhelming  prominence.  Music  had  reached  a 
period  of  decadence  in  Italy,  and  the  public  could  appreciate  noth- 
ing higher  than  the  conventional  works  of  the  Rossini  style.  Even 
the  Paris  school  declined,  with  the  death  of  its  leaders;  and  for  a 
time  the  sceptre  passed  to  Germany. 

Ludwig  Spohr,  who  brought  the  German  school  into  its  leader- 
ship, drew  away  from  the  sensational  style  inaugurated  by  Paga- 
nini, and  made  breadth  and  expressive  power  prominent  once  more. 
A  symphonist  of  some  greatness,  an  opera  composer  of  romantic 
tendencies,  he  wrote  a  number  of  violin  concertos,  and  brought  that 
form  well  along  to  the  large  size  and  prominence  that  it  now  dis- 
plays. His  excellence  as  a  composer  was  somewhat  veiled  by  man- 
nerisms, such  as  an  excessively  chromatic  style. 

He  composed  a  number  of  works  for  violin  and  harp,  the  latter 
instrument  being  played  by  Dorette  Scheidler,  whom  he  married. 
Spohr  died  in  1859,  which  brought  the  school  to  within  six  decades 
of  the  present  writing. 

Other  German  and  Austrian  masters  were  Joseph  Mayseder, 
Joseph  Bohm,  Johann  Kalliwoda,  and  Wilhelm  Molique,  while 
Karl  Lipinski  was  a  Pole.  Ignaz  Schuppanzigh,  who  preceded  Spohr 
in  point  of  time,  was  a  friend  of  Beethoven. 

A  French  group  of  the  time  included  Alexandre  Boucher,  An- 
toine  Habeneck,  Jacques  Mazas,  and  others.  But  after  the  Ger- 
man school  had  flourished,  the  sceptre  passed  to  Belgium.  Charles 
Auguste  de  Beriot,  the  first  of  the  Franco-Belgian  school,  held  the 
foremost  rank  in  his  day,  and  continued  the  ornate  and  brilliant 
style  of  Paganini.  From  the  contrast  between  his  work  and  Spohr's 
it  is  still  held  that  the  German  school  is  solid  where  the  Belgian  is 
brilliant;  but  these  distinctions  no  longer  exist.  Thus  Henri  Vieux- 
temps,  the  successor  of  De  Beriot  in  Belgium,  was  still  brilliant, 
but  showed  more  breadth. 

The  German  school  was  carried  on  by  Ferdinand  David  and 
Joseph  Joachim.  David  was  concertmaster  in  the  Gewandhaus 
Orchestra  which  Mendelssohn  reorganized  at  Leipsic.   Like  Vieux- 


VIOLINISTS  AND  VIOLIN  MUSIC  489 

temps  and  De  Beriot,  he  became  knovm  also  as  a  composer.  Joa- 
chim was  a  classicist  in  the  best  sense  of  the  word.  But  by  this  time 
violin  preeminence  was  not  confined  to  any  single  country.  France 
produced  Alard  and  others;  Spain  offered  Sarasate;  Hungary  gave 
the  world  Remenyl;  Wieniawski,  who  toured  with  Rubinstein,  was 
a  Pole;  while  Ole  Bull  came  from  Norway.  Sivori  was  a  Genoese  of 
the  Paganini  school,  while  Bazzini,  of  Brescia,  united  Italian  and 
German  methods. 

The  great  violinists  were  nearly  all  composers,  from  Corelli 
down  to  Ysaye  and  Kreisler.  Some  of  the  performers  limited  them- 
selves to  display  pieces,  but  by  far  the  larger  part  were  really  gifted 
musicians,  and  left  works  of  value  for  their  instrument.  But  with 
the  development  of  the  sonata  form,  the  great  composers  began  to 
pay  due  attention  to  the  violin.  Haydn  was  one  of  the  earliest 
to  write  string  quartets,  but  since  his  day  nearly  all  the  mastere 
have  tried  this  form.  There  are  many  varieties  of  chamber  music. 
The  old  Italian  musica  di  camera  was  meant  for  secular  performance, 
in  contrast  to  the  church  music  of  the  time.  Nowadays  we  have 
piano  trios,  with  violin  and  'cello;  piano  quartets,  with  a  viola  usu- 
ally added;  piano  quintets,  with  a  second  violin;  sonatas  for  violin 
and  piano;  and  various  other  combinations  for  strings.  The  great 
composers  have  brought  all  these  to  a  high  standard.  The  large 
orchestral  concertos,  too,  are  as  ambitious  as  any  three-movement 
symphony.  Beethoven,  Mendelssohn,  Tschaikovsky,  Brahms,  and 
Bruch  have  written  great  violin  concertos;  while  contemporary 
composers  attempt  the  form  with  persistence,  if  not  always  with 
success.  There  is  also  a  repertoire  for  the  violin  alone,  the  best- 
known  piece  of  this  sort  being  the  famous  Chaconne  by  Bach. 

Among  the  living  violinists,  Eugene  Ysaye  held  the  first  place  for 
a  long  time.  His  tone  is  tremendously  broad,  and  therefore  in  direct 
contrast  to  the  supposed  character  of  the  Belgian  school,  to  which 
he  belongs. 

In  recent  years,  Fritz  Kreisler  has  gained  a  position  rivalling  that 
of  Ysaye,  if  not  actually  overtopping  it.  Kreisler,  too,  is  most 
broadly  and  poignantly  expressive.  He  is  an  Austrian. 

A  still  more  recent  star  in  the  violin  firmament  is  the  Frenchman 
Jacques  Thibaud.  He  shows  masterly  ability,  and  has  won  an 
unusual  success  in  the  past  few  years.   His  playing  of  the  Bach 


490  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Chaconne,  which  is  a  standard  test  for  violinists,  is  said  to  be 
unrivalled. 

Other  great  violinists  visit  us  from  time  to  time,  but  each  of  the 
above  three  has  at  times  been  considered  primus  inter  pares.  This 
article  is  not  intended  as  a  catalogue,  but  aims  merely  to  give  a  gen- 
eral outline  of  violin  development.  Many  other  names  might  have 
been  mentioned,  in  the  past  as  well  as  the  present;  but  there  is  not 
space  for  them  here.  Those  who  are  alive  should  not  feel  slighted 
by  the  omission;  and  those  who  are  dead  are  not  likely  to  protest. 


LVII 

ORCHESTRATION 

Though  made  up  of  different  instruments,  the  orchestra  may  be 
regarded  as  a  unit  from  the  point  of  view  of  composer,  conductor, 
and  audience.  The  conductor's  share  in  the  matter  will  be  treated 
in  a  special  chapter,  but  it  has  seemed  worth  while  to  explain  here  a 
part  of  the  composer's  work,  and  certain  points  that  the  audience 
may  look  for  when  hearing  orchestral  music. 
/  The  orchestra  of  Bach,  although  it  had  many  instruments  now 
obsolete,  did  not  give  quite  the  effect  of  the  full  modem  orchestra, 
as  it  lacked  many  of  the  deeper  instruments,  such  as  the  tubas, 
contrabassoons,  and  so  on.  Bach's  music,  therefore,  is  not  overpow- 
ering in  effect,  but  flows  along  naturally  and  smoothly.  The  con- 
trapuntal character  of  his  music  (written  as  if  in  parts  instead  of 
chords)  makes  this  fluent  quality  particularly  noticeable.  In  some 
cases  the  modem  instruments  replace  the  obsolete  ones. 

Handel's  and  Bach's  scores  were  often  merely  outlined,  or  only 
partially  filled  out.  In  this  music  the  composer  was  often  the  leader, 
and  sat  at  the  harpsichord,  or  organ,  where  he  could  arrange  his 
own  harmonies  to  suit  himself.  For  modem  purposes,  some  of  the 
old  scores  have  had  to  be  "filled  in"  by  more  recent  composers. 
Thus  in  the  case  of  the  oratorio  "  The  Messiah,"  which  is  given 
widely  even  to-day,  there  are  two  such  refurbishings,  as  already 
stated,  —  one  by  Mozart  and  one  by  Robert  Franz. 

The  scores  of  classical  and  modem  times  are  complete,  having 
been  wholly  finished  by  their  composers;  and  from  them  the  student 
can  trace  the  growth  of  the  orchestra. 

The  symphonies  of  Haydn  and  Mozart  led  to  those  of  Beethoven, 
who  is  the  great  representative  of  the  classical  period.  The  classi- 
cal orchestra  consisted  of  first  and  second  violins,  violas,  'cellos, 
contrabasses,  flutes,  sometimes  a  piccolo,  oboes,  clarinets,  bas- 
soons, horns,  tmmpets,  sometimes  trombones,  and  kettledrums. 
With  these  the  composer  could  give  all  the  effects  he  desired. 


492  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Taking  only  the  nine  symphonies  of  Beethoven,  we  find  such  diverse 
pictures  as  bird-calls  in  pastoral  surroundings,  a  thunderstorm,  the 
funeral  march  of  a  dead  hero,  or  the  noble  antiphonal  dialogues  of 
the  Ninth  Symphony.  Modem  composers  have  many  more  instru- 
ments; but  they  do  not  give  greater  music,  in  spite  of  its  growing 
complexity.  Mendelssohn  and  Schumann  continued  to  use  the 
classical  forces  with  few  changes;  but  after  them  Berlioz,  Liszt, 
and  Wagner  developed  the  larger  orchestra.  Our  having  a  large 
orchestra  does  not  show  that  the  smaller  one  is  out  of  date;  for 
Brahms,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  kept  to  the 
classical  forces,  and  showed  that  they  were  amply  sufficient  for 
the  creation  of  noble  music. 

The  scores  of  the  classical  period  show  the  use  of  simple  tone- 
colors  or  combinations  of  color.  There  is  none  of  the  mixed,  impres- 
sionistic quality  that  came  later.  The  instruments  stand  out  by 
themselves,  in  fairly  clear  contrast  to  the  "mingled  world  of  sound" 
in  which  modern  composers  work.  Among  many  examples,  one 
may  quote  the  oboe  in  Beethoven's  orchestral  funeral  march;  the 
contrabass  in  the  finale  of  his  Ninth  Symphony;  the  clarinet  in 
Mozart's  clarinet  symphony;  the  horns  in  the  closing  theme  of  the 
finale  of  Schubert's  C-major  syinphony;  or  the  impressive  clarinet 
passage  before  the  coda  in  the  finale  of  Mendelssohn's  Scotch  Sym- 
phony. This  use  of  simple  colors  in  clear  fashion  characterizes  the 
classical  music. 

While  the  classical  composers  often  divided  an  instrumental  part, 
giving  two  notes  instead  of  one  to  a  single  kind  of  instrument,  they 
did  this  mostly  in  climaxes  for  full  orchestra,  and  did  not  keep  it  up 
long.  But  modern  composers,  using  Wagner  and  Liszt  as  models, 
have  indulged  much  more  freely  in  this  divided  writing,  sometimes 
giving  several  notes  at  once  to  nearly  each  kind  of  instrument.  The 
modem  orchestra,  too,  is  much  larger  than  that  of  classical  times. 
Where  Beethoven  and  Brahms  would  use  only  twelve  or  thirteen 
staffs,  the  radical  of  to-day  will  write  on  more  than  twice  that  num- 
ber. As  stated  elsewhere,  there  is  a  passage,  in  the  "Heldenleben" 
of  Richard  Strauss,  where  that  composer  writes  on  thirty  different 
staffs,  and  includes  as  many  as  forty-six  different  notes  in  a  single 
chord. 

In  such  modem  mixtures  of  tone,  the  instrumental  colors  are 


ORCHESTRA.TION  493 

blended  in  remarkable  fashion.  If  the  orchestra  is  doubled  in  num- 
ber of  instruments,  the  number  of  possible  combinations  of  all  or 
part  of  these  is  much  more  than  doubled.  The  result  is  that  many- 
modem  composers  have  been  so  busy  hunting  for  new  combinations 
of  color  that  they  have  forgotten  to  write  interesting  music.  The 
parallel  between  impressionism  in  music  and  in  art  is  fairly  exact. 
If  an  old-school  picture  is  reduced  to  black-and-white,  it  shows 
much  more  accurate  drawing  than  an  impressionist  picture  would 
show  under  the  same  conditions.  Similarly,  in  music,  if  a  classical 
work  is  arranged  for  piano,  it  shows  good  themes  and  clear  develop- 
ment of  these  themes  into  tonal  structure;  while  many  modem 
comxpositions,  if  so  treated,  appear  dull  and  chaotic. 

The  composer's  task  in  writing  orchestral  music  has  been  greatly 
increased;  but  the  older  geniuses  showed  themselves  gifted  enough 
in  their  methods.  Beethoven  would  rewrite  his  music  many  times, 
till  it  came  to  sparkle  with  meaning  like  a  perfect  gem  of  thought. 
The  result  can  be  seen  by  comparing  the  rather  conventional  themes 
in  his  notebooks  with  the  impressive  shape  in  which  they  occur  in 
the  actual  works.  For  rapidity,  Handel  set  a  good  record  when  he 
wrote  his  "Messiah"  in  twenty-three  days.  Mozart  wrote  the  over- 
ture to  "Don  Giovanni"  in  a  single  night,  as  it  was  to  be  given  the 
following  evening.  Mendelssohn  had  only  two  days  in  which  to 
compose  his  "Ruy  Bias"  Overture  for  a  concert  performance. 
Rossini  wrote  his  "Barber  of  Seville"  in  eighteen  days.  Such  rapid 
work  bears  witness  to  the  fact  that  gifted  composers  think  out 
the  music  in  their  heads  before  they  put  it  on  paper. 

The  modem  composer  has  so  many  more  instruments  to  take 
care  of  that  he  must  necessarily  work  more  slowly.  He  writes  out 
the  important  instrumental  passages  first,  and  then  fills  in  the  rest. 
Even  the  old  composers  would  put  in  the  string  parts  first,  and  then 
add  the  others;  though  Mendelssohn,  in  writing  the  "Ruy  Bias" 
Overture,  filled  in  all  the  instruments  for  each  measure  before  pass- 
ing to  the  next. 

The  tone-colors  which  the  modem  composer  can  use  have  been 
given  in  connection  with  each  instrument,  but  they  may  well  be 
grouped  together  here.  They  are  as  follows:  — 

Violin.  —  All  emotions. 

Viola.  —  Rather  gloomy  melancholy. 


494  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Violoncello.  —  All  emotions,  but  with  a  more  masculine  effect 
than  those  of  the  violin. 

Contrabass.  —  Ponderous,  portentous,  or  sometimes  comical  by 
reason  of  its  heaviness. 

Harp.  —  Celestial  or  ecstatic  effects,  or  minstrel  accompaniment. 

Flute.  —  Gentle  melancholy  in  the  lower  register;  brilliance  in 
the  upper. 

Piccolo.  —  Wild,  frenzied  gayety,  or  infernal  effects;  sometimes 
used  for  military  suggestion. 

Oboe.  —  Rustic  gayety;  artless  innocence;  grief  and  pathos. 

English  horn.  —  Dreamy  melancholy;  suggests  shepherd's  pipe. 

Bassoon.  —  Earnest  and  sombre  in  lower  register,  or  grotesquely 
comical;  weird  in  middle  register,  or  like  a  cry  of  human  pain  in 
upper  register. 

Contrabassoon.  —  Deep,  impressive,  like  an  organ  pipe. 

Clarinet.  —  Eloquent  and  tender  in  middle  register,  spectral  in 
lower. 

Bass  clarinet.  —  Sombre.  (Basset  horn  the  same,  with  rich  tone.) 

Horn.  —  Romantic,  suggesting  forest  scenes  and  hunting  calls, 
or  ugly  and  repulsive  when  muted. 

Trumpet.  —  Bold  and  martial. 
U/Trombone.  —  Solemn,  impressive,  or  menacing. 

Tuba.  —  Brutal  and  powerful. 

Kettle-drums.  —  Explosive,  rhythmic,  or  capable  of  portraying 
anxiety  and  suspense. 

Other  drums.  —  Military  effects. 

Cymbals.  —  Suited  to  the  clash  of  battle,  or  wild  festivity. 

Glockenspiel.  —  Tinkling  sweetness. 

Celesta.  —  Effect  of  light  melodious  bells. 

Tambourine  and  Triangle.  —  Spanish  or  Gypsy  effects,  festivity. 

With  these  colors  at  his  disposal,  the  modem  composer  is  able  to 
create  many  odd  effects  and  fairly  definite  suggestions.  While  the 
older  composers  wrote  pure  music,  for  the  most  part,  their  more 
recent  successors  have  become  largely  devoted  to  programme  music, 
or  music  that  tells  a  story  or  portrays  an  event  that  must  be  de- 
scribed on  a  printed  programme.  For  this  the  many  instrumental 
colors  are  indispensable. 

When  the  auditor  hears  orchestral  music  of  the  classical  school, 
he  may  expect  clear  structure,  logical  development  of  themes, 
artistic  effects  of  contrast,  and  well-balanced  work  without  exag- 
geration. In  the  radical  modem  music  he  may  look  for  more  im- 
pressionism —  more  effects  of  blended  colors  that  are  to  be  taken 


ORCHESTRATION  495 

as  a  whole,  and  not  analyzed  into  the  simple  colors  that  made  them. 
He  may  still  seek  for  artistic  symmetry  and  contrast,  but  in  a  freer 
form  than  before.  Much  of  the  modem  auditor's  time  is  taken  up  in 
looking  at  his  programme  to  watch  for  coming  events  in  the  orches- 
tra. If  he  can  tell  just  when  Don  Quixote  encounters  the  wind- 
mills, or  when  Mraczek's  two  bad  boys  of  the  orchestra.  Max  and 
Moritz,  are  chased  for  killing  poultry,  he  will  feel  happy  with  the 
happiness  of  one  who  solves  a  puzzle  successfully.  But  that  is  not 
true  musical  enjoyment.  The  auditor  will  do  well  to  learn  the  plot 
of  the  piece  before  he  hears  it;  but  even  then  he  should  be  entitled 
to  look  for  good  music,  and  not  merely  follow  a  string  of  effects 
with  a  view  to  seeing  what  they  mean.  If  the  composer  has  not 
given  good  music,  he  has  failed  in  his  duty.  Two  examples  from 
Strauss  will  prove  the  point.  His  "Don  Quixote"  variations,  pic- 
turing that  hero's  adventures,  are  full  of  attempts  at  suggestion, 
such  as  the  flock  of  sheep,  the  air-trip,  the  upsetting  boat,  and  so  on; 
but  the  music  is  not  essentially  attractive.  On  the  other  hand,  his 
"Death  and  Transfiguration,"  contrasting  the  vain  struggle  against 
death  with  the  glorious  apotheosis  beyond,  may  be  analyzed  just 
as  literally  (one  commentator  has  found  two  fever- themes),  but  is 
performed  and  applauded  frequently  because  its  music  is  grand. 

Some  of  the  instrumental  colors  may  seem  a  little  arbitrary  to 
the  beginner;  but  after  he  has  learned  to  pick  them  out  as  well  as  a 
composition  will  permit,  he  will  see  that  they  have  a  basis  of  accu- 
racy. With  these  the  composer  must  do  his  best;  and  if  he  handles 
them  properly,  they  will  glow  upon  the  ear  with  all  the  warmth 
that  the  colors  of  a  Titian  show  in  their  appeal  to  the  eye. 


LVIII 

CONDUCTING 

The  art  of  conducting,  in  the  sense  of  timekeeping,  is  very  an- 
cient. In  the  theatres  of  Grecian  times,  the  duty  of  leading  fell 
upon  the  choregus,  who  kept  the  rhythm  by  tapping  an  iron  shoe 
on  the  floor  of  the  stage.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  accounts  show  the 
Emperor  Charlemagne  beating  time,  in  similar  fashion,  by  tapping 
with  a  wooden  staff.  Even  down  to  the  present,  the  violinist  who 
leads  a  small  orchestra,  when  not  playing  himself,  will  conduct  by 
tapping  on  his  violin  with  the  bow. 

This  method  of  tapping  was  held  responsible  for  the  death  of 
Lully,  in  the  seventeenth  century.  At  the  performance  of  one  of  his 
works,  a  Te  Deum,  celebrating  the  French  king's  recovery  from 
sickness,  the  composer,  who  was  conducting,  made  such  frantic 
floiuishes  with  his  cane  that  once  he  struck  his  gouty  foot  instead 
of  the  floor.  Inflammation  followed,  and  neglect  allowed  it  to  turn 
into  gangrene,  which  proved  fatal.  It  may  thus  be  said  that  Lully 
died  of  conducting. 

In  the  music  of  Handel  the  composer  (or  conductor)  usually  pre- 
sided by  sitting  at  the  harpsichord,  where  he  could  fill  out  the  har- 
monies and  guide  all  the  effects.  Handel  won  early  notice  by  step- 
ping to  this  post  of  honor  at  a  Hamburg  opera  performance  when 
Keiser,  the  regular  conductor,  was  absent  dodging  creditors.  Some- 
times the  organ  was  used  instead  of  the  harpsichord,  especially  in 
the  sacred  works  of  Bach. 

Haydn  and  Mozart  did  away  with  this  harpsichord  procedure, 
and  the  conductors  of  their  works,  whoever  they  were,  could  pay 
complete  attention  to  leading  the  performers.  Haydn  conducted 
his  own  music  for  Prince  Esterhazy,  in  whose  service  he  remained 
for  many  years.  It  is  said  that  once,  when  the  princely  patron 
thought  of  disbanding  his  orchestra,  Haydn  wrote  and  led  a  sym- 
phony in  which  the  players  were  allowed  to  cease,  one  by  one,  put- 
ting out  their  lights  and  departing  from  the  room,  until  only  the 


CONDUCTING  407 

first  violinist  was  left;  and  soon  he,  too,  ceased  his  sad  strain 
and  disappeared.  When  the  prince  inquired  the  meaning  of  this 
procedure,  Haydn  replied,  "This  is  our  sorrowful  farewell."  There- 
upon, it  is  said,  the  prince  revoked  his  dismissal,  and  kept  the 
orchestra.  But  the  story  of  this  "Farewell  Symphony"  has  been 
doubted, 

Beethoven  knew  the  instruments  well,  but  was  not  really  a  good 
conductor.  Even  when  young  he  was  too  eccentric  in  his  moods 
to  exercise  proper  control  of  his  forces.  Later  on,  when  he  became 
deaf,  he  still  continued  to  lead;  but  the  results  were  so  bad  that 
finally  the  musicians  agreed  to  follow  the  first  violinist,  and  dis- 
regard Beethoven's  irregular  motions. 

Spohr  and  Weber  were  admirable  conductors,  the  latter  being 
very  brilliant  for  his  time.  He  was  also  one  of  the  first  to  use  the 
baton,  which  had  been  introduced  by  Mosel  in  1807.  Spohr  car- 
ried the  baton  to  London,  and  won  much  fame  there. 

Mendelssohn  brought  conducting  toward  its  present  high  level. 
Under  his  lead  the  Gewandhaus  Orchestra,  at  Leipsic,  won  the 
rank  that  it  still  holds  to-day.  He,  too,  gained  fresh  laurels  in  Lon- 
don. He  was  rather  strict,  but  he  earned  respect  by  his  thorough 
knowledge.  His  conducting,  like  his  music,  was  sunny  and  cheerful, 
and  did  not  quite  reach  the  real  depths  of  poignant  expression. 
Wagner,  who  succeeded  him  in  London,  found  it  some  work  to  alter 
the  Mendelssohn  traditions. 

At  about  the  same  time,  Berlioz  proved  himself  a  model  for  the 
French  conductors.  His  leadership  made  his  continual  calls  for 
wholesale  effects  seem  rather  strange;  for  any  good  conductor 
knows  that  moderate  forces  can  be  guided  with  more  certainty  than 
excessively  large  ones.  Yet  when  Paris  thought  of  having  a  per- 
manent festival  organization,  he  suggested  four  hundred  and  sixty- 
seven  instruments,  with  three  hundred  and  sixty  voices.  Once  he 
led  no  less  than  twelve  hundred  people.  He  had  four  chorus-mas- 
ters, one  at  each  comer  of  the  group  of  singers;  and  two  assistant 
conductors,  one  for  the  wind  instruments  and  one  for  the  percus- 
sion; all  six  looking  toward  him  and  taking  their  time  from  his 
beat.  Such  large  forces  give  a  great  volume  of  tone,  but  lose  in 
clearness  of  attack  and  accuracy  of  shading.  Wagner,  with  a  free 
hand  to  choose  the  orchestra  for  his  Bayreuth  opera  house,  took 


498  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

only  a  hundred  and  sixteen  men,  and  had  them  all  concealed  in  a 
sunken  space  in  front  of  the  stage. 

Wagner  was  a  gifted  conductor,  and  the  insight  this  gave  him 
into  the  trivial  nature  of  certain  Italian  operas  may  have  helped  in 
leading  him  to  write  better  music  himself.  He  was  among  the  first 
to  conduct  freely  from  memory,  without  using  the  score.  This  may 
sometimes  be  done  by  relying  on  the  men  a  little,  and  remembering 
only  a  general  outline,  sufficient  to  enable  the  leader  to  give  cues 
to  certain  instruments  at  the  right  time.  But  Wagner  had  many 
scores  completely  memorized.  When  he  first  tried  this  procedure, 
with  Beethoven's  Ninth  Symphony,  his  men  were  disposed  to  ridi- 
cule him;  but  he  challenged  any  of  them  to  play  a  passage  from 
any  part,  and  showed  his  knowledge  by  continuing  the  part  after  the 
player  ceased. 

Von  Billow,  as  leader  of  the  Meiningen  Orchestra,  went  so  far  as 
to  have  his  players  memorize  their  own  parts.  He  was  most  pains- 
taking in  his  attention  to  details  of  shading,  phrasing,  and  so  on. 
His  men  became  so  proficient  that  once,  when  he  was  unavoidably 
late,  they  began  the  programme  in  his  absence,  playing  the  "Tann- 
hauser"  Overture  without  any  conductor,  and  finishing  it  success- 
fully just  as  he  came  in. 

In  general,  composers  make  poor  conductors.  Some  of  those  al- 
ready mentioned  are  exceptions;  but  there  are  several  reasons  for 
the  rule.  To  begin  with,  composers  are  seldom  broad  enough  to 
judge  the  music  of  all  others  properly;  and  we  see  Spohr  rating  the 
Beethoven  symphonies  as  dull  and  uninspired.  Then,  too,  many 
composers  lack  the  needed  executive  ability.  WTien  conducting, 
they  are  apt  to  listen  dreamily  to  the  music  instead  of  guiding  it. 
Schumann  was  especially  given  to  this  procedure.  It  is  said  of 
Richter,  who  became  a  great  conductor,  that  when  he  first  took  up 
orchestral  leadership,  he  burned  all  his  compositions,  and  made  a 
cup  of  coffee  over  the  fire. 

Among  French  conductors,  Lamoureux  and  Colonne  grew  fa- 
mous in  the  latter  part  of  last  century.  In  Germany,  Levi  and  Mottl 
were  followed  by  Weingartner,  Mahler,  Nikisch,  Strauss,  Muck, 
Fiedler,  and  others.  Mahler  was  remarkably  great,  being  able  to 
give  to  a  piece  a  continual  flow  of  nuances,  that  would  make  old 
works  seem  new  and  come  with  the  force  of  a  revelation.   Wein- 


CONDUCTING  499 

gartner  is  best  known  in  opera,  where  the  Italian  Toscanini  also 
deserves  mention.  Richard  Strauss  inclines  to  powerful  effects,  and 
Hausegger  is  another  of  the  same  school.  In  our  own  country, 
Theodore  Thomas  deserved  the  highest  praise  for  his  earnestness 
in  educating  public  taste. 

A  conductor  plays  upon  the  orchestra  just  as  a  pianist  plays  upon 
his  instrument.  Where  the  latter  may  give  a  maximum  of  ten  notes 
at  once,  and  cause  his  fingers  to  give  each  note  the  proper  emphasis, 
the  former  will  have  anywhere  from  twelve  to  thirty  different  kinds 
of  instruments  to  look  after,  and  will  emphasize  the  different  parts 
by  means  of  his  beat.  He  is  always  responsible  for  the  "reading" 
of  the  piece,  —  the  shading  given  to  it,  the  nuances  of  speed,  the 
comparative  emphasis  placed  on  the  different  parts,  and  so  on. 
Here  tradition  is  sometimes  a  guide.  The  classical  works,  for  in- 
stance, are  to  be  taken  in  a  fairly  straightforward  manner,  without 
any  attempt  at  exaggeration  of  effects.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
classical  piano  repertoire,  and  we  find  Paderewski  causing  much 
argument  by  plajring  the  Beethoven  sonatas  with  rubato,  which 
means  little  caprices  in  the  time  of  a  piece.  Whenever  a  conductor 
tries  to  "modernize"  a  Beethoven  symphony  in  this  way,  he  lays 
himself  open  to  just  criticism,  although  Mahler  sometimes  did  this. 

Sir  Frederic  H.  Co  wen,  in  an  article  on  conducting  printed  in 
"The  Musician's  Guide,"  gives  a  number  of  rules  for  the  conductor, 
which  may  well  be  mentioned  here. 

First  of  all,  the  conductor  must  possess  a  distinct  and  reliable 
beat,  so  that  the  players  may  know  definitely  what  motion  he  is 
making,  and  from  this  what  result  he  wants. 

The  conductor  must,  of  course,  have  a  good  musical  ear,  to  en- 
able him  to  single  out  any  tone  of  the  orchestra,  for  purposes  of 
correction  or  alteration. 

He  must  have  a  thorough  working  knowledge  of  all  the  instru- 
ments under  him.  This  does  not  mean  that  he  shall  be  a  star  per- 
former on  all  of  them;  usually  such  knowledge  of  one  or  two  is  all 
that  he  possesses.  But  he  must  know  at  least  how  all  the  instru- 
ments are  played,  and  be  familiar  with  their  compass,  color,  and 
capability  in  each  case.  The  conductor  will  find  it  useful,  also,  to 
be  a  good  pianist;  while  he  surely  needs  a  clear  voice  to  give  direc- 
tions, even  if  not  trained  as  a  singer. 


500  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

He  must  be  able  to  read  an  orchestral  score,  and  master  its  con- 
tents quickly.  This  is  a  matter  that  demands  training,  for  the  num- 
ber of  staffs  and  variety  of  clefs  used,  to  say  nothing  of  the  trans- 
posing instruments,  make  a  score  very  complicated.  The  reader 
will  remember  that  the  viola  is  written  in  the  alto  clef,  the  trom- 
bone sometimes  in  the  tenor  clef,  and  the  other  deep  instrum.ents  in 
various  ways,  according  to  the  pitch  used;  while  the  clarinets  not 
in  C,  the  English  horn,  the  horns  not  in  C,  and  sometimes  other 
instruments,  transpose  the  written  note  to  various  intervals.  The 
conductor  must  not  merely  read  the  notes  of  a  score,  but  he  must 
be  able  also  to  judge  what  effects  will  be  produced  by  the  instru- 
mental combinations  used. 

The  conductor  must  understand  the  music  he  is  leading,  and  be 
able  to  express  its  intellectual  or  spiritual  meaning. 

He  must  have  a  full  command  of  light  and  shade,  or  variations 
in  speed  or  dynamic  force;  he  must  be  able  to  make  his  men  bring 
out  these  variations;  and  he  must  be  able  to  phrase  artistically. 
The  balancing  of  phrases  and  passages  in  just  the  proper  way  makes 
all  the  difference  between  a  performance  that  is  merely  passable 
and  one  that  is  excellent.  The  conductor  must  also  have  a  correct 
idea  of  tempo.  One  conductor  will  take  certain  movements  slower 
or  faster  than  another  man  will  do;  and  naturally  one  case  gives 
better  results  than  the  other.  Here  again  tradition  helps  with  the 
old  works,  in  which  exaggerated  speed  or  slowness  is  out  of  place. 
For  the  rest,  the  pace  is  largely  a  matter  of  individual  temperament, 
though  of  course  it  is  regulated  in  a  general  way  by  a  composer's 
directions.  Thus  if  a  composer  calls  for  an  adagio,  it  is  necessarily 
a  slow  movement;  but  some  conductors  will  make  it  slower  than 
others  do.  The  nature  of  the  music  is  often  useful  as  a  guide,  show- 
ing whether  or  not  there  is  to  be  any  exaggeration  of  pace.  Some- 
times the  composer  shows  the  exact  pace  by  using  a  metronome 
mark,  putting  at  the  beginning  the  letters  "M.  M."  (Maelzel's  met- 
ronome) and  a  figure  with  a  note  of  definite  value.  This  will  show 
that  the  value  of  the  note  given  should  occur  a  certain  number  of 
times  to  the  minute,  the  number  being  shown  by  the  figure  used. 
Of  course  this  applies  only  to  the  average  pace,  as  there  will  be 
passages  to  be  taken  faster  or  slower,  as  the  conductor's  ideas  or 
the  composer's  marks  demand. 


CONDUCTING  501 

In  the  performance  of  a  concerto,  which  is  a  piece  of  symphonic 
style  with  a  solo  instrument  playing  a  special  part,  the  conductor 
must  accompany  the  soloist,  taking  care  to  make  the  orchestra 
keep  with  the  solo  instrument,  or  come  in  properly  after  solo  pas- 
sages. The  same  is  true  for  songs  with  orchestral  accompaniment. 

The  conductor  should  not  allow  his  personal  preferences  to  inter- 
fere with  his  presenting  examples  of  various  schools;  and  he  should 
do  his  best  to  give  a  good  rendering  of  all  pieces  that  he  puts  on  his 
programme.  Incidentally,  the  making  of  programmes  is  no  unim- 
portant detail.  It  would  be  wrong,  for  instance,  to  follow  an  over- 
powering modem  tone-picture  with  some  simple  bit  of  Mozart  or 
Haydn,  which  would  seem  hopelessly  tame  in  comparison.  It  is 
wise  for  the  conductor  to  end  with  a  powerful  or  triumphant  work. 
He  may  follow  a  purely  musical  symphony  by  a  story-telling  piece 
of  the  programme  school.  He  has  also  the  chance  to  make  contrasts 
between  the  modem  masterpieces  of  rich  harmony  and  the  abstruse 
experimental  effects  of  the  more  radical  group  of  composers.  There 
is  no  lack  of  variety  for  him;  but  he  must  arrange  his  pieces  so  that 
any  resulting  contrast  will  seem  to  improve  them.  Max  Fiedler, 
lately  with  the  Boston  Symphony  Orchestra,  may  be  cited  as  an 
excellent  programme-maker. 

The  conductor  must  have  such  control  that  he  can  guide  his 
forces  with  the  utmost  accuracy  in  making  them  express  what  he 
wishes,  and  in  bringing  out  the  thousand  Uttle  points  that  make  a 
good  performance.  He  must  "play  upon  them,  individually  and 
collectively,  and  make  them  into  one  responsive  whole,  ready  to 
understand  and  follow  the  least  sign  or  movement  of  his  baton." 

In  addition,  he  must  be  a  man  of  executive  ability,  able  to  handle 
quarrelsome  players  and  enforce  obedience  and  discipline  without 
losing  respect  himself.  For  performance,  he  should  also  have  that 
indefinable  quality  known  as  magnetism,  which  will  enable  him 
to  inspire  enthusiasm  in  those  who  work  under  him. 

The  young  composer  who  is  sometimes  allowed  to  conduct  his 
own  works  is  to  be  treated  leniently.  He  is  present  only  to  elucidate 
his  own  musical  ideas.  The  orchestra  will  carry  itself  along,  by  its 
own  momentum,  to  a  fairly  successful  performance.  He  is  therefore 
acting  in  the  capacity  of  musical  interpreter  rather  than  conductor. 

The  permanent  conductor  may  be  judged  by  the  audience  in 

USRAnv 

flTATl  TEACH'.  -»  COLLFat 


502  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

accordance  with  the  points  given  above.  In  the  first  place,  does  he 
make  good  programmes?  Does  he  pick  out  interesting  novelties, 
and  balance  them  against  well-known  master-works  in  such  a  way 
as  to  gain  the  most  pleasing  effect?  Then,  one  may  ask,  is  he  a 
good  judge  of  tempo?  Does  he  take  the  slow  movements  too  slow, 
and  drag  even  in  rapid  movements,  or  vice  versa?  Then  comes  the 
all-important  question  of  reading.  Are  his  contrasts  in  force  exag- 
gerated or  minimized;  does  he  make  his  changes  in  force  gradually 
or  abruptly;  in  speed,  also,  does  he  overdo  or  underdo  the  con- 
trasts, and  does  he  make  changes  too  radically  or  not;  is  his  phras- 
ing properly  expressive,  and  sufficiently  varied  to  avoid  monotony; 
does  he  control  his  forces  well;  does  he  ever  indulge  in  over-exagger- 
ated effects,  in  an  ill-judged  attempt  to  be  original;  does  he  bring 
out  important  themes  clearly;  and  is  the  sum  total  of  his  effects, 
the  reading  of  the  piece  as  a  whole,  spirited  and  beautiful,  or  dull 
and  ineffective?  These  are  a  few  of  the  main  questions  that  an  audi- 
tor may  ask  himself  while  listening  to  an  orchestral  performance. 
If  the  conductor  is  good,  if  he  performs  great  music  with  detailed 
care,  sympathetic  understanding,  and  due  enthusiasm,  then  one 
may  truly  admit  that  a  symphony  concert  becomes  a  real  feast  of 
reason  and  flow  of  soul. 

Opera  conductors  are  not  always  judged  by  the  high  standard  of 
symphonic  work;  but  some  of  them  have  reached  the  first  rank, 
nevertheless,  as  Weingartner  and  Toscanini  prove.  Opera  conduc- 
tors have  troubles  of  their  own,  as  they  have  to  keep  players  and 
soloists  together,  or  guide  the  chorus,  besides  attending  to  the  in- 
struments. 

The  points  of  conducting,  and  the  questions  enumerated  above, 
apply  to  opera  conductors,  but  in  a  lesser  degree  than  to  symphonic 
leaders.  The  opera  conductor  is  not  too  anxious  for  delicate  nuances^ 
which  are  sometimes  lost  in  a  large  auditorium;  but  he  tries  rather 
to  keep  the  forces  together  in  a  rendering  that  shall  be  spirited  and 
striking. 

On  the  whole,  then,  the  conductor  earns  his  salary,  even  when  that 
salary  reaches  fancy  figures.  His  is  the  brain  that  guides  the  entire 
orchestra;  and  his  is  the  ability  that  leads  it  to  success. 


LIX 

ACOUSTICS 

Sound  is  caused  by  a  disturbance  of  the  atmosphere,  which  then 
transmits  itself  outward  through  the  air.  This  takes  place  by  having 
each  disturbed  air-particle  push  the  one  beyond  it,  so  that  the  dis- 
turbance travels  outward  somewhat  like  a  stroke  through  a  line  of 
billiard  balls,  or  an  engine's  push  through  a  train  of  loosely  coupled 
cars. 

Sound  is  either  tone  or  noise,  the  former  being  distinguished  from 
the  latter  by  consisting  of  regular  vibrations,  where  noise  is  irregu- 
lar. The  push  of  the  air-particles  causes  hearing  by  strokes  on  the 
eardrum,  whereupon  certain  nerves  take  the  sensation  to  the  brain, 
which  records  it  as  sound.  The  brain  also  notes  the  pitch  of  the 
sound,  which  depends  on  the  number  of  vibrations  (impacts)  per 
second.  The  human  brain  can  hear  such  vibrations  only  between 
the  limits  of  16  per  second  and  38,000  per  second,  —  from  nearly 
an  octave  below  the  piano  to  over  three  octaves  above  it.  Vibra- 
tions that  are  below  the  lower  limit  come  to  the  ear  as  separate 
puffs,  if  heard  at  all;  while  those  above  the  high  limit  are  totally 
inaudible.  The  upper  limit  varies  with  different  people,  so  that 
some  can  hear  tones  which  others  cannot.  Certain  animals,  such 
as  the  cat,  have  a  much  higher  range  than  mankind. 

One  may  pause  here  to  pay  his  respects  to  the  question  of  the 
supposed  relation  between  color  and  pitch.  Light  waves  differ 
wholly  from  sound  waves  in  being  a  disturbance  of  the  ether.  In 
sound,  the  octave  above  a  note  has  twice  as  many  vibrations  as 
the  note  itself;  and  judged  by  this  principle,  the  visible  color-scale, 
from  red  to  violet,  is  less  than  an  octave,  the  violet  having  more 
vibrations  than  the  red  in  about  the  proportion  of  73  to  46.  Light 
waves,  too,  are  incomparably  more  frequent,  and  travel  much 
faster,  than  sound  waves.  From  all  this  we  may  draw  the  conclu- 
sion that  there  is  no  relation  between  color  and  tone.  Many  musi- 
cians have  associated  the  two;  but  as  we  may  naturally  expect, 


504  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

from  our  conclusion,  such  association  is  merely  a  matter  of  individ- 
ual ideas,  that  have  no  real  basis  in  fact.  Investigation  will  show- 
that  those  who  associate  certain  colors  with  certain  tones  differ 
hopelessly  among  themselves  as  to  which  color  goes  with  any  given 
note. 

Sound  will  travel  in  other  conductors  than  air.  It  may  be  con- 
ducted through  solids,  though  the  vibrations  then  have  to  come 
through  the  air  in  the  ear-tube  to  be  audible.  In  water,  sound 
travels  nearly  four  times  faster  than  in  air.  This  fact  is  applied 
in  the  submarine  bell  signals  now  being  adopted  for  lightships 
and  other  such  places.  Steamers  are  equipped  with  under-water 
receivers,  one  on  each  side,  attached  to  telephone  receivers  in 
the  pilot-house.  When  the  bell  is  equally  audible  through  both 
receivers,  then  the  steamer  is  pointed  directly  toward  the  lightship, 
and  can  figure  its  proper  course  from  that  fact. 

The  speed  of  sound  in  air  is  about  1120  feet  per  second.  It  travels 
a  little  slower  in  dry  weather  than  on  damp  days,  but  is  more  clearly 
audible.  It  travels  quicker  through  air  of  low  pressure  than  through 
high-pressure  air.  Thus  when  the  barometer  has  fallen,  just  before 
a  storm,  the  ordinary  sounds  of  daily  life,  such  as  whistles,  cart- 
rumblings,  and  so  on,  will  sound  much  louder  than  usual. 

A  sound  wave,  resulting  from  an  impulse  communicated  to  the 
air,  is  of  a  perfectly  definite  length  for  each  pitch,  and  may  be  fig- 
ured exactly  if  we  know  the  pitch.  Such  a  wave  will  consist  of  crest 
and  trough,  —  the  impulse  of  pressure  that  strikes  the  ear-drum, 
and  a  lower  pressure  following  it,  half-way  between  the  pressure- 
crest  in  front  and  the  next  one  coming  after  it.  If  a  tone  has  35  vi- 
brations a  second,  and  sound  travels  1120  feet  a  second,  a  simple 
division  will  show  us  that  the  length  of  each  wave,  from  one 
pressure-impulse  to  the  next,  is  32  feet.  Deep  tones,  with  long 
sound-waves,  do  not  travel  any  faster  than  others;  but  they  pen- 
etrate farther,  as  shown  by  ocean-steamer  whistles.  The  distance  to 
which  sound  will  travel  varies  greatly  with  atmospheric  conditions. 
Tyndall  showed  the  existence  in  the  air  of  what  he  called  acoustic 
clouds,  which  aid  or  hinder  the  progress  of  a  tone  when  present. 
These  clouds  form  and  change  so  quickly  that  their  action  may  be 
noticed  during  the  tolling  of  a  bell.  Some  of  the  bell-strokes  will 
sound  loud  and  clear,  while  others,  just  before  or  just  after  them, 


ACOUSTICS  505 

may  be  much  muffled  in  comparison.  It  may  be  that  these  dif- 
ferences come  from  what  the  aviators  call  "holes  in  the  air," 
which  are  spaces  of  low  pressure  between  gusts.  If  many  such  low- 
pressure  spaces  happened  to  be  in  the  path  of  a  sound,  it  would  ap- 
pear louder  than  usual.  Under  most  favorable  conditions,  sounds 
can  travel  to  unexpected  distances,  perhaps  aided  by  reflectors  in 
the  shape  of  real  clouds  or  fog-banks.  Thus  a  ship's  crew  in  the 
South  Atlantic  once  heard  strange  bells  while  at  sea;  and  later  in- 
formation showed  that  the  sounds  came  from  a  festival  at  Rio 
Janeiro,  over  120  miles  away. 

The  laws  governing  the  vibration  of  stretched  strings  were  for- 
mulated by  Pythagoras,  in  about  the  year  B.C.  600.  He  found  that, 
all  other  things  being  equal,  the  number  of  vibrations  varies  in- 
versely as  the  length  of  a  string.  Thus  half  the  length  gives  twice 
the  vibrations,  or  an  octave  above  a  note;  two  thirds  of  the  length 
gives  three  halves  the  number  of  vibrations,  or  a  fifth  above  the 
original  note;  and  so  on.  With  all  other  conditions  equal,  he  found 
that  vibrations  vary  directly  as  the  square  root  of  the  tension  ap- 
plied, and  inversely  as  the  square  root  of  the  weight  of  the  string. 
Thus  if  a  pull  of  10  pounds  on  a  string  permits  it  to  give  50  vibra- 
tions a  second,  a  pull  of  40  pounds  will  be  needed  to  get  100  vi- 
brations a  second.  Also,  if  a  string  weighing  an  ounce  vibrates  120 
times  a  second,  a  string  weighing  four  ounces  will  vibrate  60  times 
a  second,  one  weighing  nine  ounces  will  vibrate  40  times  a  second, 
and  so  on.  Thick  or  loose  strings  give  an  unclear  tone,  thin,  tight 
strings  (also  long  ones)  giving  a  better  result.  All  these  laws  are 
used  in  stringing  a  piano,  the  highest  strings  being  short,  thin,  and 
tight,  while  the  lower  ones  are  longer,  thicker,  and  looser.  The 
lowest  strings  of  all  are  wound  with  wire,  to  give  them  weight 
enough  so  that  they  need  not  be  too  loose.  The  same  is  true  of 
the  G-string  of  the  violin,  and  certain  strings  on  other  instruments. 
If  the  requisite  depth  in  pitch  were  obtained  chiefly  by  looseness 
of  tension,  the  tone  would  be  poor  and  weak. 

When  a  string  vibrates,  it  does  not  merely  swing  as  a  whole,  but 
subdivides  into  fractional  parts,  which  form  shorter  vibrations 
superimposed  on  the  main  one.  These  fractional  parts,  being 
shorter  than  the  whole  string,  give  higher  tones.  These  tones,  as 
mentioned  in  connection  with  certain  instruments,  are  called  over- 


506  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

tones,  or  harmonics,  or  upper  partials,  and  blend  with  the  main  or 
fundamental  tone  whenever  it  is  sounded.  Their  presence  may  be 
shown  by  a  simple  experiment  with  the  piano.  If  separate  pieces  of 
paper  are  laid  on  the  strings  for  each  note,  and  any  low  note  then 
played  loudly  with  the  damper  pedal  held,  those  upper  strings  that 
correspond  to  the  pitch  of  the  overtones  (except  the  irregular  sixth 
one)  will  begin  to  vibrate  of  themselves,  and  will  shake  oli  the  papers. 
The  series  of  overtones,  starting  from  any  C  as  an  example,  will  be, 
in  ascending  order,  C,  G,  C,  E,  G,  B-flat,  C,  D,  E,  F-sharp,  G,  A, 
B-flat,  B,  C.  The  F-sharp,  the  high  A,  and  the  first  B-flat  will  be 
somewhat  off  pitch  from  our  scale.  The  first  ten  of  the  series  are 
enough  for  all  practical  use. 

The  presence  of  these  overtones  in  varying  amounts  is  what 
causes  the  difference  in  tone-color  between  different  instruments 
or  voices.  In  stringed  instruments  the  quality  may  be  varied  in 
accordance  with  the  place  where  the  strings  are  bowed,  plucked,  or 
struck.  The  nearer  to  the  middle,  the  hollower  the  tone  will  be;  the 
nearer  to  the  end,  the  brighter  the  tone.  The  former  case  gives  few 
and  faint  overtones,  while  the  latter  makes  them  more  numerous 
and  stronger.  If  there  are  too  many  overtones,  the  quality  will  be 
incisive  and  "tin-panny,"  like  that  of  the  banjo  or  of  a  worn-out 
piano.  An  old  piano  may  be  altered  by  having  its  hammers  tipped 
with  new  and  soft  felt,  or  by  having  the  old  felts  jabbed  with  a 
needle  until  soft  enough.  If  harp-strings  are  plucked  near  the  end 
instead  of  near  the  centre,  their  tone  will  lose  fulness  and  become 
too  twangy.  A  plucked  string  gives  the  most  overtones,  especially 
if  plucked  by  some  hard  substance  like  the  pick  of  a  mandolin. 

The  vibration  of  strings  alone  is  not  powerful  enough  to  cause 
much  of  a  tone.  They  are  therefore  strung  over  bridges,  or  sup- 
ports, which  carry  the  vibrations  to  a  sound-box  or  sounding- 
board.  The  mute  of  the  violin,  when  in  use,  operates  by  clamping 
the  bridge  and  preventing  it  from  vibrating  freely,  so  that  the  vi- 
brations reaching  the  sound-box  are  weaker  than  usual,  and  give  a 
softer  tone.  Power  of  tone  depends  upon  amplitude  of  vibration, 
and  the  mute  lessens  this.  The  sound-box  must  be  open  to  the  air, 
to  allow  free  vibration.  Sounding-boards  are  of  course  exposed  to 
the  air,  and  need  no  holes. 

Pythagoras  regulated  the  intervals  of  the  diatonic  scale  by  a 


ACOUSTICS  507 

fractional  system  giving  what  is  known  as  the  scale  of  nature.  In 
this  the  vibrations  of  the  notes,  compared  with  the  keynote,  were 
in  the  following  ratios:  — 

Nine  to  eight  for  the  second  degree. 
Five  to  four  for  the  third  degree. 
Four  to  three  for  the  fourth  degree. 
Three  to  two  for  the  fifth  degree. 
Five  to  three  for  the  sixth  degree. 
Fifteen  to  eight  for  the  seventh  degree. 
Two  to  one  for  the  octave. 

By  this  scale,  considering  a  certain  C  to  have  120  vibrations  a 
second,  the  scale  above  it  would  be  D,  135;  E,  150;  F,  160;  G,  180; 
A,  200;  B,  225;  and  C  (the  octave),  240  vibrations  a  second.  Sharps 
and  flats  were  held  to  be  nearer  to  their  notes  than  at  present,  and 
not  coinciding,  so  that  A-flat  would  be  higher  than  G-sharp,  for 
instance,  in  the  ratio  of  128  to  125.  The  ratio  between  a  note  and 
its  sharp  was  as  25  to  24.  This  scale  sounded  very  sweet  and  attrac- 
tive. It  lasted,  with  slight  changes,  until  after  a.d.  1700.  In  this 
scale  the  whole-tones  are  of  two  different  sizes,  the  ratios  being  9  to 
8  and  10  to  9.  For  this  reason,  it  was  not  possible  to  modulate  into 
keys  with  many  sharps  or  flats  without  making  a  piece  sound  out 
of  tune.  Willaert  had  suggested  a  change,  in  the  sixteenth  centurj"; 
but  his  idea  was  not  taken  up  until  about  1700,  when  Werckmeister 
(1645-1706)  suggested  a  division  into  twelve  equal  semitones.  As 
previously  stated.  Bach  liked  this  idea,  and  gave  it  permanence 
by  writing  the  two  volumes  of  his  "Well-Tempered  Clavichord," 
each  volume  containing  a  prelude  and  a  fugue  in  every  possible 
key.  The  new  scale,  which  is  in  use  to-day,  is  known  as  the  "tem- 
pered scale." 

The  acoustic  principles  governing  air-columns  in  tubes  are  a  little 
more  difficult  to  the  beginner  than  the  string  laws;  but  they  may 
be  understood  by  comparing  the  row  of  particles  in  a  column  to  the 
loosely  coupled  cars  of  a  long  freight  train.  Tubes  like  the  oboe 
and  flute,  and  all  similar  pipes  acting  like  open  tubes  (such  as  the 
brasses),  have  a  wave-length  twice  the  length  of  the  tube.  Taking 
the  freight  train  as  an  example,  suppose  the  engine  gives  a  push. 
This  push  travels  down  the  train,  which  corresponds  to  the  tube, 
until  it  reaches  the  end.  Then  the  last  car  tends  to  leave  the  train. 


508  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

but  is  suddenly  hauled  up  short  by  its  coupling.  It  thus  exerts  a 
pull,  and  the  pull  travels  back  up  the  train  toward  the  engine.  When 
this  pull  reaches  the  engine,  the  engine  is  pulled  in  until  it  bumps 
the  nearest  car,  and  pushes  it.  The  push  then  travels  along  the 
train  as  before. 

If  we  suppose  that  the  engine,  like  the  vibrating  mouthpiece  of  a 
tube,  cannot  move  far  from  one  spot,  we  may  imagine  that  the  en- 
gine's first  push  had  made  it  rebound,  so  that  it  reached  the  back  end 
of  its  space  just  as  its  push  was  transmitted  to  the  farthest  car.  It 
then  gives  a  pull  at  its  end,  just  as  the  farther  car  is  transforming 
the  push  it  received  into  a  pull.  The  engine's  pull  and  the  pull 
from  the  other  end  travel  along  the  train  until  they  meet.  They  even 
pass  each  other  and  continue  on,  though  we  can  imagine  the  middle 
car  not  moving  when  equally  pulled  from  opposite  sides.  The  train, 
then,  has  two  pulls  travelling  through  it  in  opposite  directions, 
which  are  transformed  into  two  pushes  when  they  reach  the  end. 

Something  similar  happens  in  the  tube  of  an  open  wind  instru- 
ment. The  reed  mouthpiece,  or  the  player's  lips,  or  the  imaginary 
air-reed  that  is  supposed  to  be  formed  in  a  flute,  gives  a  push  which 
travels  down  the  tube  to  the  open  air  beyond.  As  the  push  goes  out 
of  the  tube,  it  sends  a  pull  back  through  the  tube,  just  as  the  last 
car  did  in  the  case  of  the  train.  Meanwhile  the  reed  has  vibrated 
back,  and  produced  the  pull  at  its  end,  just  as  the  engine  did.  When 
the  pull  from  the  other  end  comes  back,  it  finds  the  reed  ready  to 
push  again,  and  start  a  new  vibration. 

While  the  pull  goes  back  through  the  tube,  the  original  push  has 
had  time  to  travel  out  through  the  air  a  distance  equal  to  the  tube's 
length.  As  it  is  this  distance  away  from  the  bottom  of  the  tube 
when  the  next  push  is  given  at  the  top  (mouthpiece),  it  follows  that 
there  will  be  twice  the  length  of  the  tube  between  successive  pushes. 
This  constitutes  the  wave-length.  Thus  we  know  that  if  we  make  a 
flute  of  such  size  as  to  have  a  two-foot  column  of  vibrating  air, 
the  wave-length  will  be  four  feet;  and  if  sound  travels  1120  feet  a 
second,  there  will  be  in  the  flute  tone  280  such  waves,  or  vibrations, 
per  second. 

We  also  know  that  the  air  at  the  ends  of  the  tube  is  in  motion 
at  constant  pressure,  while  the  particles  in  the  middle,  like  the  mid- 
dle car  of  the  train,  are  under  varying  pressure,  first  higher  and  then 


ACOUSTICS  509 

lower  than  the  air,  but  have  no  motion.  It  may  be  held  that  the 
performer's  breath  travels  through  the  tube,  but  that  goes  ex- 
tremely slowly,  not  influencing  the  vibrations;  and  a  flute  or  other 
tube  will  give  its  tone  if  a  tuning  fork  of  the  same  pitch  is  held  to 
its  mouthpiece,  in  which  case  no  air-current  passes  through. 

For  stopped  tubes,  giving  an  octave  deeper  for  the  same  size  as 
open  tubes,  the  wave-length  is  four  times  the  length  of  the  tube. 
Suppose  an  impulse  of  pressure  starting  along  such  a  tube.  Reach- 
ing the  open  end,  it  gives  its  push  to  the  air,  and  goes  back  along 
the  tube  as  a  pull.  At  the  stopped  end,  the  pull  is  exerted,  but  that 
pull  is  not  now  transformed  into  a  push,  as  it  would  be  if  the  tube 
were  open  at  that  end.  It  must  travel  back  to  the  open  end  as  a 
pull.  When  it  reaches  the  open  end,  this  pull  is  transformed  into  a 
push  again,  but  the  push  goes  down  the  tube  and  is  reflected  back 
by  the  stopped  end  before  it  can  push  outward  to  the  surrounding 
air.  Thus  each  pull  and  push  must  travel  down  the  tube  and  back, 
or  twice  its  length,  giving  four  times  the  tube  length  between  suc- 
cessive pushes. 

The  clarinet,  it  will  be  remembered,  acted  like  a  stopped  pipe. 
To  go  back  to  the  freight-train  simile,  we  may  suppose  that  the 
engine  is  large  and  unwieldy.  When  its  push  has  travelled  down 
the  train  and  come  back  as  a  pull,  the  engine,  moving  only  half  as 
readily  as  in  the  other  supposed  case,  is  itself  only  ready  to  exert  a 
pull.  It  does  so,  and  the  pull  of  the  train  cannot  then  be  transformed 
into  a  push,  but  must  travel  to  the  farther  end  of  the  train  to  make 
that  transformation.  When  the  impulse  next  comes  back,  as  a 
push,  the  engine  is  now  ready  to  push,  and  so  the  push  again  must 
travel  to  the  farther  end  of  the  train.  Thus  the  engine  is  strong 
enough  to  prevent  any  change  from  push  to  pull,  or  vice  versa,  oc- 
curring at  its  end  of  the  train.  Such  changes  occur  only  at  the 
farther  end,  corresponding  to  the  open  end  of  the  tube;  and  the 
impulses  must  travel  up  and  back,  or  twice  the  tube  length,  before 
being  changed.  Thus  the  same  change  will  recur  only  after  the  im- 
pulse has  travelled  four  times  the  length  of  the  tube.  The  engine 
is  alwaj'-s  in  opposition,  and  is  strong  enough  to  "govern"  the  train. 
We  say,  similarly,  that  in  the  clarinet  the  reed  governs  the  tube, 
while  in  the  oboe,  for  instance,  the  tube  governs  the  reed.  In  pass- 
ing, it  may  be  re-stated  that  the  human  voice  resembles  the  oboe 


510  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

in  principle,  the  two  vocal  cords  acting  like  a  double-reed  mouth- 
piece. 

.  A  few  more  bits  of  imagination  will  enable  the  student  to  finish 
with  the  subject  of  tubes.  In  placing  holes  and  keys  on  the  wood- 
wind instruments,  these  holes  are  placed  at  the  proper  distances  to 
make  the  air-column  of  the  different  fractional  lengths  needed  for 
the  pitch  of  the  scale.  Thus  opening  a  hole  three  fifths  of  the  dis- 
tance from  the  mouthpiece  to  the  other  end  would  raise  the  pitch  a 
major  sixth;  two  thirds  would  raise  the  pitch  a  fourth,  and  so  on. 
As  with  strings,  the  vibrations  of  air-columns  vary  inversely  as  theu* 
length.  To  get  lower  notes  than  usual,  holes  near  the  end  of  the 
mouthpiece  are  closed,  lengthening  the  air-colmnn.  The  D-flat  and 
C  of  the  flute  are  instances.  The  holes  for  these  are  left  open, 
and  closed  when  needed;  while  the  other  holes  are  naturally  closed, 
and  opened  when  needed. 

The  formation  of  overtones  to  the  exclusion  of  the  fundamental, 
caused  by  increased  force  of  blowing,  makes  the  air-column  sub- 
divide into  fractional  parts.  Wherever  there  is  free  motion  at  con- 
stant pressure,  we  may  take  such  a  point  as  a  centre  of  vibration, 
halfway  between  the  points  where  there  is  change  of  pressure  but 
no  motion.  In  an  open  tube,  such  free  motion  is  found  at  each  end. 
When  the  air-column  divides  in  half,  there  will  be  two  changing- 
pressure  points,  at  one  fourth  and  three  fourths  the  length  of  the 
tube;  one  being  at  high  pressure  while  the  other  is  at  low  pressure, 
and  vice  versa.  The  constant-pressure-and-free-motion  points  are 
at  each  end,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  tube.  Similar  subdivisions  for 
higher  overtones  always  have  free-motion  points  at  each  end  of  the 
tube,  no  matter  how  many  more  are  part  way  along  the  tube;  and 
from  this  we  see  that  all  overtones  are  theoretically  possible  in  open 
tubes. 

If  a  stopped  tube  is  imagined,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  stopped 
end  is  always  a  point  of  changing  pressure  and  no  motion,  while 
the  open  end  is  a  point  of  free  motion  and  constant  pressure.  Now 
if  we  suppose  a  wave-length  of  half  the  usual  size,  giving  the  octave 
tone  of  the  first  harmonic,  this  wave-length  will  be  twice  the  tube 
length,  instead  of  four  times  its  length.  The  condition  for  a  wave- 
length of  twice  the  tube  was  found  to  be  that  the  tube  must  be  open 
at  both  ends,  with  the  point  of  no  motion  but  varying  pressure 


ACOUSTICS  511 

in  the  middle.  Since  this  condition  is  not  true  of  the  stopped  tube, 
which  is  closed  at  one  end,  it  follows  that  the  octave  harmonic 
cannot  form.  Also,  any  other  harmonic  that  needs  to  have  both 
ends  of  the  tube  open  cannot  form  in  a  stopped  pipe.  On  the  other 
hand,  those  harmonics  will  appear,  in  a  stopped  pipe,  which  have  a 
wave-length  of  such  proportion  to  the  tube  that  one  end  may  be  a 
no-motion  point,  with  changing  pressure,  while  the  other  end  may 
be  a  constant-pressure  point,  with  free  motion.  A  little  figuring 
will  show  that  such  distance  between  points  of  no  motion  will  be 
two  thirds  the  tube  length,  or  two  fifths,  or  two  sevenths,  or  any 
fraction  with  an  odd-numbered  denominator.  As  the  change  from 
a  point  of  high  pressure  to  one  of  low  pressure  (from  crest  to  trough) 
is  only  half  a  wave-length,  it  follows  that  the  whole  wave-lengths 
will  be  four  thirds,  four  fifths,  four  sevenths,  the  length  of  the 
tube,  and  so  on.  As  the  fundamental  wave-length  was  four  times 
the  tube-length,  it  follows  that  the  harmonics  that  can  form  will 
have  wave-lengths  one  third,  one  fifth,  one  seventh,  etc.,  as  long 
as  the  fundamental  wave-length.  As  the  full  harmonic  series 
has  fractional  wave-lengths  of  one  half,  one  third,  one  fourth, 
one  fifth,  etc.,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  odd-numbered  harmonics 
are  absent  from  a  stopped  pipe,  only  the  even-numbered  ones 
forming. 

The  tone  quality  of  pipes  is  also  influenced  by  their  shape,  narrow 
ones  being  more  brilliant  than  wide  ones,  and  conical  tubes  more 
brilliant  than  cylindrical  ones,  because  the  overtones  are  present 
in  a  larger  proportion. 

The  organ,  as  stated  in  a  previous  chapter,  is  sometimes  provided 
with  a  double  rank  of  pipes,  instead  of  a  single  one,  to  produce  a 
tremolo  effect.  For  this  purpose  one  set  of  pipes  is  slightly  flat  of 
the  other  set.  That  means  that  its  wave-lengths  are  slightly  longer. 
As  two  pipes  sound  for  a  key,  one  from  each  set,  the  vibration- 
puffs  from  the  two,  being  unequally  far  apart,  will  reach  the  auditor 
at  different  intervals,  though  the  interval  for  each  pipe  is  constant. 
The  idea  may  be  illustrated  by  imagining  two  hammers  beating, 
one  four  times  a  second  and  the  other  five  times.  Their  strokes 
will  coincide  once  a  second.  When  the  vibration-puffs  coincide, 
at  regular  intervals,  they  strike  the  ear  with  increased  force,  just 
as  the  doubled  hammer-stroke  would  do.   Such  increases  in  power. 


.512  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

occurring  at  regular  intervals,  are  known  as  beats.  They  may  be 
heard  when  piano  strings  get  out  of  tune  with  one  another. 

The  sound  of  a  tube  or  pipe,  as  stated  above,  is  not  due  to  any 
air-current  passing  through  it,  but  merely  to  the  pipe's  ability  to 
reenforce  the  vibrations  at  its  mouthpiece.  For  this  reason  the 
pipe  may  be  said  to  vibrate  sympathetically,  or  in  synchronism, 
with  the  mouthpiece.  Yet  a  sapient  reporter  once  made  a  clear 
blunder  in  this  matter,  which  he  must  have  manufactured  out  of 
whole  cloth.  In  a  certain  city,  a  large  pipe  on  one  of  the  well-known 
organs  became  out  of  order,  and  would  not  sound.  A  mouse,  it 
seems,  had  located  a  home  near  the  flue  mouthpiece  of  the  pipe, 
and  thus  interfered  with  the  forming  of  the  vibrations.  Here  the 
reporter  "got  in  his  fine  work,"  describing  the  affair  at  length,  and 
stating  that  the  pipe  continued  silent  until  the  fullest  pressure  was 
put  on,  after  which  there  was  a  sudden  burst  of  noise,  and  the 
mouse's  nest  flew  out  against  the  ceiling.  If  the  reporter  had  known 
the  nature  of  flue-pipe  vibrations,  he  would  have  seen  that  they  are 
not  due  to  any  strong  air-current,  and  that  such  an  obstruction 
could  not  have  been  blown  out  in  the  way  that  he  claimed. 

The  vibrations  of  such  air-columns  are  said  to  synchronize  with 
those  formed  at  the  mouthpiece.  As  already  stated,  any  vibrating 
object  near  the  mouthpiece  will  cause  a  tube  to  sound,  provided 
that  the  vibrations  are  of  the  same  pitch  as  those  that  the  air-column 
can  give.  If  they  are  of  any  other  rate,  the  tube  will  not  respond. 
This  vibration  in  sympathy  with  something  else  vibrating  at  the 
same  rate  is  called  synchronism.  The  sound-boards  and  sound-boxes 
of  the  string  instruments  are  able  to  synchronize  with  different 
tones,  thus  reenforcing  all  notes  played  on  such  instruments.  Those 
instruments  that  have  a  second  set  of  strings,  vibrating  in  sym- 
pathy with  the  first,  depend  upon  this  synchronism.  The  strings 
corresponding  to  the  overtones  of  a  piano  note,  whenever  the  note 
is  held  by  the  damper  pedal,  will  vibrate  in  sympathy  with  those 
overtones.  This  synchronism  is  quite  a  delicate  matter,  a  few  vi- 
brations too  much  or  too  little  causing  it  to  vanish  almost  wholly. 

Objects  in  a  room  will  often  vibrate  in  synchronism  with  a  certain 
tone.  The  writer  remembers  a  vocal  duet,  heard  in  private,  at  which 
the  sounding  of  a  high  note  caused  a  gas  globe  to  be  shattered  into 
fragments.  The  heat  from  a  gas  flame  will  sometimes  crack  such  a 


ACOUSTICS  513 

globe;  but  in  this  case  the  vibrations  of  the  globe,  synchronizing 
with  those  of  the  voices,  gave  the  added  touch  necessary  for  the 
smash. 

A  similar  case  occurred  with  a  St.  Louis  organ,  built  for  an  exposi- 
tion. When  a  performer  was  plajdng  it,  he  struck  a  note  syn- 
chronizing with  the  skylight,  and  causing  the  latter  to  break.  Im- 
mediately the  ubiquitous  reporter  "put  in  his  oar."  He  stated  that 
the  player  was  in  no  wise  to  blame,  but  that  the  trouble  had  evi- 
dently been  caused  by  the  jarring  of  some  harsh  note  previously 
played  by  some  one  else.  The  first  part  was  correct  —  the  player 
was  not  at  fault;  but  the  synchronism  of  the  skylight  was  brought 
out,  not  by  a  harsh  note,  but  by  an  unusually  clear  and  pure  tone 
of  exactly  the  right  vibration  rate. 

Synchronism  has  even  been  used  in  the  plot  of  a  recent  detec- 
tive story.  One  of  the  mysterious  affairs  in  that  story  is  a  large 
and  strongly  built  harp,  which  seems  to  give  no  tone  when  its 
upper  strings  are  touched.  The  explanation  states  that  these 
strings  sounded  above  the  limits  of  human  hearing,  and  were  used 
to  make  similar  strings  on  another  such  instrument  vibrate  in  syn- 
chronism. So  far,  so  good;  but  this  synchronism,  used  as  a  means 
of  giving  signals,  was  supposed  to  carry  out  of  a  room,  across  a 
courtyard,  over  a  wall,  and  still  beyond  that  to  some  one  who  was 
hiding  outside.  As  high  tones  do  not  carry  so  far  as  low  ones,  the 
tones  in  real  life  would  not  cause  any  appreciable  effect  beyond  a 
very  few  yards'  distance. 

That  synchronism  may  produce  powerful  effects  is  shown  in  a 
number  of  ways.  A  regiment  marching  across  a  bridge  will  make  it 
sway  dangerously,  unless  the  men  are  allowed  to  "break  step." 
Many  buildings  vibrate  noticeably  in  synchronism  with  their  en- 
gines; and  once  a  new  cotton  mill  was  found  to  be  so  shaky  that  the 
engineer  could  not  be  permitted  to  use  certain  rates  of  speed.  The 
falling  of  the  walls  of  Jericho  may  well  be  "founded  on  fact"  and 
due  to  synchronism;  for  the  trumpet  blasts  from  outside,  if  of  just 
the  right  rate,  could  have  made  the  walls  shake  until  they  dropped. 
A  structure  will  not  necessarily  respond  to  a  single  tone;  but  any 
building  may  possibly  do  so. 

The  need  for  "voicing"  an  organ  depends  on  synchronism.  The 
wave-lengths  of  certain  notes  may  be  perfect  fractional  parts  of  the 


514  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

length  or  width  of  the  building  in  which  the  organ  is  set  up.  The 
air  in  the  room  will  vibrate  in  sympathy  with  such  notes,  and  make 
them  seem  stronger  than  the  rest;  a  result  that  the  maker  obviates 
by  weakening  the  tone  of  the  pipes  in  question.  It  is  possible  to 
voice  a  piano  to  suit  the  room  or  hall  containing  it. 

The  acoustics  of  halls  is  a  matter  not  well  understood.  In  Paris, 
the  hall  of  the  Conservatoire  is  old,  irregular,  and  badly  ventilated; 
but  it  is  excellent  acoustically,  and  the  authorities  will  allow  no 
improvements,  for  fear  of  injuring  this  excellence.  The  Trocadero, 
also  in  Paris,  was  built  on  the  idea  that  sound  would  be  reflected 
like  light;  but  it  proved  a  failure.  Sound  travels  through  the  air 
somewhat  as  waves  progress  in  the  ocean.  It  will  bend  around 
comers  and  obstacles,  and  thus  differs  from  light  in  its  action.  The 
excellence  of  buildings  with  semi-oval  roofs,  such  as  the  Salt  Lake 
City  Tabernacle,  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  sound  waves  swish  along 
the  curves  with  the  impetus  that  waves  show  when  washing  up  a 
sloping  beach.  The  ancients  may  have  known  more  about  acoustics 
than  we  do;  for  the  remains  of  their  open-air  buildings  show  seats 
sloped  at  an  angle  that  helps  the  acoustic  effect. 

Echoes  are  sometimes  a  source  of  trouble.  A  certain  Boston 
church,  when  taken  over  from  the  builders,  was  found  to  have  a 
perfect  echo,  which  naturally  rendered  preaching  impossible  in  the 
building.  The  church  members  could  not  remedy  the  defect.  An- 
other set  of  owners,  who  bought  the  edifice  at  a  low  figure,  finally 
eliminated  the  echo  by  floor  and  roof  alterations,  combined  with 
the  stringing  of  wires  and  the  building  of  a  gallery.  But  the  entire 
proceeding  was  a  "rule-of- thumb"  affair,  and  showed  that  we  still 
have  much  to  learn  about  architectural  acoustics. 


LX 

HOW  TO  READ  MUSIC 

In  an  earlier  chapter,  the  rise  of  notation  was  discussed.  Here 
the  notation  of  to-day  is  described,  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  wish 
to  learn  to  read  the  notes  from  the  printed  page. 

The  notes  on  the  piano  are  named  by  groups  of  twelve,  called 
octaves.  The  thirteenth  note  upward  from  any  given  note  (count- 
ing the  given  note  as  one)  is  called  the  octave  of  that  note;  while 
the  thirteenth  note  downward  from  any  given  note  is  the  octave 
below  it. 

On  piano  and  organ  keyboards,  the  groups  of  twelve  adjacent 
keys  consist  of  five  black  ones  and  seven  white  ones.  There  is  a 
black  key  between  white  ones  except  for  two  places  in  the  group. 
As  a  result,  the  five  black  keys  seem  grouped  in  two  and  in  three, 
with  a  white  key  between  the  black  ones  in  each  case. 

The  white  note  just  below  the  group  of  two  black  keys  is  known 
as  C.  The  letters  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  and  G  are  used  to  name  the 
white  keys.  The  deepest  notes  are  at  the  left,  the  highest  at  the 
right  as  one  faces  the  keyboard.  Each  A  is  of  course  the  second 
white  note  below  each  C,  each  D  the  first  white  note  above  the  C's, 
and  so  on. 

Each  black  key  is  known  either  as  the  sharp  of  the  white  key 
just  below  it,  or  the  flat  of  the  white  key  just  above  it. 

For  writing  or  printing  these  notes,  a  staff  of  five  parallel  lines 
is  used.  A  sign  representing  a  letter  (i.e.,  a  note)  is  put  on  one  of 
the  lines  of  this  staff,  to  show  the  position  of  the  note  named.  This 
sign  is  called  a  clef.  Both  the  lines  and  the  spaces  of  the  staff  are 
used,  so  the  position  of  a  note  on  one  of  these  lines  or  spaces  will 
determine  what  note  it  is. 

Three  clefs  are  used,  signifying  the  F  below  middle  C  of  the  piano, 
middle  C  itself,  and  the  G  just  above  middle  C. 

On  full-sized  pianos,  the  lowest  note  is  A.  This  A,  with  the  B-flat 
and  B  just  above  it,  are  known  as  belonging  to  what  is  called  the 


516 


THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 


sub-contra  octave.  The  C's,  from  left  to  right,  are  known  as  contra, 
great,  small,  one-line,  two-line,  three-line,  four-line,  and  five-line. 
Middle  C  is  the  same  as  one-line  C.  The  eleven  keys  next  above 
each  C  are  described  by  the  same  adjective  used  for  the  C.  Thus  we 
can  locate  any  note  on  the  piano  by  its  name  —  great  F,  three-line 
D-sharp,  two-line  A-flat,  etc.  The  so-called  international  pitch 
gives  two-line  C  517.3  vibrations  per  second,  while  philosophical 
pitch  gives  it  512.    Concert  pitch  is  variable,  but  always  high. 

The  sign  for  a  sharp  or  a  flat  is  placed  before  the  note,  the  staff 
lines  and  spaces  being  devoted  to  the  white  keys.  The  sign  for  a 
sharp  is  ft,  and  for  a  flat,  b.  The  sign  for  a  double-sharp,  some- 
times used,  is  ^.  The  sign  for  a  double  fiat  is  simply  two  flats,  bb. 
When  any  of  these  signs  have  been  in  force  and  are  to  be  neutralized, 
a  single  natural  sign  is  used.  The  natural  sign  is  i;.  For  a  single 
sharp  after  a  double  sharp,  ^  is  used;  and  for  a  single  flat  after  a 
double  flat,  t}l?  is  used. 

Illustrations  are  now  given,  on  staffs  using  the  three  different 
clefs. 


Gclef.     Middle    One-line    Two-line     One-line 
C.  G.  D-sharp.       A-flat. 


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Diatonic  scale  of  C. 

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C  Clef  (alto).      Middle  G.     Small  A-flat       One-line  B.       One-line  £-flat.     Small  F-sharp. 

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F  Clef.         Middle  C.        Small  F-sharp.        Great  B-flat.        Great  F.        Great  D-sharp. 


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The  F  clef  is  now  usually  fixed  in  position,  though  it  has  been  used 
on  the  third  line  of  the  staff,  instead  of  the  fourth.  In  its  regular 
place  it  is  called  the  bass  clef,  while  on  the  third  line  it  is  known  as 
the  baritone  clef.  The  C  clef  may  be  placed  on  the  first  (lowest), 
second,  third,  or  fourth  line  of  the  staff,  in  which  case  it  is  known 
respectively  as  the  soprano,  mezzo-soprano,  alto,  or  tenor  clef.  The 
G  clef  always  places  one-line  G  on  the  second  line  of  the  staff,  though 


HOW  TO  READ  MUSIC  517 

in  old  music  it  was  sometimes  used  on  the  first  line,  and  known  as 
the  French  violin  clef.  In  piano  music,  two  staffs  are  usually  em- 
ployed, the  upper  one,  for  the  right  hand,  being  in  the  G  clef,  while 
the  lower  one,  for  the  left  hand,  is  in  the  F  clef. 

As  may  be  seen  from  the  illustrations,  notes  that  come  above  or 
below  the  staff  are  notated  on  short  extra  lines,  or  in  the  spaces 
made  by  these  lines.  The  extra  lines  are  known  as  leger  lines. 

Sometimes,  when  several  notes  in  succession  occur  above  the 
staff,  or  below  it,  a  change  of  the  clef  will  save  the  trouble  of  writing 
many  extra  leger  lines.  This  change  may  be  found  fairly  often  in 
piano  music,  where  the  F  clef  is  sometimes  used  on  the  upper  staff, 
or  the  G  clef  on  the  lower,  for  a  short  time.  The  clef  in  use  is  always 
printed  at  the  beginning  of  each  line.  The  new  clef  is  printed  wher- 
ever it  is  desired  to  come,  and  when  its  action  is  finished,  the  original 
clef  must  be  inserted  again. 

Oiu*  octave  is  made  up  of  twelve  equal  semitones.  The  use  of 
these  twelve  in  order  forms  what  is  known  as  the  chromatic  scale. 

Intervals  are  named  in  accordance  with  the  number  of  semitones 
they  contain,  or  the  distance  between  the  two  scale-degrees  forming 
the  interval.  The  smallest  interval  is  of  course  the  semitone,  coming 
between  E  and  F  or  B  and  C  among  the  white  keys,  or  between  any 
white  key  and  an  adjacent  black  key. 

Here  a  musical  rule  complicates  matters  by  allowing  the  intervals 
to  be  named  from  the  scale  degrees.  Thus  the  interval  from  C  to 
D-flat  is  regarded  as  a  minor  (small)  second;  while  the  interval  from 
C  to  C-sharp,  which  is  really  the  same  as  the  preceding  one  in  size, 
is  called  an  augmented  prime,  or  augmented  unison. 

Octaves,  fifths,  and  fourths  are  known  as  perfect,  diminished,  or 
augmented.  An  octave  from  D  to  D,  for  instance,  is  a  perfect  octave; 
from  D  below  to  D-sharp  above,  an  augmented  octave;  and  from 
D-sharp  below  to  D  above,  a  diminished  octave.  A  fifth  from  C  to 
G  is  called  perfect,  and  any  other  fifth  of  the  same  number  of  semi- 
tones is  called  perfect;  from  B  to  F,  or  C-sharp  to  G,  or  C  to  G-flat, 
is  a  diminished  fifth.  From  C  to  F,  E  to  A,  etc.,  is  a  perfect  fourth; 
while  from  F  to  B,  or  C  to  F-sharp,  or  E  to  A-sharp,  is  an  aug- 
mented fourth.  Diminished  fourths  would  be  of  the  same  size  as 
major  thirds,  while  augmented  fifths  would  be  the  same  as  minor 
sixths. 


518  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

Seconds,  thirds,  sixths,  or  sevenths  are  spoken  of  as  major,  minor, 
and  sometimes  augmented  and  diminished. 

From  C  upward  to  B,  or  any  other  seventh  of  that  size,  is  a  major 
seventh;  from  G  upward  to  F,  or  any  seventh  of  that  size,  is  a  minor 
seventh;  while  from  C-sharp  upward  to  B-flat,  or  any  seventh  of 
that  size,  is  a  diminished  seventh.  From  C  to  A,  G  to  E,  or  any 
sixth  of  that  size,  is  a  major  sixth;  from  C  to  A-flat,  or  G-sharp  to  E, 
or  E  to  C,  or  any  sixth  of  that  size,  is  a  minor  sixth.  Theoretically, 
from  C-sharp  to  A-flat  would  be  a  diminished  sixth;  but  this  would 
be  the  same  in  size  as  a  perfect  fifth.  Browning,  in  "A  Toccata  of 
Galuppi,"  wrote  of  "Sixths,  diminished,  sigh  on  sigh";  but  that 
would  be  a  succession  of  fifths  in  reality,  and  such  a  progression  was 
strictly  forbidden  by  the  harmony  teachers.  To  resume,  the  inter- 
val from  C  to  E,  D  to  F-sharp,  or  any  third  of  that  size,  is  a  major 
third;  while  from  C  to  E-flat,  D  to  F,  C-sharp  to  E,  or  any  third  of 
that  size,  is  a  minor  third.  From  D  to  E,  G  to  A,  E  to  F-sharp,  or 
any  second  of  that  size,  is  a  major  second  (whole  tone) ;  from  E  to  F, 
G  to  A-flat,  C-sharp  to  D,  or  any  second  of  that  size,  is  a  minor  sec- 
ond; while  from  F  to  G-sharp,  or  any  interval  of  that  size,  is  an 
augmented  second.  Some  illustrations  are  given  below. 


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The  so-called  major  scale,  starting  with  any  one  of  the  twelve 
notes  in  the  octave,  consists  of  the  following  intervals,  in  ascending 
order:  —  tone,  tone,  semitone,  tone,  tone,  tone,  semitone.  The 
scale  of  C  major  is  therefore  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  A,  B,  C,  and  consists 
wholly  of  white  keys.  But  when  we  attempt  to  form  a  major  scale 
on  any  note  other  than  C,  we  find  that  some  black  keys  must  be 
used  to  keep  the  scale-intervals  correct.  Thus  the  scale  of  G  major 
needs  F-sharp  instead  of  F;  while  the  scale  of  F  major  needs  B-flat 
instead  of  B.  The  sharps  or  flats  needed  for  any  given  scale  (key) 
are  put  with  the  clef  at  the  beginning  of  each  staff,  and  are  known 
in  that  place  as  the  signature.  The  keys  needing  sharps  are  G,  D,  A, 


HOW  TO  READ  MUSIC  519 

E,  B,  and  F-sharp.  The  sharps  needed  number  from  one  to  six,  in 
the  following  order:  —  F-sharp,  C-sharp,  G-sharp,  D-sharp,  A- 
sharp,  and  E-sharp,  the  last  being  really  the  note  F.  The  key  of  G 
demands  F-sharp;  the  key  of  D,  F-sharp  and  C-sharp;  and  so  on. 
The  keys  needing  flats  are  F,  B-flat,  E-flat,  A-flat,  D-flat,  and  G- 
fiat,  the  last  being  the  same  as  F-sharp.  The  flats  needed,  in  order, 
are  B-flat,  E-flat,  A-flat,  D-flat,  G-flat,  and  C-flat,  the  last  being  the 
same  as  B.  The  key  of  F  needs  B-flat;  the  key  of  B-flat  needs  B-flat 
and  E-flat;  and  so  on.  The  keys  of  C-flat  and  C-sharp  exist,  but 
are  rarely  used. 

Any  sharps  or  flats  used  elsewhere  than  in  the  signature  are 
called  accidentals.  These  remain  in  force  to  the  end  of  their  meas- 
ure; they  may  affect  a  note  held  from  one  measure  into  the  next. 
Usually  an  accidental  is  held  to  affect  any  octave  of  the  note  al- 
tered; but  such  octave  notes  should  really  have  the  accidentals 
written  in.  Accidentals  should  be  used  in  all  cases  where  any  pos- 
sible doubt  might  be  caused  by  their  absence. 

Examples  of  signatures:  — 

E-flat.  A.  A-flat.         F-sharp,  F.  B.,^  E- 


^g^l^§f^illg^^§^ 


Each  major  scale  has  related  to  it  a  minor  scale,  which  keeps 
the  same  signature,  but  begins  and  ends  two  scale  degrees  below  the 
major  scale,  i.e.,  a  third  below,  or  a  sixth  above.  Thus  C  major  has 
the  scale  of  A  minor  as  its  relative  scale,  D  major  has  B  minor,  A- 
flat  major  has  F  minor,  and  so  on. 

If  a  scale  is  named  only  by  its  keynote,  the  major  scale  is  meant. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  minor  scale,  the  harmonic  and  the  me- 
lodic. The  harmonic  minor  has  the  intervals  of  tone,  semitone,  tone, 
tone,  semitone,  augmented  second,  and  semitone.  The  harmonic  A 
minor  scale  would  thus  be  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G-sharp,  and  A.  The 
melodic  minor  has  different  intervals  in  two  cases,  according  to 
whether  the  scale  ascends  or  descends.  Its  ascending  intervals  are 
tone,  semitone,  tone,  tone,  tone,  tone,  and  semitone.  The  melodic 
scale  of  A  minor,  ascending,  will  therefore  consist  of  A,  B,  C,  D,  E, 
F-sharp,  G-sharp,  and  A.  In  descending,  its  notes  are  A,  G,  F,  E,  D, 


520 


THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 


C,  B,  and  A.  The  relative  minor  of  any  major  scale  begins  on  the 
sixth  degree  of  the  latter.  Some  examples  are  given  below. 


D-minor,  hannonic. 


C-minor,  harmonic. 


i 


fey— g- 


-/g    <?- 


-z& — g'- 


-s— «*- 


C-minor,  melodic. 


-z^-&- 


-&- 


i 


w. 


%^^ 


'$^—\yz 


w 


-g? '9 


F-sharp  minor,  melodic. 


-g* zr 


-^ — zr 


5E^^^?Efe|: 


W 


-sr 


-<9- 


'9 — i-r 


-&- 


-<g      a 


:-i 


F-stiarp  minor,  harmonic. 


B-minor,  harmonic. 


t^.    g 


-P-^- 


ej     g 


B 


-Z5— «'- 


r>      ^ 


-^ 


i 


B-minor,  melodic. 


:|gi|g=g=fa|i 


33* 


■t^     g- 


-g; — ^ 


-^g — >c^ 


-^ z?- 


The  choice  of  a  key  is  not  made  at  random.  On  the  piano,  high 
keys  are  more  brilliant,  lower  ones  more  solid.  In  vocal  music,  the 
range  of  the  voices  must  be  considered.  In  the  orchestra,  many  in- 
struments are  easiest  to  play  in  those  keys  that  have  the  fewest 
sharps  or  flats. 

Some  musicians  associate  certain  emotions  with  certain  keys. 
Such  ideas  are  merely  individual  whims,  and  no  two  systems  agree. 

The  major  and  minor  scales  are  the  ones  commonly  used  in  our 
music;  but  others  exist,  and  are  sometimes  employed  by  composers. 

The  Gregorian  scales,  or  tones,  have  been  described  in  the  section 
on  the  evolution  of  music.  They  are  still  employed  in  the  services 
of  the  Catholic  Church.  At  times  a  composer  will  introduce  music 
written  in  these  scales,  to  give  a  religious  effect  or  suggestion. 

The  Hungarian  gypsy  scale  has  been  used  by  Schubert,  Liszt, 
Paderewski,  and  other  composers.  This  scale  is  like  the  harmonic 
minor,  with  an  additional  augmented  second  and  semitone  instead 
of  two  tones.  Its  intervals  correspond  with  those  of  a  scale  con- 
sisting of  A,  B,  C,  D-sharp,  E,  F,  G-sharp,  and  A.   It»  effects  are 


HOW  TO  READ  MUSIC  521 

strongly  expressive,  in  both  the  sad  and  the  fiery  styles  that  the 
gypsies  use. 

The  Byzantine  scale,  little  used  in  our  music,  has  intervals  corres- 
ponding to  a  scale  on  the  notes  C,  D-flat,  E,  F,  G,  A-flat,  B,  and  C. 

The  pentatonic  scale  has  been  mentioned  in  connection  with 
Chinese  music. 

Some  Oriental  races  have  scales  that  divide  the  octave  into  five, 
six,  or  seven  equal  intervals.  In  the  modem  French  school,  Debussy 
has  made  frequent  use  of  a  whole-tone  scale,  consisting  of  intervals 
like  those  given  by  the  notes  C,  D,  E,  F-sharp,  G-sharp,  A-sharp, 
and  C.  This  scale  is  not  used  by  itself,  but  its  effects  are  blended 
with  our  more  usual  scales. 

The  Hindoos  have  a  scale  consisting  of  smaller  intervals  than 
ours,  such  as  third-tones,  or  even  quarter-tones.  These  small  inter- 
vals are  grouped  by  them  into  many  different  modes. 

The  different  notes,  or  degrees,  of  our  scales  are  given  certain 
names.  In  ascending  order,  these  are  the  tonic,  supertonic,  mediant, 
subdominant,  dominant,  submediant,  and  leading  tone,  or  subtonic. 
By  means  of  these  it  is  possible  to  describe  a  modulation,  or  change 
of  key. 

Our  music  is  divided  by  vertical  lines  (bars,  bar-lines)  into  meas- 
ures of  equal  length,  or  time- value.  Our  notes  are  made  to  signify  a 
definite  length  of  time  in  the  measure,  according  to  whether  they 
are  solid,  or  merely  outlined,  or  provided  with  stems,  or  have  on  the 
stems  little  appendages  called  flags.  The  smallest  notes  have  most 
flags.  Sometimes  such  notes  of  small  value  are  joined  together  by 
lines  through  their  stems,  called  ties;  in  which  case  there  must  be 

Sta  «    ^i     «       Kc    «    <5c    «     Wa     M    55c«Hc    «    SBcWSart 

2  t  a         •£  si         sJgS'giEsg 


i  »         I         5       f      p     If    11§- 

«  O  c  £  *  a       S.£ 

«  B  Q  OQ  a        Q-c 


522  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

as  many  lines  as  there  would  have  been  flags  on  each  separate  note. 
Any  note  may  be  replaced  by  a  rest,  which  indicates  a  pause  of  a 
certain  duration.  The  various  notes,  with  their  American  names 
above  and  English  names  below,  are  given  on  page  521.  Each  note 
is  followed  by  a  rest  of  the  same  value  as  the  note.  256th  notes  have 
been  used,  but  are  uncommon.  Beethoven  and  others  have  used 
128th  notes. 

So-called  "cadenza"  notes  have  no  definite  value,  but  are 
grouped  together  by  joined  stems  to  fill  a  certain  space  as  a  whole. 
These  may  be  found  in  the  works  of  Liszt,  Chopin,  and  others.  The 
notes  usually  fill  one  or  more  measures,  though  it  is  not  always 
necessary  to  compress  them  into  exact  time.  The  result  is  a  free 
running  phrase,  which  the  performer  may  take  at  any  suitable  pace. 
Cadenza  notes  are  always  printed  in  a  smaller  size  than  ordinary 
notes. 

Artificial  groups  may  be  made  by  joining  an  unusual  number  of 
notes  with  a  slur,  and  placing  above  it  a  figure  equaling  the  number 
of  notes.  This  means  that  such  a  number  of  equal  notes  must  be 
played  in  the  time-value  of  the  place  that  they  occupy  in  the  meas- 
ure. An  artificial  group  usually  occupies  some  simple  fraction  of  a 
measure,  or  of  a  beat. 

The  simplest  of  such  groups  is  one  consisting  of  two  artificial 
notes  to  replace  three  normal  ones.  The  two  are  written  in  the  next 
larger  denomination  than  the  three,  and  joined  by  a  slur  with  the 
figure  2  above  it. 

The  slur,  which  will  be  discussed  later,  is  a  slightly  curved  line 
placed  horizontally,  or  nearly  so,  above  or  below  the  notes  that  it  is 
intended  to  influence. 

Most  common  among  artificial  groups  is  the  triplet,  in  which 
three  notes  are  played  to  replace  two.  The  three  are  written  in  the 
same  denomination  that  the  two  would  have.  It  is  possible  for  a 
triplet  to  consist  of  two  notes,  the  first  having  twice  the  value  of  the 
other,  or  vice  versa. 

By  artificial  grouping,  four  notes  may  be  made  to  replace  three. 

Any  number  of  notes  may  be  made  into  an  artificial  group.  But 
if  the  number  is  large,  it  is  customary  to  write  the  notes  as  cadenza 
notes,  with  no  figure  added  above. 

The  sextolet  is  a  group  of  six  notes  replacing  four  of  the  same  de- 


HOW  TO  READ  MUSIC 


523 


nomination.  The  true  sextolet  is  taken  either  as  one  group,  with  the 
accent  on  the  first  note  of  the  six,  or  as  three  groups  of  two  notes, 
bringing  an  accent  on  the  first,  third,  and  fifth  notes.  A  sextolet 
that  divides  into  halves  is  wrongly  written,  and  should  have  been 
made  into  two  triplets.  Even  the  greatest  composers  have  been  care- 
less in  this  matter,  and  have  made  this  mistake  hundreds  of  times. 
Some  examples  of  artificial  groupings  are  given  here,  in  single 
measures. 


Triplets. 


Doublet. 


Quadruplet. 


Qulntolet. 


Quintolet. 


Septolet. 


Septolet. 


E|e^--+£^gl^^^^ 


PTf  •- 


?^ 


g 


Sextolet,  correctly  played. 


Large  group. 


11 


^-h^ 


^ 


^S^^ 


TT  W  m-s-» 


W^ 


The  measure  consists  of  a  value  that  is  determined  by  figures 
placed  at  the  beginning  of  a  piece,  or  at  any  place  where  a  change  in 
value  is  desired.  In  the  latter  case,  it  is  usual  to  let  the  figures  come 
just  after  a  double  bar  Une,  or  an  unusually  thick  line. 

The  figures  are  always  in  the  form  of  a  fraction,  the  upper  num- 
ber showing  how  many  notes  of  a  certain  value  make  up  a  measure, 
and  the  lower  number  telling  what  that  value  is.  Thus  4/4  means 
measures  of  a  value  equal  to  four  quarter  notes;  3/8  means  meas- 
ures of  a  value  equal  to  three  eighth  notes;  and  so  on.  The  fraction 
4/4  is  equal  to  unity,  which  would  be  simpler  to  write;  but  the 
former  must  be  used,  because  it  implies  accents  in  certain  parts  of 
the  measure.  The  sign  r^  ,  used  to  replace  4/4,  is  not  the  let- 
ter C,  but  two  thirds  of a  circle.  In  the  old  days  the  monks 

held  triple  rhythm  perfect,  because  it  suggested  the  holy  Trin- 
ity; and  they  represented  it  by  a  circle.  Even  (double)  rhythm 
was  only  two  thirds  of  the  triple  rhythm,  and  was  represented  by 


5U  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWTEDGE 

that  much  of  the  complete  circle.  The  4/4  rhythm  is  known  also 
as  common  time.  For  2/2  time  the  sign  ^|t  is  used,  and  for 
4/2   time      ^E     or        /;  /k-      The    2/2    rhythm 


IS 


^Ijgjj  ^''  "alia  breve/'  and  the  4/2   is 

sometimes  spoken  of  as  "long  alia  breve." 

In  even  rhythms  the  measure  divides  naturally  into  halves;  but 
in  the  simplest  cases  the  halves  themselves  are  single  beats.  When 
the  halves  subdivide  evenly  one  might  speak  of  the  rhythm  as 
double  even  rhythm,  though  this  distinction  is  not  made.  Even 
rhythms  include  2/1,  2/2,  2/4,  2/8,  4/1,  4/2,  4/4,  and  4/8. 

Triple  rhythms  are  those  in  which  the  measure  divides  naturally 
into  three  beats.  They  include  3/1,  3/2,  3/4,  3/8,  and  3/16. 

Compound  even  rhythms  are  those  in  which  the  measure  divides 
into  halves  or  quarters,  and  these  in  turn  divide  into  three  parts. 
Examples  of  such  rhythm  are  6/2, 6/4,  6/8, 6/16, 12/4, 12/8, 12/16, 
and  24/16. 

Compound  triple  rhythms  are  those  in  which  the  measure  divides 
into  thirds,  and  each  part  subdivides  again  into  thirds.  Examples 
of  this  are  9/4,  9/8,  and  9/16.  Even  18/8  has  been  used,  and  ac- 
cented like  a  3/4  measure  with  double  triplets. 

Peculiar  rhythms  are  those  in  which  the  measure  divides  into  five 
or  seven  parts.  They  include  5/2,  5/4,  5/8,  5/16,  7/2,  7/4, 7/8,  and 
7/16. 

At  first  sight  it  would  seem  that  the  number  of  beats  in  a  measure 
would  determine  its  speed,  and  that  the  printing  of  these  beats  in 
notes  of  larger  or  smaller  denominations  would  denote  the  pace. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  a  3/8  piece  with  a  slow  tempo  mark  might  be 
slower  than  a  3/4  piece  with  a  rapid  tempo  mark;  but  usually  the 
smaller  denominations  call  for  greater  speed,  and  a  certain  lightness 
of  style. 

Complex  rhythms  occur  in  certain  compositions.  These  are  made 
by  the  playing  together  of  measures  made  up  of  dissimilar  rhythms. 

Accents  in  music  are  either  natural  or  artificial.  The  natural  ac- 
cents are  those  that  come  at  definite  times  to  show  the  rhythm  of 
the  measure.  Artificial  accents  are  those  that  are  marked  especially, 
by  certain  letters  or  signs. 

In  the  simple  even  rhythms,  with  two  beats  to  the  measure,  the 
first  beat  is  accented  slightly.   The  same  is  true  when  there  are 


HOW  TO  READ  MUSIC  525 

three  beats  in  the  measure.  With  four  beats,  the  first  receives  an 
accent,  and  the  third  another,  but  slighter,  accent.  With  six  beats 
in  the  measure,  the  first  receives  the  chief  accent,  and  the  fourth 
the  slighter  accent.  With  five  beats  in  the  measure,  the  first  always 
receives  an  accent,  while  the  secondary  accent  may  come  on  the 
third  or  the  fourth  beat,  or  may  be  absent  altogether.  With  seven 
beats,  the  first  is  accented,  and  either  the  fourth  or  the  fifth  re- 
ceives the  secondary  accent.  With  nine  beats,  the  first  is  accented, 
while  very  slight  secondary  accents  come  on  the  fourth  and  seventh 
beats.  With  twelve  beats,  the  measure  is  divided  into  four  parts, 
each  divided  into  three.  The  main  accent  comes  on  the  first  beat,  a 
very  slight  one  on  the  fourth,  a  little  stronger  one  (the  secondary 
accent)  on  the  seventh,  and  the  slightest  of  the  accents  on  the  tenth 
beat.  The  same  holds  true  when  4/4  measures  consist  of  eighth- 
note  triplets,  making  twelve  equal  notes  in  the  measure.  In  con- 
nection with  natural  accents,  it  will  be  readily  noticed  that  most 
waltzes,  though  written  in  3/4  rhythm,  are  accented  as  if  two  of 
their  measures  were  really  one  measure  in  6/4  rhythm.  Rimsky- 
Kcrsakov  has  used  an  11/8  rhythm,  and  Scriabine  a  15/8  rhythm, 
of  which  the  former  is  a  4/4  rhythm  varied  by  occasional  bars  in 
3/4  rh3rthm,  while  the  latter  is  made  of  five  groups  having  three 
beats  apiece. 

The  amount  of  power  to  be  used  in  plajing  a  piece  is  regulated 
by  the  use  of  the  letters  p,  m,  and  /,  which  stand  for  the  words  piano 
(soft),  mezzo  (mediimi),  and  forte  (strong  or  loud).  The  usual  scale 
of  dynamic  marks,  from  the  softest  to  the  loudest,  runs  from  pp 
to  ff.  It  consists  of  pp  (pianissimo,  very  soft),  p  (piano,  soft),  mp 
(mezzo-piano,  moderately  soft),  mf  (mezzo-forte,  moderately  loud), 
/  (forte,  loud),  and  ff  (fortissimo,  very  loud).  For  more  extreme 
effects,  ppp  and  ///  have  been  used.  Some  composers  have  gone  as 
far  as  ////,  while  Verdi  even  used  ppppp  in  his  "Requiem,"  and 
Tschaikowsky  used  both  extremes  freely  in  his  "Symphonic  Pa- 
thetique.'*  Such  excesses  are  applicable  only  to  orchestral  music, 
which  admits  of  strong  contrasts  and  delicate  shading. 

These  letter-directions  are  usually  supposed  to  remain  in  force 
until  contradicted.  But  to  make  assurance  doubly  sure,  or  to  avoid 
error,  the  composer  may  put  after  any  of  them  the  word  sempre, 
meaning  always. 


526  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

An  increase  in  power  is  called  for  by  the  word  crescendo,  or  its 
abbreviation  cresc,  followed  by  a  long  dotted  line  extending  until 
the  desired  climax  of  power  is  reached.  Such  a  gradual  increase  in 
power  may  be  called  for  also  by  the  use  of  two  lines  that  start  from 
a  single  point  and  diverge  gradually  to  show  increasing  loudness. 
For  the  reverse  effect,  a  gradual  softening  may  be  called  for  by  the 
words  decrescendo  or  diminuendo,  or  by  the  abbreviations  decresc.  or 
dim.,  followed  by  the  dotted  line  of  desired  length;  or  the  softening 
may  be  marked  by  two  lines  that  start  a  little  distance  apart  and 
gradually  converge  to  a  single  point. 

An  increase  of  pace  is  called  for  by  the  words  pi'U  mosso.  A  grad- 
ual increase  is  called  for  by  the  word  accelerando,  or  its  abbrevia- 
tion accel,  A  sudden  decrease  of  pace  is  demanded  by  the  words 
meno  mosso;  and  a  gradual  decrease  by  the  word  ritardando  or  its 
abbreviation  rit.  A  number  of  the  most  important  terms  used  in 
music  have  been  defined  in  the  following  chapter,  and  they  may  be 
investigated  whenever  necessary. 

The  tempo  marks,  showing  about  what  general  speed  is  desired, 
are  tabulated  here  for  reference.  FVom  the  slowest  to  the  fastest, 
they  are  grave,  gravely,  heavily;  largo,  largely,  broadly;  larghetto, 
less  broadly;  adagio,  slowly;  andante,  fairly  slow-moving;  andantino, 
less  slow  than  andante;  moderato,  at  a  moderate  pace;  allegretto,  some- 
what lively;  allegro,  lively,  fast;  presto,  very  fast;  and  prestissimo , 
faster  yet,  the  most  rapid  tempo  of  all.  Andante  and  andantino  are 
not  used  in  their  strict  Italian  sense. 

The  artificial  accents  are  those  that  have  to  be  marked  in  espe- 
cially wherever  desired.  The  two  signs  A  and  >  both  call  for  a  loud 
accent.  Either  one  may  be  used  in  a  composition;  but  if  both  are 
used  at  different  places  in  the  same  piece,  then  the  former  calls  for  a 
louder  accent  than  the  latter.  Accent  is  implied  by  staccato,  or  by  an 
extra  stem  on  a  note.  Accent  is  called  for  by  the  letters  sf,  sfz,  or 
Jz,  which  are  abbreviations  of  the  word  sforzando  or  forzando.  The 
letters  sffz,  coming  from  the  superlative  sforzandissimo,  demand  a 
very  loud  accent.  The  letters  fp  call  for  a  loud  note,  or  chord,  fol- 
lowed by  softness.  The  letters  sfp  indicate  a  very  loud  note  followed 
by  softness.  The  letters  rf  or  rfz,  coming  from  the  word  riv^ 
forzando,  mean  a  fair  amount  of  fulness  without  excessive  loudness. 
The  tenuto  mark,  consisting  of  a  dash  above  a  note,  signifies  a  cling- 


HOW  TO  READ  MUSIC  527 

ing,  expressive  accent.  The  marcato,  a  dash  with  a  dot  below  it, 
implies  the  same  sort  of  accent,  but  the  note  is  to  be  slightly  sepa- 
rated from  these  before  and  after  it.  The  portamento,  which  might 
better  be  called  the  demi-marcato,  consists  of  two  or  more  notes 
under  a  slur,  with  dots  over  each  note  and  beneath  the  slur.  In  this 
case  each  note  is  given  the  clinging  accent  and  slight  separation.  If 
only  the  second  of  two  such  slurred  notes  has  a  dot  over  it,  the  first 
note  receives  the  clinging  accent  and  is  held  to  its  full  length,  while 
the  second  note  is  lighter  and  shorter,  almost  staccato.  A  famous 
piano  teacher  once  explained  portamento  to  a  pupil  by  saying,  "Play 
the  notes  as  if  you  were  trying  to  give  a  legato  with  one  finger." 

The  word  staccato  implies  that  a  note  is  to  be  shortened,  and 
given  with  a  quick  release.  The  staccato  effect  is  most  often  called 
for  by  the  use  of  a  dot  over  each  note  that  is  to  be  so  treated.  Some- 
times a  thin  vertical  wedge  is  used,  instead  of  the  dot.  If  both  dot 
and  wedge  are  found  in  the  same  piece,  then  the  wedge  calls  for  a 
more  abrupt  staccato  than  the  dot.  Staccato  usually  implies  some 
degree  of  accent;  and  in  a  few  cases  the  dot  has  been  used  to  indicate 
accent  without  staccato.  The  opposite  of  staccato  is  legato,  which 
means  a  smooth,  well-connected  style  of  playing. 

When  the  rhythm  of  a  piece  is  altered,  and  a  false  rhythm  sub- 
stituted briefly  and  unexpectedly,  the  process  is  known  as  "s3nico- 
pation."  The  odd  accenting  of  some  rag-time  music  is  really  syn- 
copation, though  not  all  syncopation  is  rag-time.  The  result  may  be 
reached  by  several  different  methods.  A  long  note  may  be  written 
on  the  unaccented  part  of  the  measure,  so  that  it  has  to  be  held  over 
the  place  where  the  accent  would  come.  Accents  may  be  placed  on 
the  unaccented  part  of  the  measure.  The  accented  notes  may  be 
made  short,  while  tenuto  marks  are  placed  over  the  unaccented 
notes.  Rests  may  be  written  on  the  accented  beats  of  the  measure, 
and  notes  or  chords  on  the  unaccented  parts.  Short  slurs  may  be 
used  to  connect  unaccented  notes  with  the  accented  notes  that 
follow.  Finally,  notes  may  be  written  so  that  they  begin  on  the  sec- 
ond half  of  a  beat,  and  extend  beyond  the  next  accent.  In  all  cases, 
the  syncopation  should  not  be  carried  on  for  a  long  time,  for  if 
continued  too  far  the  false  rhythm  will  seem  to  be  the  true  one. 
Examples  of  the  different  methods  of  obtaining  syncopated  effects 
are  given  on  page  528. 


528  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 


P^^ 


i 


fajis-flc^j^rnrTT^ 


The  slur  is  a  slightly  curved  line,  placed  horizontally  (or  nearly 
so)  above  or  below  the  notes  it  is  intended  to  affect.  The  long  slur, 
extending  over  more  than  two  notes,  came  originally  from  violin 
playing,  in  which  it  is  used  to  mark  the  notes  to  be  played  by  a 
single  bow-stroke.  It  was  then  adopted  for  vocal  music,  to  show 
how  many  syllables  were  to  be  sung  at  a  breath.  In  piano  music,  the 
long  slur  may  show  either  the  notes  that  make  up  a  phrase,  or  a 
legato  style.  It  may  be  used  after  staccato  work,  to  show  a  resump- 
tion of  ordinary  playing,  even  without  any  marked  legato. 

The  short  slur,  over  two  notes,  has  some  especial  rules.  If  the 
notes  are  small,  the  first  one  is  accented  and  held  for  its  full  length, 
while  the  second  is  made  lighter  and  shorter.  But  if  the  notes  ex- 
ceed quarter  notes  in  length,  the  second  one  must  not  be  shortened. 
If  the  second  note  is  longer  than  the  first,  the  slur  should  be  treated 
simply  as  a  legato  mark.  In  any  rapid  passage,  a  short  slur  is  to  re- 
ceive only  a  slight  accent. 

The  slur  is  used  also  to  bind  together  two  notes  of  the  same  pitch, 
in  which  case  the  two  are  played  as  one.  When  the  slur  is  used  for 
this  purpose,  it  is  called  a  tie,  and  placed  so  that  its  ends  almost 
touch  the  notes  that  are  to  be  joined  together. 

Any  note  may  be  lengthened  by  half  its  value  if  a  dot  is  placed 
directly  after  the  body  of  the  note.  If  two  dots  are  used,  the  note  is 
lengthened  by  a  half  and  a  quarter  of  its  value.  Examples  of  dotted 
and  tied  notes  are  given  here. 


equals    -f      }*  f"        equals 


Two  dots  in  the  two  middle  spaces  of  the  staff,  as  shown  in  the 
margin,  are  used  to  indicate  the  repeat  of  all  or  part  of  ii 

what  has  gone  before.  The  two  dots  are  always  placed  just  n 

before  a  double  bar,  which  may  have  extra  marks  above  and  below 
the  staff  to  attract  attention.  If  no  previous  dots  are  found,  the 


HOW  TO  READ  IVIUSIC  529 

repeat  is  to  be  made  from  the  beginning  of  the  piece.  But  if  other 
dots  are  previously  found,  this  time  just  after  a  double  bar,  the  re- 
peat is  to  be  made  from  that  point. 

Very  often  there  will  be  what  are  known  as  first  and  second  end- 
ings for  the  repeated  portion  of  a  piece.  These  endings  are  shown 
by  the  use  of  long  horizontal  lines  over  the  requisite  notes,  each  line 
being  marked  with  its  proper  figure.  The  figure  1  will  come  first, 
with  its  line,  which  will  end  with  a  short  vertical  line  at  the  repeat 
dots.  In  repeating,  everything  under  the  line  marked  1  is  omitted, 
the  player  proceeding  from  just  before  the  figure  1  to  just  after  the 
repeat  dots,  where  he  will  find  a  new  ending  indicated  by  the  figure 
2  and  another  horizontal  line  above  the  staff. 

D.C.  and  D.S.  mean,  "  repeat  from  beginning,"  or  "from  the  sign." 

If  a  single  measure  is  to  be  repeated,  the  sign  '/•  is  placed  in  each 
of  the  succeeding  measures  where  such  repeat  is  desired.  But  if  any 
other  material  intervenes,  the  original  measure  must  occur  again 
before  the  repeat  sign  can  be  used.  In  other  words,  the  sign  always 
repeats  the  last  measure  previously  printed. 

A  figure  filling  less  than  a  measure  may  be  marked  for  repeat  by  the 


following  signs: —  — ^ — -         ^        -f%(*    \   '   s   '    ^ 


The  above  is  often  used  for  what  are  known  as  broken  chords,  in 
which  the  notes  of  a  chord  are  played  in  succession  instead  of  simul- 
taneously. The  last  of  the  above  examples  is  an  illustration. 

When  a  note  of  small  value  is  repeated  a  number  of  times,  an  ab- 
breviation may  be  made,  by  which  one  large  note  is  written  to  fill 
all  the  time  value  (or  as  much  of  it  as  possible),  and  signs  added  to 
show  that  small  notes  of  a  certain  denomination  are  to  be  repeated 
until  the  value  of  the  large  note  has  been  filled.  Lines  through  the 
note-stem,  or  under  the  note  if  there  is  no  stem,  are  used  as  the 
sign  for  such  repeated  notes;  and  the  number  of  lines  corresponds 
to  the  number  of  flags  that  would  be  found  on  the  stem  of  one  of 
the  smaller  notes.  Examples  are  given  here. 


z  is  played  [fi>    ^   ^   ^   f~^'^-^-T~\ 
^~^r~  is  played  \^-f-f=T~^~~^    ^    T    I 


530  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

The  letters  8va  over  a  staff  show  that  the  notes  beneath  the  mark 
are  to  be  played  an  octave  higher  than  written.  If  the  letters  apply 
to  more  than  the  note  over  which  they  occur,  they  are  extended  by  a 
dotted  line,  which  stops  at  the  point  where  the  printed  pitch  is  to  be 
resumed.  Sometimes  this  resumption  is  marked  by  the  word  loco. 
The  sign  8va  bassa  below  any  note  or  notes  means  that  they  are  to 
be  played  an  octave  deeper  than  written.  But  the  words  con  8va 
bassa  imply  that  the  notes  are  to  be  played  as  written  with  the  addi- 
tion of  the  octave  below  in  each  case. 

The  abbreviation  ped.  is  used  to  signify  the  pressing  of  the  damper 
pedal,  which  raises  all  the  dampers  from  the  strings  of  a  piano,  and 
allows  the  note  played  to  resound  continuously.  An  asterisk  is  used 
to  show  where  the  pedal  is  to  be  released,  and  the  dampers  dropped 
back  upon  the  strings.  In  some  American  editions  of  music,  the 
duration  of  the  pedal's  use  is  shown  by  a  horizontal  line  below  the 
music,  with  short  upward  vertical  lines  marking  the  beginning  and 
ending  of  the  pedal's  use.  Incidentally,  this  pedal  should  not  prop- 
erly be  spoken  of  as  the  loud  pedal.  The  soft  pedal  is  called  for  by 
the  words  una  corda,  and  its  use  discontinued  by  the  words  tre  corde, 
as  explained  under  the  word  corda  in  the  chapter  on  the  piano. 

Rests  and  notes  should  be  grouped  to  follow  the  beats  as  closely 
as  possible.  With  the  notes,  this  may  be  done  by  tying  the  stems  so 
as  to  show  the  proper  divisions  of  the  measure.  In  using  rests,  cer- 
tain rules  are  followed.  Thus  when  the  first  or  last  half  of  a  measure 
is  filled  by  two  unequal  rests,  the  larger  one  should  come  first. 
Dotted  rests  are  not  often  used  by  modem  composers,  though  they 
are  sometimes  found.  When  the  first  two  of  three  beats  are  filled  by 
a  rest,  one  sign  is  usually  employed;  but  for  the  last  two  beats  in  a 
group  of  three,  two  separate  rests  are  required.  In  a  measure  of 
four  beats,  one  rest  is  used  for  the  first  or  last  two,  but  two  rests  are 
needed  for  the  second  and  third  beat.  In  orchestral  music,  rests 
often  cover  many  measures.  Below  is  given  the  sign  for  the  four- 

4  bare'       2  bare'        7  bare'       23  bare' 
rest  rest  rest  rest 

7  23 


i 


^^^^^w^ss^ 


^ 


^ 


HOW  TO  READ  MUSIC  531 

bar  rest,  in  connection  with  the  other  illustrations.  The  use  of 
figures  to  show  the  number  of  bars'  rest  is  illustrated  also. 

Embellishments  consist  of  grace  notes,  trills,  mordents,  and  turns. 

The  long  grace  note  is  called  the  appoggiatura,  from  a  word  mean- 
ing "to  lean";  and  it  consists  of  a  note  of  small  body,  written  be- 
fore another,  and  blending  or  leaning  into  the  note  that  follows  it. 
The  grace  notes  are  not  given  any  time-value  in  the  printed  meas- 
ure, but  their  time-value  is  taken  from  the  note  against  which  they 
are  printed.  The  long  grace  note  is  generally  written  as  half  the 
value  of  the  note  that  it  modifies.  Some  teachers  give  the  long 
grace  note  its  printed  value,  shortening  the  next  note  by  the  same 
amount.  But  this  rule  does  not  always  hold.  Other  musicians  say 
that  the  time  should  be  divided  evenly  between  a  long  grace  note 
and  the  note  with  which  it  is  printed.  This  rule,  too,  is  not  uni- 
versal. If  the  large  printed  note  is  followed  by  another  of  the  same 
pitch,  then  the  grace  note  is  allowed  to  take  almost  the  entire  time 
of  the  note  against  which  it  is  printed.  Before  a  dotted  note  the 
grace  note  is  given  two-thirds  of  the  total  value.  Long  grace  notes 
are  most  usual  in  vocal  music. 

The  short  grace  note,  or  acciaccatura,  is  named  (in  Italian)  from  a 
word  meaning  "to  squash";  and  the  short  grace  note  is  literally 
squashed  into  the  note  after  it,  against  which  it  is  written.  The 
short  grace  note,  as  stated  above,  has  no  time-value  in  the  printed 
measure.  It  is  made  as  short  as  possible,  and  its  time-value  taken 
from  the  note  following  it.  Most  beginners  abstract  the  time  for  the 
short  grace  note  from  the  preceding  note;  but  this  is  a  mistake. 
The  short  grace  note  is  printed  as  an  eighth  note,  with  smaller  body 
than  usual,  and  a  diagonal  line  through  the  flag  and  the  stem.  As 
the  last-mentioned  line  is  the  chief  difference  between  long  and 
short  grace  notes,  its  presence  must  be  carefully  observed.  Many 
misprints  have  been  made  in  this  matter,  and  the  pupil  must  be  on 
the  watch  to  detect  them.  The  style  of  the  music  is  often  a  guide, 
for  the  long  grace  note  is  slow  and  languishing,  while  the  short  one  is 
crisp  and  bright.  Examples  of  long  and  short  grace  notes  are  given 
here,  with  their  proper  execution  added. 


Written  Played  Written  Played  Written  Played 


^ 


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^ 


g^fel^^^^ 


532  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

The  trill  is  a  rapid  and  continual  alternation  of  any  given  note 
with  the  note  next  above  it  in  the  scale.  The  sign  for  a  trill  consists 
of  the  letters  tr,  followed  by  a  short  wavy  horizontal  line.  This  is 
placed  over  the  note  to  be  used  in  the  trill.  A  separate  sign  is  re- 
quired for  each  note  that  is  to  be  made  into  a  trill.  If  no  other  sign 
is  present,  the  trill  alternates  the  note  with  the  next  note  above  it  in 
the  scale  used  in  the  piece.  But  the  presence  of  a  sharp  or  a  flat  or  a 
natural  indicates  that  the  printed  note  is  to  be  alternated  with  the 
sharp,  flat,  or  natural  of  the  upper  note.  A  trill  is  now  generally 
considered  to  begin  with  the  printed  note,  though  Von  Billow  and 
others  held  that  it  should  begin  with  the  upper  note.  A  trill  is  ended 
by  the  occurrence  of  the  printed  note,  the  note  below  it,  and  the 
printed  note  again,  all  in  rapid  tempo.  The  trill  must  of  course  be 
carried  on  until  it  has  filled  the  time-value  of  the  note  over  which  the 
trill  sign  is  printed. 

Trills  are  usually  played  with  adjacent  fingers,  though  sometimes 
the  thumb  and  middle  finger  are  used.  The  pianist  Ketten  employed 
a  so-called  force  trill,  in  which  he  took  the  alternate  notes  with  dif- 
ferent hands.  Liszt  used  a  trick  known  as  the  vanishing  trill,  in 
which  a  softening  trill  is  ended  by  the  holding  of  the  two  notes, 
varied  by  an  occasional  light  stroke  on  the  upper  note.  This  pro- 
cedure works  best  when  the  notes  are  a  semitone  apart,  in  which 
case  the  beats  between  the  two  tones  appear  to  continue  the  trill  in  a 
most  delicate  and  ethereal  fashion. 

The  mordent,  derived  from  a  French  word  meaning  "to  bite,"  is 
simply  a  single  alternation  of  notes  "bitten"  out  of  a  trill.  The 
mordent  consists  of  the  printed  note,  the  note  above  it,  and  the 
printed  note  again,  the  three  notes  played  quickly,  but  the  last  one 
held,  to  fill  out  the  proper  time-value.  The  sign  for  the  mordent  is 
Av.  As  with  the  trill,  if  no  accidental  is  present,  the  upper  note  is  the 
next  one  in  the  scale  used  in  the  piece;  while  a  sharp,  flat,  or  natural 
means  that  the  sharp,  flat,  or  natural  of  the  upper  note  must  be  used. 
The  accent  may  come  on  the  first  short  note,  or  on  the  thh-d  note, 
which  is  held.  The  Germans  call  the  former  case  a  Praller,  or 
Pralltrill,  while  they  name  the  latter  a  Schneller.  Some  such  dis- 
tinction should  be  made  in  English.  The  inverted  mordent  is  called 
for  by  the  same  sign,  but  with  a  vertical  line  drawn  through  it  thus, 
Nv.  The  inverted  mordent  (which  the  Germans  call  simply  ilfor- 


HOW  TO  READ  MUSIC  535 

dent)  consists  of  the  principal  note,  the  note  below  it,  and  the  princi- 
pal note  again.  As  before,  an  accidental  is  used  with  the  inverted 
mordent  when  desired. 

The  sign  for  a  turn  is  as  here  shown,  ««.  This  sign  has  different 
meanings,  according  to  whether  it  is  printed  over  or  after  a  note,  or 
what  the  size  of  the  note  is,  or  what  relation  this  size  has  to  the  size 
of  the  following  notes.  Examples  are  given  later. 

A  turn  over  a  long  note  is  played  as  a  rapid  triplet  before  the  note, 
the  time-value  of  the  triplet  being  taken  from  the  first  part  of  the 
note.  The  triplet  consists  of  the  note  above  the  printed  note,  the 
printed  note  itself,  and  the  note  below  it.  In  all  turns,  trills,  and 
mordents,  the  largest  interval  allowed  is  a  whole  tone. 

A  turn  over  a  short  note  dissolves  that  note  into  a  quadruplet, 
consisting  of  the  note  above,  the  printed  note,  the  note  below,  and 
the  printed  note  again. 

If  the  short  printed  note  is  followed  by  another  of  the  same  pitch, 
the  quadruplet  consists  of  the  note  itself,  the  note  above,  the  printed 
note  again,  and  the  note  below. 

If  the  short  note  with  a  turn  over  it  is  at  all  important,  then  the 
quadruplet  should  be  replaced  by  a  quintuplet,  consisting  of  the 
printed  note,  the  note  above,  the  printed  note,  the  note  below,  and 
the  printed  note  again.  The  same  is  sometimes  true  of  a  turn  after 
a  short  note,  instead  of  over  it. 

A  turn  after  a  note  of  ordinary  or  large  value  consists  of  a  quick 
quadruplet  played  during  the  last  part  of  the  note's  time-value. 
This  quadruplet  consists  of  the  note  above  the  one  given,  the  printed 
note,  the  note  below,  and  the  printed  note  agam. 

A  turn  after  a  long  dotted  note,  or  one  in  6/8  time,  is  treated  in 
the  same  way  as  the  preceding  case,  the  note  being  held  nearly  to 
the  end,  and  the  rapid  quadruplet  finishing  the  note's  time-value. 

If  a  note  with  a  turn  after  it  is  followed  by  another  note  of  the 
same  pitch,  then  the  quadruplet  is  reduced  to  a  triplet,  by  having 
the  last  appearance  of  the  final  note  omitted. 

A  turn  after  a  fairly  short  dotted  note  is  played  by  giving  the 
note  half  its  value,  putting  a  triplet  into  the  second  half,  and  playing 
the  note  again  for  the  value  of  the  dot.  The  triplet  consists  of  the 
note  above  the  printed  note,  the  printed  note  itself,  and  the  note 
below  it. 


5Si 


THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 


But  if  such  a  dotted  note  is  followed  by  another  note  of  the  same 
pitch,  then  the  turn  becomes  a  triplet  given  in  the  last  part  or  the 
total  of  the  dot's  value.  The  triplet,  as  usual,  consists  of  the  note 
above  the  printed  one,  the  printed  note  itself,  and  the  one  below  it. 
An  inverted  turn  is  called  for  by  the  same  sign  as  an  ordinary  turn, 
with  a  short  vertical  line  drawn  through  it.  The  inverted  turn  is 
the  reverse  of  the  ordinary  turn,  starting  with  the  note  below  the 
printed  note  instead  of  the  one  above  it. 

The  intervals  of  a  turn  are  usually  a  tone  above  the  printed  note 
and  a  semitone  below  it.  But  with  a  printed  note  of  the  third  or 
seventh  degree  in  the  scale,  the  semitone  above  and  the  tone  below 
are  used.  Turns  with  whole  tones  above  and  below  must  be  indi- 
cated by  the  use  of  a  natural  or  accidental  above  or  below  the  turn 
sign.  Such  a  turn  is  usually  found  on  the  second  degree  of  the  scale, 
as  in  Schumann's  Novelette  in  F. 


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The  hold,  or  fermata,  •^  is  placed  above  a  note  (or  chord)  to  signify 
that  the  note  (or  chord)  is  to  be  held  for  a  long  time,  —  usually  sev- 
eral beats  more  than  its  printed  value  would  indicate. 

The  sign  -^  is  often  used  to  mark  the  beginning  of  a  coda,  so  that 
the  player  may  repeat  a  part  of  a  piece  and  then  jump  dh-ectly  to 
the  coda. 

In  violin  music,  V  signifies  an  upward  bow-stroke,  and  n  a 
downward  bow-stroke. 

A  ch-cle,  O,  shows  the  thumb  position  in  violoncello  music. 


HOW  TO  READ   MUSIC  535 

In  organ  playing,  the  registration,  or  kind  of  stops  to  be  used,  is 
often  marked  in  by  the  composer  with  more  or  less  completeness. 
The  signs  used  in  pedaling  are  as  follows:  A  above  note,  right  toe, 
A  below  note,  left  toe.  u  above  note,  right  heel,  u  below  note, 
left  heel.    A  —  V,  change  toes.    A^,  slide  toe  to  next  note. 

It  has  been  considered  advisable  to  add  a  few  facts  concerning 
chords. 

A  chord  consists  of  three  or  more  related  tones  sounded  together. 
Notes  which  do  not  belong  to  a  chord,  but  happen  to  be  sounded 
with  it,  are  called  non-harmonic  tones.  These  usually  occur  in  posi- 
tions next  to  the  proper  notes  of  a  chord.  They  are  called  suspen- 
sions when  held  over  from  a  preceding  chord,  or  passing  notes  when 
introduced  independently. 

A  major  triad  is  a  three-noted  chord  consisting  of  a  major  third 
with  a  minor  third  above  it,  such  as  C,  E,  and  G.  The  tones  of  any 
triad,  from  below  up,  are  named  the  root,  third,  and  fifth. 

A  minor  triad  has  a  minor  third  below  and  a  major  third  above; 
as  for  instance  D,  F,  and  A. 

A  diminished  triad  consists  of  two  minor  thirds,  such  as  B,  D, 
andF. 

An  augm.ented  triad  consists  of  two  major  thirds,  such  as  C,  E, 
and  G-sharp. 

An  inversion  of  a  chord  occurs  when  one  or  more  of  its  notes  is 
transposed  an  octave.  If  the  root  is  transposed  up  an  octave,  the 
first  inversion  is  formed;  and  if  both  root  and  third  are  transposed 
up  an  octave,  the  second  inversion  is  formed.  In  the  first  inversion, 
the  upper  note  is  a  sixth  below  the  lower  one:  and  the  inversion  is 
called  the  chord  of  the  sixth,  or  the  six-chord.  Similarly,  the  second 
inversion,  having  notes  a  fourth  and  a  sixth  above  the  lowest  note, 
is  called  the  chord  of  the  six-four.  Thus  if  C,  E,  G  in  ascending 
order  is  the  triad  used,  then  E,  G,  C  is  the  six-chord  and  G,  C,  E  the 
six-four  chord  derived  from  it. 

When  the  notes  of  a  chord  are  as  close  to  one  another  as  possible, 
the  chord  is  said  to  be  in  close  position.  But  when  any  of  the  notes 
have  between  them  other  notes  that  might  belong  to  the  chord 
if  played,  then  the  chord  is  in  open  position;  as  G,  E,  C  in  ascend- 
ing order. 

A  seventh  chord  consists  of  a  triad  with  an  extra  third  added 


536  THE  BOOK  OF  MUSICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

above  it;  as  G,  B,  D,  F  in  ascending  order.  As  either  a  major  or  a 
minor  third  may  be  added  to  any  one  of  the  triads  (except  a  major 
third  with  an  augmented  triad),  it  follows  that  there  are  several 
kinds  of  seventh  chords,  which  are  described  below. 

In  Harmony  and  Thorough-Bass,  the  chords  are  described  by 
Roman  numerals.  The  first  triad  is  that  of  the  keynote,  and  the 
others  are  numbered  from  the  scale  degrees.  Capital  letters  are  used 
for  major  triads,  small  letters  for  minor  triads,  and  for  diminished 
triads  the  small  letters  are  used  with  the  addition  of  a  tiny  circle, 
like  the  mark  for  thermometer  degrees.  For  an  augmented  triad, 
the  capital  letter  is  used  with  a  little  plus  sign  at  its  upper  right- 
hand  comer. 

The  triads  of  any  major  scale  are  therefore  I,  ii,  iii,  IV,  V,  vi,  and 
vii°.  Those  of  the  harmonic  minor  scale  are  i,  ii°,  III^,  iv,  V,  VI,  and 
vii**. 

The  seventh  chord  is  demanded  when  the  figure  7  is  placed  against 
the  triad  nimieral.  The  number  7  without  qualification  calls  for  a 
minor  seventh  above  the  root,  while  7',  with  an  apostrophe,  calls 
for  the  major  seventh,  and  7°  for  the  diminished  seventh.  Thus  V 
is  the  first  major  triad  with  a  minor  third  above  it,  to  make  the 
distance  from  the  root  a  minor  seventh.  V  is  the  dominant 
seventh  of  either  a  major  or  a  minor  scale.  IV^'  is  the  fourth 
major  triad  with  a  major  third  above  it.  The  chord  i^^  is  the  first 
minor  triad  with  a  major  third  above  it,  as  A,  C,  E,  G-sharp. 
The  chord  vii*'  is  a  diminished  triad  with  a  major  third  above  it,  as 
B,  D,  F,  and  A.  The  chord  vii°^°  is  a  diminished  triad  with  a  minor 
third  above  it,  as  B,  D,  F,  and  A-flat.  The  other  chords  may  be 
figured  in  similar  fashion.  The  chord  vii**'",  or  any  chord  composed 
of  three  minor  thirds,  is  known  as  the  diminished  seventh  chord. 

All  the  seventh  chords  are  subject  to  inversion,  having  three  in- 
versions instead  of  two.  Taking  for  example  the  dominant  seventh 
of  C,  which  consists  of  G,  B,  D,  and  F,  the  inversions  are  seen  to  be 
B-D-F-G,  D-F-G-B,  and  F-G-B-D.  From  the  intervals  of  the 
other  notes  above  the  lowest  note  in  each  case,  these  chords  are 
called  for  in  harmony  study  by  the  figures  6-5-3,  6-4-3,  and  6-4-2 
resi)ectively. 

In  four-part  counterpoint  exercises,  each  part  is  expected  to  have 
some  melodic  effect  when  taken  by  itself.   In  such  a  leading  of  the 


HOW  TO  READ   MUSIC  537 

voices  (as  the  parts  are  called)  conjunct  motion  is  a  preceding  by 
small  intervals,  while  disjunct  motion  is  a  proceding  by  large  skips. 
The  melody  of  "America,"  for  example,  is  conjunct,  while  that  of 
"The  Star-Spangled  Banner"  is  disjunct.  In  harmony  or  counter- 
point the  bass  part  may  be  in  disjunct  motion,  but  the  other 
voices  should  be  in  conjunct  motion  for  the  most  part. 

Parallel  motion  results  when  two  or  more  voices  move  in  the  same 
direction  and  keep  the  same  interval  apart.  Similar  motion  occurs 
when  two  or  more  parts  move  in  the  same  direction  with  altering 
intervals.  Oblique  motion  is  found  when  one  part  remains  station- 
ary while  another  part  moves  up  or  down.  Contrary  motion  con- 
sists of  the  movement  of  two  parts  in  opposite  directions. 

This  chapter  should  enable  any  one  to  learn  to  read  music  by 
himself  if  he  desires.  He  will  find  added  information  in  the  ensuing 
section,  which  defines  certain  musical  terms.  The  student  need  not 
worry  if  he  sometimes  finds  a  doubtful  case;  for  there  are  divergent 
opinions  on  several  of  the  subjects  treated  here.  But  the  rules  and 
explanations  given  here  may  be  taken  as  a  guide  for  everything  ex- 
cept the  very  few  doubtful  points  that  may  arise. 


THE  END 


APPENDIX 


APPENDIX  A 

IMPORTANT  MUSICAL  TERMS 


(G  and  ch  in  German  are  guttural.    Final  n  after  a  vowel  in  French  is  very  nasal.    See 
index  for  other  terms.) 

A  (It.,  ah).  By,  at,  for,  etc.  In  English,  A  is  the  sixth  note  of  the  scale  of  C,  and  the 
first  note  of  the  scale  of  A  minor. 

Abbandono  (It.,  ah-bahn-do'-no).   With  abandon,  or  passionate  expression. 

A  cappella  (It.,  ah  kah-pel'-lah).   In  church  style,  i.e.,  unaccompanied. 

Accelerando  (It.,  ah-chay-lay-rahn'-do).  Accelerating;  increasing  the  speed. 

Accent.   Emphasis  or  stress  on  a  certain  note  or  passage. 

Acciaccatiira  (It.,  aht-tchec-ahk-kah-too'-rah).   A  short  grace  note. 

Accidentals.   Sharps,  flats,  or  natural  signs  not  in  the  signature. 

Adapetto  (It.,  ah-dah-jyet'-to).  A  tempo  somewhat  less  slow  than  adagio,  or  a 
short  piece  in  adagio  tempo. 

Adagio  (It.,  ah-dah'-jio).  A  slow  tempo,  slower  than  andante,  hut  not  so  slow  as 
largo. 

Ad  libitum  (Lat.).  At  will;  at  the  performer's  discretion. 

Afiettivo  (It.,  ahf-fet-tee'-vo).    AfiFecting,  pathetic. 

AfCettuoso  (It.,  ahf-fet-too-o'-zo).    With  tender  expression. 

Afflitto  (It.,  ah-fleet'-to).   Sorrowfully,  mournfully. 

Affrettando  (It.,  ahf-fret-tahn'-do).    Hurrying,  quickening  the  tempo. 

Agevole  (It.,  ah-jay'-vo-leh).   Lightly,  easily. 

Agilita  (It.,  ah-jeel-ee-tah').   Agility,  lightness. 

Agitato  (It.,  ah-jee-tah'-to).   Agitated,  restless,  hurried. 

Agrdments  (Fr.,  ah-gray-mong').   Embellishments  for  spinet  or  harpsichord. 

Ais  (Ger.,  ah-iss').   The  A-sharp. 

Al  (It.,  ahl).  To.  Contracts  with  the  definite  article  to  various  forms,  such  as  alia, 
alio,  alle,  agli. 

Alcuna  (It.,  ahl-koo'-nah).   Some,  a  little. 

Al  fine,  e  poi  la  coda.  (It.,  ahl  fee'-neh,  ay  po'-ee  lah  co'-dah).  To  the  place 
marked  fine,  and  then  play  the  coda. 

Alia  breve  (It.,  ahl-lah  bray'-veh).  Originally  4/2  rhythm,  each  measure  being 
equal  to  a  hreve,  or  double  note  whole.    Now  usually  2/2  rhythm. 

Allargando  (It.,  ahl-lahr-gahn'-do).   Growing  broad;  louder  and  slower. 

Allegretto  (It.,  ahl-lay-gret'-to).   Light,  cheerful;  like  allegro,  but  a  little  less  fast. 

Allegro  (It.  and  Fr.,  ahl-lay'-gro).  Quick,  lively;  the  usual  tempo  of  the  first  move- 
ment in  symphony,  sonata,  etc.;  rapid  and  cheerful. 

Allmahlich  (Ger.,  ahl-may'-likh).    Gradually,  little  by  little. 

Alt  (It.,  ahlt).  High;  with  sopranos,  the  octave  extending  from  two-line  G  to  three- 
line  F. 

Altissimo  (It.,  ahl-tees'-see-mo).   Highest;  the  octave  above  the  alt. 


542  APPENDIX 

Alto  (It.,  ahl'-to).  High;  in  old  days  a  high  part  above  the  tenor;  now  applied  to 

the  lowest  female  voices.   Another  name  for  the  viola. 
Aznabile  (It.,  ah-mah'-bee-Ieh).   Amiable,  gracefvil,  gentle. 
Amoroso  (It.,  ah-mo-ro'-zo).   Tenderly,  lovingly, 
Ancora  (It.,  ahng-ko'-rah).   Again,  once  more,  yet. 
Andante  (It.,  ahn-dahn'-teh).   A  slow,  even  tempo;  Hterally,  "  going." 
Andantino  (It.,  ahn-dahn-tee'-no).   A  httle  less  slow  than  andante. 
Anh«.r>g  (Ger.,  ahn'-hahng).   A  coda;  an  appendix. 
Animato  (It.,  ah-nee-mah'-to).   Animated;  with  spirit. 
Appassionato  (It.,  ah-pahs-sio-nah'-to).   Passionate,  intense. 
Appoggiatura  (It.,  ah-pod-jyah-too'-rah).    Leaning  note;  long  grace  note. 
Arabeske,  arabesque.   A  piece  with  a  noticeable  design  of  tonal  embroidery. 
Arco  (It.,  ahr'-co).  Bow,  of  violins,  etc. 
Ardente  (It.,  ahr-den'-teh).   Ardent,  fiery,  vehement. 
Arioso.  (It.,  ah-ree-o'-zo).    A  short  piece  like  an  aria,  but  less  symmetrical.    For 

aria,  see  chapter  on  "  Vocal  Forms." 
Arpeggio  (It.,  ahr-ped'-jyo).    Harp-like.    Playing  the  notes  of  a  chord  in  swift 

succession  instead  of  simultaneously. 
As  (Ger.,  ahs).    The  A-flat. 
Assai  (It.,  ahs-sah'-ee).   Very,  extremely,  much. 
Attacca  (It.,  aht-tahk'-kah).   Attack,  start,  go  on,  begin  the  next. 
Aubade  (Fr.,  oh-bahd').   A  morning  song,  literally  a  dawn  song. 
Ausdruck  (Ger.,  ows'-drook).   Expression. 

B.  The  seventh  note  of  the  scale  of  C  major.  In  Germany,  B  means  the  note  we 
call  B-flat. 

Ballet  (Ft.,  bahl-lay').   A  pantomime  story  with  musical  accompaniment. 

Bars.  Vertical  Unes  drawn  on  musical  staffs  to  mark  off  measures.  Now  used  to 
denote  the  measures  also. 

Basso  continuo  (It.,  bahs'-so  con-teen'-u-o).  The  continual  or  figured  bass  in  old  music 

Battuta  (It.,  baht-too'-tah).   A  beat;  a  measure.   A  baltuta,  in  strict  time. 

Beat.  A  motion  with  hand  or  baton  to  give  the  tempo;  a  division  of  a  measure;  a 
throbbing  heard  when  two  tones  are  not  quite  alike  in  pitch. 

Bel  canto  (It.,  bel  cahn'-to).  A  pure  and  sympathetic  legato,  the  opposite  of 
bravura,  coloratur,  agUita,  etc. 

Bdmol  (Fr.,  bay-moll').   Any  flat. 

Bemolle  (It.,  bay-mol'-leh).  Any  flat. 

Ben,  bene  (It.,  bayn,  bay'-neh).   Well,  thoroughly. 

Bewegt  (Ger.,  be-vaygt').   Rather  fast;  with  motion. 

Bis  (Lat.).   Twice;  to  be  rej>eated;  continued. 

Bogen  (Ger.,  bo'-ghen).    Bow,  of  violins,  etc.,    Also  a  slur  or  tie. 

Bourdon  (Fr.,  boor-dong').  A  set  of  large  stopped  organ  pipes.  A  drone  bass  ac- 
companiment. 

Bravura  (It.,  brah-voo'-rah).   Spirit,  skill,  requiring  dexterity. 

Break.  The  change  between  head  and  chest  register,  in  voices.  The  change  be- 
tween the  fundamental  and  the  harmonic  series  on  clarinets. 

Broken  chords,  broken  octaves.  Chords  or  octaves  whose  notes  are  played  in 
succession,  and  not  simultaneously. 

Buffo  (It.,  boof'-fo).   Comic;  a  singer  who  takes  comic  parts. 


APPENDIX  543 

C.  The  first  note  of  the  scale  of  C.  The  sign  for  common  time  (4/4)  is  not  really 
a  C,  but  two  thirds  of  a  circle. 

Cadence.  A  close  in  melody  or  harmony,  ending  a  period,  section,  or  entire  piece, 
usually  on  the  tonic  chord  of  its  key. 

Cadenza  (It.,  cah-den'-tsah).  An  ornamental  solo  passage  introduced  near  the  end 
of  an  instrumental  piece  or  song;  the  cadenza  may  be  written  by  either  composer 
or  performer. 

Calando  (It.,  cah-lahn'-  do).   Becoming  softer  and  slower. 

Calmato  (It.,  cahl-mah'-to).   Tranquil,  quiet. 

Caloroso  (It.,  cah-lo-ro'-zo).   Warm,  animated. 

Cantabile  (It.,  cahn-tah'-bee-leh).   In  a  singing  style,  smoothly. 

Cantilena  (It.,  cahn-tee-lay'-nah).  The  melody  of  a  song  or  piece;  a  melodious  song, 
piece,  or  passage. 

Capo  (It.,  cah'-po).   The  beginning,  the  top,  or  head. 

Capriccioso  (It.,  cah-pree-chyo'-zo).   Capriciously,  fancifully. 

Carita  (It.,  kah-ree'-tah).    Feeling,  tenderness. 

Cembalo  (It.,  chem'-bah-lo).    A  harpsichord. 

Ces  (Ger.,  tsehs).  The  note  C-flat. 

Chiarezza  (It.,  kee-ahr-et'-tsah).   Clearness,  purity,  neatness. 

Cis  (Ger.,  tsis).  The  note  C-sharp. 

Codetta.  A  short  coda  or  extra  concluding  passage.  For  coda,  see  chapter  on 
"  Song-Forms." 

Coloratura  (It.,  co-lo-rah-too'-rah).  Roulades,  embellishments,  or  ornamental 
passages  in  vocal  music. 

Come  (It.,  co'-meh).   As,  like,  the  same  as. 

Comma.  The  difference  between  a  major  and  minor  tone  in  the  scale  of  nature 
(ratio  of  81  to  80). 

Comodo  (It.,  co'-mo-do).   Quietly,  easily,  conveniently. 

Compass.    The  range  of  notes  that  a  voice  or  instrument  can  give. 

Con  (It.).   With. 

Concert-Meister  (Ger.,  con-tsairt'-my-ster).   The  chief  violinist  of  an  orchestra. 

Concerto  (It.,  con-chair'to).  A  piece  of  several  movements  for  one  or  more  solo 
instruments  with  orchestra  (sometimes  one  solo  instrument  with  piano). 

ConcertstUck  (Ger.,  con-tsairt'-stik).   A  concert-piece;  a  concerto. 

Continuo  (It.,  con-teen'-oo-o).   Constant,  continual. 

Contralto.    Literally,  a  deep>er  alto.   Often  used  to  mean  alto. 

Corda  (It.,  cor'-dah).  A  string.  In  piano  music,  una  corda  (one  string)  means  soft 
pedal,  while  tre  corde  (three  strings)  means  a  cessation  of  the  soft  pedal.  Some- 
times due  corde  (two  strings)  calls  for  the  soft  pedal  halfway  down,  but  in  old 
times,  when  piano  notes  never  had  more  than  two  strings  apiece,  it  meant  a  ces- 
sation of  the  soft  pedal. 

Crescendo  (It.,  creh-shen'-do).   A  gradual  increase  in  power. 

D.  The  second  note  in  the  scale  of  C  major.   Abbreviation  for  da  or  dai. 
Da  (It.,  dah).    From,  by,  through,  etc.    Dal,  dalle,  etc.,  are  the  same. 

Da  capo  al  segno  (It.,  dah  cah'-po  ahl  say'-nyo).   From  the  beginning  to  the  sign. 

Dal  segno  means  "  from  the  sign." 
Deciso  (It.,  day-chee'-zo).    Boldly,  decidedly. 
Decrescendo  (It.,  day-creh-shen'-do).   Gradually  diminishing  the  power. 


544  APPENDIX 

Delicato  (It.,  day-lee-cah'-to).   Delicate,  smooth. 

Des  (Ger.,  dehs).   The  note  D-flat. 

Destra  (It.,  dehs'-trah).   Right,  right-hand. 

Detachd  (Fr.,  day-tah-shay').   Detached,  staccato,  in  violin  music. 

Di  (It.,  dee).   Of,  with,  from,  etc. 

Diapason.    The  entire  scale  or  range.    A  set  of  organ  pipes  running  through  the 

entire  keyboard. 
Didse,  didze  (Fr.,  dee-ez')-   Any  sharp. 
Diluendo  (It.,  dee-loo-en'-do).    Dying  away  into  silence. 
Diminuendo  (It.,  dee-mee-noo-en'-do).   Gradually  diminishing  in  power. 
Dis  (Ger.,  dees).    The  note  D-sharp. 
Divisi   (It.,  dee-vee'-see).   Divided,  separated;  used  when  a  single  group  of  voices 

or  instruments  is  to  take  two  or  more  notes  instead  of  one. 
Do  (It.,  do;  like  "  doe  ")•  The  syllable  applied  to  the  first  note  of  a  scale  in  singing, 

etc.   In  the  "  fixed  Do  "  system.  Do  is  always  C.   The  French  use  Ut  instead  of 

Do  in  instrumental  music. 
Dolce  (It.,  dol'-cheh).   Sweetly. 
Dolente  (It.,  doh-len'-teh).  Mournful,  grieving. 
Doloroso  (It.,  dol-o-ro'-zo).   Sadly,  sorrowfully. 
Dopo  (It.,  do'-po).   After. 

Doppio  (It.,  dop'-pee-o).   Double,  twofold;  sometimes  with  the  octave  added. 
Double  (Ft.,  doo'-bl).   An  old  term  for  a  variation. 
Doucement  (Fr.,  doos-mong').   Sweetly,  softly. 
Dritta  (It.,  drit'-tah).    Right,  right-hand. 
Droit  (Fr,,  drwah).   Right,  right-hand. 
Duo,  due  (It.,  doo'o,  doo'-eh).   Two. 
Duolo  (It.,  doo-o'-lo).    Grief,  sorrow. 
Dux  (Ger.,  door;  hke"  poor").   Major,  major  key. 

E.  Third  note  of  the  scale  of  C  major.   In  Italian,  e  or  ed  means  "  and." 
licossais  (Ft.,  ay-cos-say').   Scotch,  in  Scotch  style. 

Einfach  (Ger.,  ine'-fahkh).   Simple,  plain, 

Empfindung  (Ger,,  emp-finnd'-oong),    FeeUng,  emotion,  sensitiveness, 

Energico  (It.,  en-air'-jee-co).   Energetic,  forcible. 

Ensemble  (Fr.,  ong-som'-bl).    Unity,  smoothness,  literally,  "  togetherness."   ' 

Entr'acte  (Fr.,  ongtr-act').    Music  played  between  the  acts. 

Erhaben  (Ger.,  air-hah'-ben).   Lofty,  elevated. 

Ernst  (Grer.,  aimst).   Earnest,  serious. 

Eroica  (It.,  air-o'-ee-kah).   Heroic. 

Erotik  (Ger.,  Nor.,  air-ot-eek').   A  love-song;  an  amorous  composition. 

Es  (Ger.).   The  note  E-flat. 

Espressivo  (It.,  es-pres-see'-vo).   Expressive;  with  expression. 

Etta,  etto  (It.)  are  diminutive  terminations. 

Etwas  (Ger.,  et'-vahs).   Somewhat;  some;  a  Uttle. 

F.  The  fourth  note  of  the  scale  of  C  major.   Abbreviation  for  forte. 

Fa.  The  name  applied  to  the  fourth  note  of  the  scale  in  singing,  etc.  In  the  "fixed 

Do  "  system,  it  is  always  F. 
Facile  (It.,  fah'-chee-leh).   Light,  easy. 


APPENDIX  545 

Falsetto.    Very  high  head  tones  in  the  male  voice. 

Feurig  (Ger.,  foy'-righ).    Fiery,  ardent. 

Filax  la  voce  (It.,  fee'-lahr  lah  vo'-che).  To  spin  out  or  prolong  a  tone  with  the 

voice;  to  let  the  tone  diminish  very  gradually. 
Fine  (It.,  fee'-neh).    The  end. 

Fioritxire  (It.,  fee-o-ree-too'-reh).   Embellishments  in  singing. 
Fis  (Ger.,  fees).    The  note  F-sharp. 
Forte  (It.,  for'-teh).    Loud,  strong. 

Fortissimo  (It.,  for-tees'-see-mo).   Very  loud.   Abbreviated  to  Jf. 
Forza  (It.,  for'-tsa).    Force,  power. 

Forzando  (It.,  for-tsahn'-do).    Forced,  accented.   See  Sforzando. 
Freudig  (Ger.,  froy'-digh).    Joyfully. 
Frisch  (Ger.,  frish).    Fresh,  lively. 
Fuoco  (It.,  foo-o'-co).    Fire,  passion. 
Furioso  (It.,  foo-ree-o'-zo).   Furious,  vehement. 

G.    Fifth  note  of  the  scale  of  C  major.    Abbreviation  for  gauche. 

Oauche  (Fr.,  gosh  ;  the  o  as  in  "  go  ")•   Left,  left-hand. 

Geftihl  (Ger.,  geh-feel').    FeeUng,  sentiment,  expression. 

Crehend  (Ger.,  gay'-end).   The  same  as  andante;  literally,  "  going." 

Crentile  (It.,  jen-tee'-leh).   Graceful,  elegant. 

Ges  (Ger.,  ghes;  hke  "guess").    The  note  G-flat. 

Giocoso  (It.,  jyo-ko'-zo).    Merry,  humorous. 

Gis  (Ger.;  like  "geese  ").   The  note  G-sharp. 

Giusto  (It.,  joos'-to).   Exact,  in  exact  time.   Sometimes  it  means  moderate,  i.e., 

not  excessive. 
Glissando  (It.,  glees-sahn'-do).     Gliding,  sliding.     With  voice  or  violin,  sliding 

toward  a  tone  instead  of  attacking  it  directly.   In  piano  music,  a  white-key  scale 

played  by  dragging  a  finger  or  thumb  along  the  keys. 
Grave  (It.,  grah'-veh).   The  slowest  musical  tempo;  very  slow  and  solemn. 
Grazia  (It.,  grah'-tsee-ah).   Grace,  elegance. 
Grosso  (It.,  gros'-so).  Full,  grand,  great. 

H.  Used  by  the  Germans  to  mean  our  B-natural.    Heel  in  organ  pedaling. 
Harmony.    The  agreement  or  consonance  of  sounds  uniting  into  a  pleasing  whole 

when  heard  together.   The  science  and  study  of  chords. 
Heftig  (Ger.,  hef'-tigh).    Insistent,  boisterous,  vehement. 
Hirtlich  (Ger.,  heert'-likh).   Pastoral,  rustic. 
Homophony.  In  modem  music,  a  style  of  melody  supported  by  chords,  in  contrast 

to  polyphony,  which  is  melody  supported  by  other  melodies  or  parts  or  voices. 

Incidental  music.    Pieces  written  to  go  ^\^th  a  play  or  drama. 

Innig  (Ger.,  in'-nigh).    Deep,  sincere,  earnest. 

Inversion.   A  change  of  an  octave  in  the  pitch  of  one  or  more  notes  in  an  interval 

or  chord. 
Issimo  (It.,  ees'-see-mo)  is  a  superlative  termination. 
Istesso  (It.,  is-tes'-so).   The  same. 

Janko  keyboard.  A  system  of  piano  keys  in  several  manuals,  or  ranks,  invented 
by  Paul  von  Janko.  This  keyboard  necessitates  only  a  small  stretch  for  large 
intervals. 


546  APPENDIX 

Kapellmeister  (Ger.,  kah-pell'-my-ster).  The  director  of  music,  at  first  in  a  church 

or  chapel,  but  now  in  any  chorus  or  orchestra. 
Key.   The  lever  that  is  moved  to  make  the  piano  action  strike  the  strings.   A  lever 

opening  or  closing  a  hole  in  wind  instruments.    A  scale,  the  key  being  the  first 

(tonic),  note  of  the  scale. 
Kr'iftig  (Ger.,  kref'-tigh).   Powerful,  strong,  energetic. 

L.  Abbreviation  for  left,  or  (Ger.)  Knke,  hand. 

La.    A  syllable  applied  in  singing,  etc.,  to  the  sixth  note  of  the  scale. 

Laznentoso  (It.,  lah-men-to'-zo).    Lamenting,  mournful. 

Langsam  (Ger.,  lahng'-sahm).    Slow.    The  same  as  lento. 

Languendo  (It.,  lang-gwen'-do).    Languishing. 

Largamente  (It.,  lahr-gah-men'-teh).    Broadly,  with  fulness. 

Larghetto  (It.,  lahr-get'-to).    A  tempo  not  quite  so  slow  as  largo. 

Largo  (It.,  lahr'-go).    A  slow,  broad  tempo,  almost  as  slow  as  grave. 

Lebhaft  (Ger.,  layb'-hahft).    Lively,  quick. 

Legatissimo  (It.,  leh-gah-tees'-see-mo).   Extremely  smooth  and  fluent. 

Legato  (It.,  leh-gah'-to).   Smooth,  with  no  pause  between  notes. 

Leggiero  (It.,  led-jyair'-o).   Light,  deUcate. 

Leidenschaftlich  (Ger.,  ly'-den-shahft-likh).   Passionate. 

Lento  (It.,  len'-to).   A  slow  tempo,  usually  between  adagio  and  andante. 

Licenza  (It.,  lee-chen'-tza).    License,  freedom  of  style. 

Linke  (Ger.,  ling'-keh).    Left,  left-hand. 

Loco  (It.,  lo'-co).  Place.  Used  to  show  a  return  to  the  pitch  of  printed  notes  after 

an  8va  transposition. 
Lunga  (It.,  loong'-gah).    Long. 
Lustig  (Ger.,  loos'-tigh).    Merry,  gay. 

M.    Abbreviation  for  mano  or  main,  meaning  "  hand." 

M.  M.   Abbreviation  for  Maelzel's  metronome. 

Ma  (It.,  mah).  But. 

Maestoso  (It.,  mah-es-to'-zo).    Majestic,  stately. 

Maggiore  (It.,  mahd-jyo'-reh).    Major. 

Main  (Fr.,  Hke  "  man  "  with  a  nasal  soimd  instead  of  the  n).   Hand. 

Mano  (It.,  mah'-no).   Hand. 

Marcato  (It.,  mahr-cah'-to).   Marked,  accented. 

Martellato  (It.,  mahr-tel-lah'-to).    Strongly  marked. 

Massig  (Ger.,  may'-sigh).    Moderate,  moderato. 

Meno  (It.,  may'-no).   Less. 

Messa  di  voce  (may'-sah  dee  vo'-che).  A  gradual  swelling  and  subsiding  on  a  single 
tone  in  singing. 

Mestoso  (It.,  mes-to'-zo).   Sadly. 

Metronome.  A  device  invented  by  John  Maelzel  in  1815,  in  which  a  weighted  rod, 
projected  upward,  swings  from  side  to  side  in  regular  time,  to  mark  the  beats 
of  the  measure.  The  rate  may  be  varied  by  a  movement  of  the  weight.  Figures 
are  placed  on  the  rod,  indicating  where  the  weight  should  be  put  to  obtain  any 
desired  number  of  beats  per  minute.  Composers  sometimes  mark  their  pieces 
with  a  metronome  mark;  i.e.,  a  figure  and  a  note  of  definite  value,  showing  that 
the  piece  must  be  played  so  as  to  sound  that  number  of  notes  of  the  given  value 
in  a  minute. 


APPENDIX  547 

Mezzo  (It.,  med'-zo).   The  middle,  half. 

Mi  (It.,  mee).   A  syllable  used  for  the  third  note  of  the  scale  in  singing,  etc. 

Minacciando  (It.,  meen-aht-chyahn'-do).    Threateningly. 

Misterioso  (It.,  mis-tair-ee-o'-zo).    Mysteriously. 

Mit  (Ger.,  mitt).    With. 

Moderate   (It.,  mod-air-ah'-to).    Moderate  tempo,  between  andantino  and  aUe- 

ffretto. 
Moll  (Ger.,).    Minor. 

Molto  (It.,  mol'-to).    Much;  extremely;  a  great  deal. 
Morendo  (It.,  mo-ren'-do).    Dying  away  gradually. 
Mosso  (It.,  mos'-so).    Movement,  motion,  speed. 
Moto  (It.,  mo'-to).    Motion,  movement. 

Nachdruck  (Ger.,  nahkh'-drook).   Emphasis. 

Nicht  (Ger.,  nikht).    Not. 

Noel  (Fr.,  no-ail').   A  Christmas  song;  derived  from  nouvelles,  "  tidings." 

Non  (It.).   Not. 

Obbligato  (It.,  ob-blee-gah'-to).  A  passage  of  such  importance  that  it  is  obligatory, 

and  cannot  be  omitted;  sometimes  a  solo  passage. 
Octave-marks,  8va,  and  8va  bassa.   When  9>va  is  put  over  a  note,  the  note  is  to 

be  played  an  octave  higher.    A  line  extending  from  the  8ra  shows  that  all  notes 

imder  the  line  are  to  be  played  an  octave  higher.   %va  bassa,  placed  under  a  note 

or  notes,  transposes  an  octave  downward. 
Ohne  (Ger.,  o'-neh).   Without. 
Organ  point,  see  pedal  point. 
Ossia  (It.,  os'-see-ah).   Or. 

Ostinato  (It.,  os-tee-nah'-to).   Obstinate,  continual,  unceasing. 
Ou  (Fr.,  oo).    Or. 

P.    Abbreviation  of  piano,  meaning  "  soft."   Abbreviation  of  pedal. 

Parlando  (It.,  pahr-lahn'-do).    In  a  speaking  or  declamatory  style. 

Partitur  (Ger.,  pahr-tee-toor').   A  full  score. 

Patetico  (It.,  pah-tay'-tee-co).    Pathetic. 

Pedal  point.   A  sustained  pedal  or  bass  note,  over  which  are  varying  chords  and 

harmonies. 
Perdendosi  (It.,  pair-den'-do-zee).    Decreasing  in  power,  dying  away. 
Piacere  (It.,  pee-ah-chair'-eh).    Pleasure.   A  piacere,  at  pleasure,  as  desired. 
Piangendo  (It.,  pee-ahn-jen'-do).   Plaintively,  sorrowfully. 
Pianissimo  (It.,  pee-ahn-ees'-see-mo).    Very  soft.    Abbreviated  to  pp. 
Piano  (It.,  pee-ah'-no).    Soft.    The  name  "  piano,"  as  applied  to  the  instrument, 

comes  from  Gravicembalo  con  piano  e  forte,  meaning  a  keyed  instrument  with  both 

soft  and  loud  tones. 
Piil  (It.,  pyoo).   More. 

Plus  (Fr.;  like  "  plea  "  pronoimced  with  the  lips  nearly  closed).    More. 
Poco  (It.,  po'-co).    Little,  a  little. 
Poco  a  poco  (It.).   Little  by  little. 
Pol  (It.,  po'-ee).   Then,  after  that,  next. 


548  APPENDIX 

PolTphony.  Music  that  is  composed  of  parts,  or  voices,  which  support  one  another, 
in  contrast  with  homophony,  which  is  melody  supported  by  chords. 

Ponticello  (It.,  pon-tee-chel'-lo).  The  bridge  of  a  violin  or  other  stringed  instru- 
ment. 

Portamento  (It.,  por-tah-men'-to).  The  carrying-over  of  one  note  into  the  next, 
so  rapidly  that  the  intermediate  notes  are  not  defined.  In  piano  music,  two  or 
more  notes  under  a  slur,  with  dots  above  them;  the  notes  to  be  played  with  some 
emphasis  and  separated  shghtly. 

Prestissimo  (It.,  pres-tees'-see-mo).  Extremely  fast;  as  fast  as  possible.  The  quick- 
est tempo  in  music. 

Presto  (It.,  pres'-to).  Very  rapidly;  quicker  than  any  tempo  except  "prestissimo. 

Primo  (It.,  pree'-mo).   Principal,  first. 

Quadrat  (Ger.,  quad-raht').   The  sign  for  a  natural. 

B.    Abbreviation  in  English  or  German  for  right. 

Rallentando  (It.,  rahl-len-tahn'-do).    Making  the  tempo  gradually  slower. 
Re  (It.,  ray).   The  syllable  used  in  singing,  etc.,  for  the  second  note  of  the  scale. 
Recht  (Ger.,  rekht).    Right,  right-hand. 
Registration.    The  combination  of  stops  in  organ  playing. 
Rinforzando  (It.,  rin-for-tsahn'-do).    Reinforced,  accented. 
Risoluto  (It.,  ree-so-loo'-to).    Resolute,  bold. 

Ritardando  (It.,  ree-tahr-dahn'-do).   Retarding,  delaying  the  time  gradually. 
Ritenuto  (It.,  ree-teh-noo'-to).    Retained,  kept  back;  more  slowly. 
Roulade  (Fr.,  roo-lahd').   A  florid  vocal  phrase. 

Rubato  (It.,  roo-bah'-to).  A  style  of  playing  in  which  one  note  may  be  extended 
at  the  expense  of  another,  for  purposes  of  expression. 

Sanft  (Ger.,  sahnft).   Soft,  mild. 

Sans  (Fr.;  "  sahn  "  with  a  nasal  sound  instead  of  the  n).   Without. 

Scale.  A  series  of  tones,  comprised  within  an  octave.  The  chromatic  scale  on  our 
pianos  consists  of  twelve  equal  semitones.  By  choosing  intervals  that  have  some- 
times one  semitone,  and  sometimes  two  (a  whole  tone),  the  diatonic  scale  is  made. 
See  chapter  on  "  How  to  Read  Music." 

Scherzando  (It.,  skairt-zahn'-do).   Jestingly. 

Scherzo  (It.,  skairt'-zo).  A  jest,  or  play.  A  piece  of  lively  tempo  and  jesting  style, 
often  in  triple  rhythm. 

Schleppend  (Ger.,  shlep'-pent).   Dragging,  drawling. 

Schnell  (Ger.,  shnell).   Quick,  rapid. 

Sciolto  (It.,  shee-oU'-to).  Light,  free. 

Scotch  snap.   A  sixteenth  note  followed  by  a  dotted  eighth  note. 

Se  (It.,  say).   If. 

Segno  (It.,  say'-nyo).   A  sign. 

Segue  (It.,  say'-gweh).   It  follows;  now  follows. 

Sehr  (Ger.,  sair).    Very. 

Semplice  (It.,  sem'-plee-cheh).   Simple,  in  a  pure  styl?. 

Sempre  (It.,  sem'-preh).   Always;  constantly. 

Senza  (It.,  sen'-tsah).   Without. 

Sforzando  (It.,  sfor-tsahn'-do).   Forced,  accented.   Abbreviated  to  Sf. 


APPENDIX  549 

Si  (It.,  see).   The  syllable  used  to  denote  the  seventh  note  of  the  scale. 

Signatxire.  The  sharps  or  flats  necessary  to  give  the  key  used  for  a  composition. 
These  are  put  at  the  beginning  of  each  staff. 

Sino,  sin'  (It.,  see'-no).    To,  toward,  as  far  as. 

Sznorzando  (It.,  smor-tsahn'-do).    Dying  away. 

Sol  (It.).    The  syllable  denoting  the  fifth  note  of  the  scale. 

Sopra  (It.,  sop' -rah).   Above,  over,  before. 

Sostenuto  (It.,  sos-teh-noo'-to).   Sustaining  the  notes  to  their  full  length. 

Sotto  (It.,  sot'-to).    Under,  below. 

Spianato  (It.,  spee-ahn-ah'-to).   Smooth,  even;  legato. 

Spiccato  (It.,  spik-kah'-to).  Separated,  detached;  a  semi-staccato  for  violin  oh* 
tained  by  brushing  the  strings  lightly  with  the  bow  and  lifting  it  off  quickly. 

Spirito  (It.,  spee'-ree-to).   Spirit,  fire,  energy. 

Staccato  (It.,  stahk-kah'-to).  Detached,  separate.  Notes  made  as  short  as  possi- 
ble. 

Stesso  (It.,  stes'-so).   The  same. 

Stringendo  (It.,  streen-jen'-do).   Hurrying,  accelerating  the  tempo. 

Subito  (It.,  soo'-bee-to).   Suddenly,  immediately. 

Sul  (It.,  sool).   Upon,  near. 

Tanto  (It.,  tahn'-to).   So  much,  as  much;  too  much. 

Tedesco  (It.,  teh-des'-co).   German;  in  German  style. 

Temperament.  The  division  of  the  scale  into  semitones.  We  have  equal  tem- 
perament, but  before  that  (in  the  seventeenth  century)  musicians  used  a  compro- 
mise with  the  scale  of  nature,  called  "mean  temperament." 

Tempo  (It.,  tem'-po).  Time,  with  regard  to  speed;  the  pace  at  which  a  composition 
is  to  be  played. 

Tenerezza  (It.,  ten-air-et'-za).   Tenderness. 

Tenuto  (It.,  teh-noo'-to).    Held,  sustained  for  its  full  time. 

Tessitura  (It.,  tes-see-too'-rah).  The  location  of  a  majority  of  tones  in  a  piece  or 
song. 

Ti.  A  syllable  sometimes  used  for  the  seventh  note  of  the  scale,  in  place  of  si,  which 
is  too  sibilant. 

Timbre  (Fr.,  tam'-br).    Quality  of  tone. 

Time.  Properly  used  for  the  rhythm  of  a  piece;  i.e.,  the  number  of  beats  in  a  bar; 
as  3/4  time,  9/8  time,  etc.  But  it  is  safer  to  use  the  word  "  rhythm  "  instead  of 
"  time,"  to  avoid  confusion  with  "  tempo." 

Tonart  (Ger.,  ton'-ahrt).    Scale,  mode,  key. 

Toujours  (Ft.,  too-zhoor').   Always. 

Tranquillo  (It.,  tran-queel'-lo).    Tranquil,  calm. 

Tremolo  (It.,  treh'-mo-lo),  A  trembling  or  quavering;  the  rapid  repetition  of  a  note. 

Tristezza  (It.,  trees-tet'-sah).    Sadness,  jjensiveness. 

Troppo  (It.,  trop'-po).   Too  much. 

Turca  (It.,  toor'-kah).    In  Turkish  style. 

Tutto  (It.,  toot'-to).   All,  the  whole. 

Umore  (It.,  oo-mo'-reh).    Humor,  plaj^ulness. 
Un,  uno,  una  (It.,  oon,  oon'-o,  oon'-ah).    One,  a,  an. 

Ut.  The  syllable  used  by  the  French,  in  instrumental  music,  instead  of  Do,  to  desig- 
nate the  first  note  of  the  scale,  or  C. 


550  APPENDIX 

Veloce  (It.,  vay-lo'-cheh).   Swiftly. 

Vibrato  (It.,  vee-brah'-to).    Recurrent  swells  and  subsidences  in  a  tone. 
Vivace  (It.,  vee-vah'-cheh).   A  brisk,  animated  tempo. 
Voce  (It.,  vo'-cheh).   The  voice. 

Vorspiel  (Ger.,  for'-speel).  A  prelude;  one  of  Wagner's  preludes,  with  which  he  re« 
placed  the  operatic  overture. 

Wenig  (Ger.,  vay'-nigh).   Little,  a  little. 

Zart  (Ger.,  tsahrt).   Gently,  tenderly,  softly. 
2iieinlich  (Ger.,  tseem'-likh).   Somewhat,  rather. 
Zierlich  (Ger.,  tseer'-likh).   Graceful,  neat. 
Zogemd  (Ger.,  tsay'-gemd).   Retarding,  hesitating. 


APPENDIX  B 

A  COURSE  OF  STUDY,  WITH  REFERENCES 

The  present  course  of  study  is  appended  here  for  two  purposes.  It  will  enable 
the  general  reader  to  know  which  are  the  most  important  references,  or  to  pursue 
his  studies  by  himself;  and  it  will  also  serve  as  a  basis  for  a  musical  course  in  those 
colleges  and  high  schools  that  may  desire  to  incorporate  such  a  course  in  their  curric- 
ulum. The  subjects  treated  in  this  course  include  the  development  of  music  from 
ancient  times,  the  great  composers,  musical  form,  and  the  use  of  the  instruments. 
Other  topics  may,  of  course,  be  added  by  any  competent  teacher;  but  those  given 
here  will  form  a  sufficiently  thorough  course  in  musical  knowledge  and  appreciation. 

History 

1.  Primitive  and  Savage  Mtisie 
Prehistoric  instruments. 

The  natural  origin  of  instruments  and  of  song. 

The  drum  and  its  use. 

Flutes  and  wood-wind  instruments. 

Early  horns,  trumpets,  etc. 

The  lyre,  harps,  and  other  stringed  instruments  in  old  times. 

Chinese  music. 

Hindoo  music. 

Japanese  music. 

Peruvian  and  Mexican  music. 

Savage  music  of  various  races. 

References :  — 

Richard  Wallaschek,  Primitive  Music. 

Louis  C.  Elson,  Curiosities  of  Music. 

Modem  Music  and  Musicians.   Published  by  the  University  Society,  New  York, 

Carl  Engel,  Ancient  Music. 

Musical  Myths  and  Facts. 

Mary  E.  and  W.  A.  Browne,  Musical  Instruments,  and  Their  Homes. 

Sherman  Smith,  The  World's  Earliest  Music. 

2.  Egyptian  and  Hebrew  Music 
Egyptian  instruments. 

Egyptian  use  of  music  at  banquets,  etc. 

Royal  and  general  cultivation  of  music  in  Egypt. 

Assyrian  music. 

Hebrew  poets  and  prophets. 

Biblical  instruments.  - 

Biblical  songs  and  their  character. 

References :  — 

Louis  C.  Elson,  Curiosities  of  Music. 

Modem  Music  and  Musicians. 

Stainer,  The  Music  of  the  Bible. 


552  APPENDIX 

5.  Greek  and  Roman  Music 
Greek  bards. 

Pythagoras  and  his  work. 
The  Greek  modes. 
Greek  instruments. 
The  Greek  drama. 
The  Greek  games  and  festivals. 
Roman  instruments. 
Prominence  of  the  flute  in  Rome. 

Roman  pantomime.  ' 

References:  — 

Modem  Music  and  Musicians. 

Louis  C.  Elson,  Curiosities  of  Music. 

W.  S.  Pratt,  HisUrry  of  Music. 

H.  G.  Hatherly,  Byzantine  Music. 

D.  B.  Munro,  The  Modes  of  Ancient  Greek  Music. 

4.  Early  Christian  Music  and  Notation 
The  early  congregational  singing. 
Ambrose  and  his  scales. 
The  Gregorian  scales  (tones). 
Neume  notation. 
The  rise  of  the  four-line  staff. 
Other  attempts  at  a  staff. 
Clefs  and  their  origin. 
Hucbald  and  the  Organum. 
Guido  of  Arezzo  and  solfeggio. 
English  improvements. 
References :  — 

Article  "  Plain  Song,"  Stainer  and  Barrett's  Dictionary. 

Articles  in  Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music  and  Mttsicians. 

Niedermayer  and  D'Ortigue,  Gregorian  Accompaniment. 

Modem  Music  and  Musicians, 

Louis  C.  Elson,  Curiosities  of  Music. 

C.  F.  Abdy  WiUiams,  The  SUrry  of  Notation. 

5.  The  Minstrel  Knights  and  their  Followers 
Poetry  of  the  Troubadours. 
Romances  of  the  Trouvdres. 
Instruments  of  the  Troubadours. 
Music  of  Adam  de  la  Hale  and  others. 
Anecdotes  of  famous  Troubadours. 
Jongleurs  and  Glee  Maidens. 
Poetry  of  the  Minnesingers. 
Music  of  the  Minnesingers. 
Manners  and  customs  of  the  time. 
The  Mastersingers. 


APPENDIX  B5S 

Illustrations:  — 

Selections  from  Robin  et  Marion. 

Various  Troubadour  songs. 
References :  — 

Louis  C.  Elson,  Curiosities  of  Music. 

Rowbotham,  Troubadours  and  Courts  of  Love. 

Tiersot,  Histoire  de  Chanson  Populaire  en  France  (Fr.), 

Tiersot,  Robin  et  Marion  (Fr.). 

Curt  Mey,  The  Mastersingers  (Ger.). 

H.  W.  Preston,  Troubadours  and  Trouvkres. 

Aubry,  Trouvhres  and  Troubadours. 

6.  Counterpoint  in  Northern  Europe 
The  first  English  school,  thirteenth  century. 
The  French  schools  of  Jean  de  Muris,  Jannequin,  etc. 
Dunstable  and  his  work. 
The  school  of  Dufay. 
The  school  of  Okeghem. 
The  school  of  Josquin  des  PrSs. 

The  contrapuntal  forms  —  mass,  motet,  madrigal,  canon,  etc 
Illustrations:  — 

Part-song,  "  Sumer  is  icimien  in." 

Examples  from  The  Oxford  History  of  Mv^ic. 
References:  — 

The  Oxford  History  of  Music. 

Ambros,  Geschichte  der  Musik  (Ger.). 
^  W.  S.  Pratt,  The  History  of  Music. 

7.  The  Cvlminaium  of  Counterpoint 
Orlando  di  Lasso. 

Willaert,  De  Rore,  and  their  Italian  followers. 
Palestrina's  life  and  works. 
Illustrations:  — 

Lasso,  "  Mon  coeur  se  recommande,"  in  Weckerlin's  Echos  du  Temps  PassL 

Lasso,  selections  from  "  Seven  Penitential  Psalms." 

Palestrina,  "  O  bone  Jesu." 

Palestrina,  selection  from  Mass  of  Pope  Marcellus. 
References:  — 

Famous  Composers  and  their  Works.  Published  by  the  J.  B.  Millet  Company. 

Grove,  Dictionary  of  Mu^  and  Musicians. 

Ambros,  Geschichte  der  Musik  (Ger.).    > 

Haberl,  Palestrina. 

Baini,  Palestrina. 

8.  The  Rise  of  Opera 
Peri  and  the  Florentines. 
Monteverde  and  his  orchestra. 
CavaUi  and  others. 
Alessandro  Scarlatti. 
Lully  and  French  opera. 
Schiitz,  Keiser,  and  German  opera. 
Purcell  and  English  opera. 


554i  APPENDIX 

Illustrations:  — 

Monteverde,  "  Lasciatemi  morire,"  from  Arianna. 

Scarlatti,  "  Violette  "  and  other  songs. 

Lully,  Overture  to  Le  Triomphe  d' Amour. 

Purcell,  "  I  attempt  from  love's  sickness  to  fly,"  and  other  songs. 
References:  — 

W.  F.  Apthorp,  Opera  Past  and  Present. 

W.  J.  Henderson,  Forerunners  of  Italian  Opera. 

Arthur  Elson,  A  Critical  History  of  Opera. 

H.  S.  Edwards,  History  of  the  Opera. 

W.  H.  Cummings,  Purcell. 

9.  Early  Instrumental  and  Other  Mttsic 

The  old  instruments,  —  clavichord,  virginals,  harpsichord,  spinet,  viols. 

The  English  virginal  school. 

Domenico  Scarlatti  and  the  harpsichord. 

Early  violinists  and  their  music. 

Oratorio  and  its  origin. 

The  Italian  oratorio  composers. 

The  German  chorales. 

Early  string  and  wind  instruments. 

Illustrations:  — 

Selections  from  The  Fitzwilliam  Virginal  CoUection. 

Scarlatti,  examples  of  sonatas. 

Lotti,  song,  "  Pur  diceste." 

Cavaliere,  oratorio  selections. 

Carissimi,  oratorio  selections. 

Chorale,  "  Ein  feste  Burg." 
References:  — 

Articles  on  old  instruments  in  The  Musician,  February,  1908. 

Naylor,  The  Fitzwilliam  Virginal  Collection. 

Arthur  Elson,  Orchestral  Instruments  and  their  Use. 

Louis  C.  Elson,  Shakespeare  in  Music. 

Musical  dictionaries  and  cyclopaedias,  passim. 

Carl  Engel,  Musical  Instruments. 

The  M.  Steinert  Catalogue  of  Keyed  and  Stringed  Instruments. 

The  Great  Composers 

(See  separate  names  in  musical  dictionaries,  encyclopsedias,  etc.) 

10.  John  Sebastian  Bach 
Biography  of  Bach. 
Estimate  of  Bach's  fugueSi 
Bach's  other  harpsichord  and  clavichord  works. 
Bach's  organ  playing,  organ  works,  and  improvisations. 
Bach's  orchestral  works  (suites,  concertos,  etc.). 
Bach's  Passion  and  other  vocal  music. 


APPENDIX  655 

Illustrations :  — 

Fugues,  5,  7,  and  9  in  vol.  ii  of  The  Well-Tempered  Clavichord. 

Selection  from  Two-Part  Inventions. 

First  Prelude,  The  Well-Tempered  Clamchord,  first  without  and  then  with  the 
"Ave  Maria  "  melody  that  Gounod  set  to  it. 

Air  from  Suite,  arranged  for  violin  and  piano. 

Song,  "  Mein  Glaubiges  Herze." 

Final  chorus  from  St.  Matthew  Passion. 
References:  — 

Spitta,  Johann  Sebastian  Bach. 

Parry,  Life  of  Bach. 

C.  F.  Abdy  WiUiams,  Bach. 

11.  George  Frederick  Handel 
Handel's  biography. 
Handel's  instrumental  works. 
Handel's  operas. 
Handel's  oratorios. 
Handel's  habit  of  plagiarism. 
lUustraiions :  — 

Recitative,  "  Comfort  ye,"  and  aria,  "  Ev'ry  valley,"  from  The  Messiah. 

Aria,  "I  know  that  my  Redeemer  Uveth,"  from  The  Messiah. 

Overtiu"e  to  The  Messiah,  arr.  for  piano. 

Song,  "  Angels  ever  bright  and  fair,"  from  Theodora. 

Largo,  arr.  for  piano. 

Song,  "Revenge,  Timotheus  cries,"  from  Alexander's  Feast. 

Selection  from  Six  Little  Fugues. 
References :  — 

Streatfeild,  Life  of  Handel. 

C.  F.  Abdy  Wilhams,  Handel. 

W.  G.  Cusins,  HandeVs  "Messiah." 

Sedley  Taylor,  The  Indebtedness  of  Handel  to  Works  by  Other  Composers. 

12.  Franz  Josef  Haydn 
The  rise  of  symphony  and  sonata. 
Haydn's  biography. 
The  social  position  of  musicians. 
Haydn's  symphonies  and  sonatas. 
Haydn's  oratorios  and  songs. 
lUiistrations :  — 

Sonata  in  D,  no.  7,  in  Ten  Celebrated  Sonatas. 

Austrian  National  Hymn. 

Song,  "  My  Mother  bids  me  bind  my  hair," 

Sonata  no.  5,  in  Ten  Celebrated  Sonatas. 

Song,  "  With  verdure  clad." 

Selections  from  movements  of  Symphony  no.  7,  in  D,  in  Ten  Celebrated  Sym- 
phonies. 


556  APPENDIX 

References:  — 
L.  Nohl,  Life  of  Haydn. 
W.  H.  Hadow,  A  Croatian  Composer. 
P.  D.  Townsend,  Joseph  Haydn. 

13.  Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart 
Life  of  Mozart. 
Child  prodigies. 

Mozart's  sonatas  and  symphonies. 
Mozart's  early  operas. 

The  Marriage  of  Figaro,  Don  Giovanni,  and  The  Magic  Flute. 
Illustrations:  — 

Fantasia  and  sonata. 

Song,  "  The  Violet." 

Overture  to  The  Marriage  of  Figaro,  arr.  for  piano  duet. 

Song,  "  Voi  che  sapete,"  from  The  Marriage  of  Figaro. 

Duet,  "  La  ci  darem  la  mano,"  from  Don  Giovanni. 

Sarastro's  song,  "  In  diesen  heiligen  Hallen,"  from  The  Magic  Flute, 

Selection  from  Symphony  in  G  minor,  arr.  for  piano  duet 
References:  — 

Otto  Jahn,  Life  of  Mozart. 

Breakspeare,  Life  of  Mozart. 

E.  Holmes,  Life  of  Mozart. 

14-  Ludwig  van  Beethoven 
Biography  of  Beethoven. 
Influence  of  women  on  composers. 
Beethoven's  three  periods. 
Beethoven's  piano  sonatas. 
Beethoven's  chamber  music 
Beethoven's  sj-mphonies. 
Beethoven's  other  works. 
Illustrations:  — 

Finale  of  First  Symphony,  arr.  for  piano  duet. 

First  and  third  movement  of  First  Piano  Sonata. 

Funeral  March  from  Sonata,  Op.  26. 

First  movement  of  Waldstein  Sonata. 

Song,  "  Faithful  Johnnie." 

Aria,  "  Komm,  Hoffnung,"  from  Fidelio. 

First  two  movements  of  Seventh  Symphony,  arr.  for  piano  auet 
References:  — 

A.  W.  Thayer,  Life  of  Beethoven  (Ger.). 

A.  Schindler,  Life  of  Beethoven. 

Grove,  Beethoven's  Nine  Symphonies. 

Vincent  D'Indy,  Beethoven. 

Arthur  Elson,  Woman's  Work  in  Music. 

Beethoven,  Letters. 

Nohl,  Beethoven  depicted  by  his  Contemporaries. 

E.  V.  Elterlein,  Beethoven's  Piano  Sonatas. 


APPENDIX  557 

15.  Franz  Peter  Schubert 
Biography  of  Schubert. 
Schubert's  songs. 
Song-writers  in  general. 
Schubert's  symphonies. 
Schubert's  other  works. 
How  the  great  musicians  composed. 
Illustrations:  — 

Selections  from  Moments  Musical. 

Song,  "  Mein,"  from  Die  Schone  MiiUerin. 

Song,  "  The  Wanderer." 

Impromptu  in  A-flat,  for  piano. 

Transcription  by  Liszt  of  The  Erl-King. 

Song,  "  Who  is  Sylvia." 

Song,  "  Die  AUmacht." 

Selections  from  Symphony  in  C,  arr.  for  piano  duet. 
References:  — 

H.  F.  Frost,  Life  of  Schubert. 

Henry  T.  Finck,  Songs  and  Song-Writers. 

Article,  "  Composition,  its  Methods  and  Humors,"  in  The  Musician,  December, 
1911. 

A.  B.  Bach,  The  AH  Ballad. 

R.  Prochazka,  Robert  Franz  (Ger.). 

Louis  C.  Elson,  History  Of  German  Song. 

16.  Classical  Opera 
Biography  of  Gluck. 

Descriptions  of  Gluck's  dramatic  ideals,  as  shown  in  his  six  last  works. 
Biography  of  Cherubim. 
Cherubim's  op)era  and  overtures. 
Cherubini's  sacred  works. 
M^hul  and  others. 
Life  and  Works  of  Spontini. 
Life  and  Works  of  Auber. 
Light  opera  in  France. 
Illustrations:  — 
^    Gluck,  Overture  to  Iphigenia  in  Aulis,  arr.  for  piano. 

Gluck,  Song,  "  Ach,  erbarmet  euch  mein,"  from  Orpheus. 

Gluck,  Song,  "  Che  faro  senza  Euridice,"  from  Orpheus. 

Cherubini,  overture  to  Aruicreon,  arr.  for  piano  duet. 

Cherubini,  song,  "  Ave  Maria." 

Cherubini,  overture  to  Les  Deux  Joumiea,  arr.  for  piano  duet. 

Auber,  Barcarole  from  MasanieUo. 

Spontini,  overture  to  Fernando  Cortez,  arr.  for  piano  duet. 
References:  — 

F.  J.  Crowest,  Cherubini. 

A.  Pougin,  Mehvl  (Fr.). 

E.  Bellasis,  Cherubini. 

A.  Kohut,  Auber  (Ger.). 

Ernest  Newman,  Gluck  and  the  Opera. 


558  APPENDIX 

17.  Italian  Opera 
Biography  of  Rossini. 
Character  of  his  works. 
Biography  of  Donizetti. 
Character  of  his  works. 
Biography  of  Bellini. 
Character  of  his  works. 
Mercadante  and  others  of  the  period. 
Verdi's  life  until  1870. 
Verdi's  early  works. 
Illustrations:  — 

Rossini,  song,  "  Largo  aJ  factotum,"  from  The  Barber  of  Seville. 

Rossini,  song,  "  Bel  Raggio,"  from  Semiramide. 

Rossini,  overture  to  WiUiam  Tell,  arr.  for  piano  duet. 

Donizetti,  song,  "  Com'  e  gentil,"  from  Don  Pasquale. 

Bellini,  song,  "  Casta  Diva,"  from  Norma. 

Donizetti,  sextet  from  Lucia,  arr.  for  piano. 

Verdi,  song,  "  Ah,  fors  e  lui,"  from  Traviata. 

Verdi,  song,  "  Di  quella  pira,"  from  II  Trovatore. 

Verdi,  transcription  from  II  Trovatore. 
References:  — 

A.  Pougin,  Life  of  Verdi. 

R.  A.  Streatfeild,  Masters  of  Italian  Music. 

G.  P.  Upton,  The  Standard  Operas. 

H.  S.  Edwards,  Life  of  Rossini. 

P.  Voss,  Vincenzo  BeUini  (Ger.). 

Crowest,  Verdi,  Man  and  Musician, 

18.  Weber  and  the  Romantic  School 
Biography  of  Weber. 
Weber's  operas. 
Weber's  other  works. 
Style  of  the  Romantic  School. 
Spohr's  biography. 
Spohr's  works. 
Marschner  and  his  works. 
Other  members  of  the  school. 
Illustrations:  — 

Selections  from  Weber's  sonatas. 

Weber,  vocal  scena,  Agatha's  prayer,  from  Der  Freischutz. 

Weber,  song,  "  Sword  Song." 

Weber,  Perpetuum  Mobile. 

Spohr,  song,  "Rose  so  enchanting,"  from  Zemire  and  Azor. 

Spohi,  solo  selection  from  Calvary. 

Spohr,  selection  from  symphony.  Consecration  of  Tones,  arr.  for  piano  duet. 
References:  — 

J.  A.  Fuller-Maitland,  Masters  of  German  Music. 

Arthur  Elson,  A  Critical  History  of  Opera. 

Sir  Julius  Benedict,  Weber. 


APPENDIX  659 


Nohl,  Spohr  (Ger.). 

G.  Muenzer,  Marschner  (Ger.). 

G.  R.  Kruse,  Albert  Lortzing  (Ger.). 

19.  Felix  Mendelssohn 
Biography  of  Mendelssohn. 

Ages  of  composers  at  beginning  and  end  of  career. 
Mendelssohn's  songs  and  the  Songs  unthout  Words. 
Mendelssohn's  fugues  and  contrapuntal  works. 
Mendelssohn's  oratorios. 
Mendelssohn's  symphonies  and  overtures. 
Illustrations:  — 

Hunting  Song,  from  Songs  without  Words.  No.  3. 

Death  Song,  from  Songs  voithout  Words.  No.  27. 

Song,  "Auf  Fliigeln  des  Gesangea." 

Song,  "  Ueber  die  Berge  steigt  schon  die  Sonne." 

Prelude  and  Fugue  in  E  minor. 

Song,  "O  rest  in  the  Lord,"  {rom  Elijah. 

Overture,  Hebrides,  arr.  for  piano  duet. 

Song,  "Jerusalem,"  from  St.  Paul. 

Song,  "But  the  Lord  is  mindful,"  from  St.  Paul. 

Selection  from  Scotch  Symphony,  arr.  for  piano  duet.  " 
References:  — 

Lampadius,  Life  of  Mendelssohn. 

Stratton,  Life  of  Mendelssohn. 

Upton,  The  Standard  Oratorios. 

Upton,  The  Standard  Cantatas. 

Mendelssohn,  Letters;  translated  by  Lady  Wallace. 

F.  Hiller,  Mendelssohn. 

20.  Robert  Schumann 
Biography  of  Schumarm. 

Professions  for  which  the  great  composers  were  at  first  intended. 
Schumann's  songs. 
Schumann's  piano  works. 
Schumann's  cantatas  and  operatic  work. 
Schumann's  chamber  music. 
Schumann's  symphonies,  etc. 
Clara  Schumann  and  her  work. 
Illustrations:  — 

Grillen,  from  the  Phantasiestiicke. 

Song,  "Er,  der  herrlichste  von  alien." 

Song,  "Hilft  mir,  Ihr  Schwestem." 

Selections  from  the  Cameval. 

Song,  "Brautlied." 

Song,  "Ich  groUe  nicht." 

Nachtstiick  no.  4,  in  F. 

Song,  "Volkslied." 

Song,  "Mondnacht." 

Selection  from  First  or  Fourth  Symphony,  arr.  for  piano  duet. 


560  APPENDIX 

References:  — 

Wasiliewski,  Life  of  Schumann. 

Reissmann,  Ldfe  and  Works  of  Robert  Schumann. 

J.  A.  Fuller-Maitland,  Schumann. 

Schumann's  Life,  Told  in  His  Letters. 

Louis  C.  Elson,  History  of  German  Song. 

21.  FrMeric  Chcrpin 
Biography  of  Chopin. 
Style  of  his  piano  works  in  various  fonns. 
His  songs. 

His  orchestral  works. 
lUustraiums:  — 

Selection  from  Tweniy-four  Preludes. 

Song,  "Were  I  a  birdling." 

Military  Polonaise  in  A. 

Song,  "Der  Reitersmann." 

Nocturne  in  G,  Op.  37,  no.  2. 

Selection  from  Mazurkas. 

Song,  "Poland's  Dirge." 

Selections  from  Sonata  with  funeral  march.' 
References:  — 

M.  Karasowski,  Life  of  Chopin. 

F.  Niecks,  FrSderic  Chopin. 

James  Huneker,  Chopin. 

Ashton-Jonson,  Handbook  of  Chopin's  Works. 

H.  T.  Finck,  Chopin,  and  Other  Musical  Essays. 

George  Sand,  Chopin  (letters,  etc.,  collated). 

2B.  Berlioz  and  Liszt 
Biography  of  Berlioz. 

His  Symphonic  Fantastigue  and  Childe  Harold  Symphony. 
His  other  works. 
Biography  of  Liszt. 
Liszt's  piano  works. 
Liszt's  transcriptions. 
Liszt's  orchestral  works  and  their  style. 
Illustrations:  — 

Berlioz,  Menuet  des  Sylphes  and  Danse  des  Feu-FoUets,  from  The  Damnation  of 
Faust. 

Berhoz,  song, "  Villanelle." 

Liszt,  Liebestraum. 

Liszt,  song,  "Du  bist  wie  eine  Blume." 

Liszt,  CampaneUa. 

Liszt,  Sermon  of  St.  Francis  to  the  Birds. 

Liszt,  song,  "Die  Lorelei." 

Liszt,  Rakoczy  March. 

Liszt,  selection  from  Rhavsodies  Hongroises. 


APPENDIX  561 


References:  — 
James  Hxineker,  Life  of  Liszt. 
A.  Hervey,  Masters  of  French  Music. 
Liszt,  Letters. 
Nohl,  Life  of  Liszt. 
J.  Bennett,  Hector  Berlioz. 

23.  French  and  Italian  Opera 
Biography  of  Meyerbeer. 
His  works. 
Halevy  and  others. 
Biography  of  Gounod. 
His  works. 
Biography  of  Bizet. 
His  works. 

Biography  and  works  of  Ambroise  Thomas. 
Verdi's  later  Ufe  and  last  three  operas. 
Boito's  life  and  works. 
Ponchielli's  Ufe  and  works. 
Illustrations:  — 

Meyerbeer,  Coronation  march  from  Le  Prophkte,  arr,  for  piano. 

Goimod,  song,  "Watchman,  what  of  the  night." 

Goimod,  transcription  from  Fau^t. 

Bizet,  song,  "Habanera,"  from  Carmen. 

Bizet,  song,  "Toreador  Song,"  from  Carmen. 

Bizet,  selection  from  first  and  second  Suite  Arl^sienne. 

Thomas,  song.  Polonaise  from  Mignon. 

Thomas,  Gavotte  from  Mignon,  arr.  for  piano. 

Boito,  prison  duet  from  Mifistofele. 

Verdi,  transcription  from  Atda. 
References:  — 

A.  Pougin,  Life  of  Verdi. 

R.  A.  Streatfeild,  Masters  of  Italian  Music. 

A.  Hervey,  Masters  of  French  Music. 

J.  Bennett,  Giacomo  Meyerbeer. 

H.  Imbert,  Charles  Gounod  (Fr.). 

P.  Voss,  Georges  Bizet  (Ger.). 

2J^.  Rubinstein  and  Tschaikovsky 
Life  and  works  of  Glinka. 
Life  and  works  of  Dargomiszky  and  Serov. 
Biography  of  Rubinstein. 
His  operas. 
His  piano  works. 
His  songs. 
His  symphonies. 
Biographj'  of  Tschaikovsky. 
His  symphonies. 
His  symphonic  poems  and  their  orchestration. 


562  APPENDIX 

His  operas  and  ballets. 
His  shorter  works. 
lUtistrations:  — 

Rubinstein,  Melody  in  F. 

Rubinstein,  song,  "  Du  bist  wie  eine  Blume." 

Rubinstein,  song,  "The  Dream." 

Rubinstein,  Kammenoi  Ostrov. 

Rubinstein,  first  two  dances  from  ballet  music  of  Feramora. 

Rubinstein,  song,  "The  Asra." 

Tschaikovsky,  Andante  CantabUe  from  string  quartet.  Op.  11,  arr.  for  piano. 

Tschaikovsky,  song,  "Nur  wer  die  Sehnsucht  kennt." 

Tschaikovsky,  selections  from  Symphonie  Pathetiqiie,  arr.  for  piano  duet. 
References:  — 

Modeste  Tschaikovsky,  Life  of  Tschaikovsky. 

Edwin  Evans,  Life  of  Tschaikovsky. 

Rosa  Newmarch,  Tschaikovsky. 

Octave  Fouque,  Glinka  (Ft.). 

Alex.  McArthur,  Anton  Rubinstein. 

25.  Richard  Wagner 
Biography  of  Wagner. 

Popularity  of  Rienzi  and  its  style. 

Advances  in  The  Flying  Dutchman,  Tannhduser,  and  Lohengrin. 

Adverse  criticisms. 

The  Nibdungen  Ring. 

Parsifal  and  Die  Meister singer. 

The  use  of  guiding  motives,  illustrated  by  Act  i  of  Die  Walkure. 

Illustrations:  — 

Prayer  from  Rienzi. 

March  from  Tannhduser. 

Elsa's  Wedding  Procession,  from  Lohengrin. 

Song,  "Album-Leaf." 

Songs,  "Am  stillen  Herd  "  and  "Priae  Song,"  from  Die  Meistersinger. 

Magic  Fire  Music,  transcription  from  Die  Walkure. 

The  Forest  Rustling,  transcription  from  Siegfried. 

Siegfried's  Funeral  March,  from  Die  Gdtterddmmerung. 
References:  — 

Ernest  Newman,  Life  of  Wagner. 

Finck,  Wagner  and  his  Works. 

Gustav  Kobb^,  Wagner  and  his  Works. 

Praeger,  Wagner  as  I  Knew  Him. 

Wagner,  collected  letters,  essays.  My  Life,  etc. 

Judith  Gautier,  Wagner  at  Hom£. 

Angelo  Neumann,  Personal  Recollections  of  Wagner. 

Various  monographs  on  each  of  Wagner's  music-dramas. 

26.  Various  Symphonists 
Biography  of  Brahms. 

Symphonies  and  orchestral  works  of  Brahms. 


APPENDIX  563 


His  other  large  works. 

His  piano  pieces  and  songs. 

Biography  of  Raff. 

Works  and  melodious  style  of  Raff. 

Various  German  composers. 

Life  and  works  of  Bruckner. 

Illustrations:  — 

Cavatina  for  violin  and  piano. 

RafT,  song,  "Gute  Nacht." 

Raff,  March  from  Lenore  Symphony,  arr.  for  piano  duet. 

Brahms,  song,  "The  Little  Dustman." 

Brahms,  song,  "Mailied." 

Brahms,  selection  from  First  Piano  Sonata. 

Brahms,  song,  "Wie  bist  du  meine  Konigin." 

Brahms,  song,  "Sapphic  Ode." 

Brahms,  selection  from  Second  Symphony,  arr.  for  piano  duet. 
References:  — 

J.  L.  Erb,  Life  of  Brahms. 

H.  Deiters,  Johannes  Brahms. 

Felix  Weingartner,  The  Symphony  since  Beethoven. 

Philip  H.  Goepp,  Symphonies  and  their  Meaning. 

Brahms,  Letters,  edited  by  Kalbeck. 

27.  Grieg  and  Scandinavian  Music 
Biography  of  Grieg. 
His  songs. 

His  shorter  piano  works. 
His  orchestral  works. 
Life  and  works  of  Svendsen. 
Life  and  works  of  Sinding. 
Gade  and  Danish  composers. 
Hallen  and  the  Swedish  school. 
Sibelius  and  the  Finnish  schooL 
Illustrations:  — 

Grieg,  An  Spring. 

Grieg,  March  of  the  Dwarfs. 

Grieg,  song,  "Die  Prinzessin." 

Grieg,  song,  "The  First  Primrose." 

Sinding,  Rustle  of  Spring. 

Norse  folk-song,  "  Astri,  my  Astri." 

Norse  folk-song,  "  The  Herder's  Call." 

Gade,  Marches  for  piano,  four  hands. 

Sibelius,  song,  "  Ingalill." 

Grieg,  Peer  Gynt  Suite,  arr.  for  piano  duet. 
References:  — 

H.  T.  Finck,  Life  of  Grieg. 

Arthur  Elson,  Modem  Composers  of  Europe. 


564  APPENDIX 

28.  Strauss  and  Programme  Music 
Biography  of  Richard  Strauss. 
His  orchestral  works. 
His  operas. 
His  songs. 

The  scope  of  programme  music. 
Mahler,  Weingartner,  Hausegger,  and  others. 
lUvstrations:  — 

Strauss,  selections  from  Stimmungsbilder,  Op.  9. 

Strauss,  song,  "Allerseelen." 

Strauss,  song,  "Traimi  durch  die  Dammerung." 

Strauss,  selection  from  Symphony  in  F  minor,  arr.  for  piano  duet. 

Weingartner,  song, "  Liebesfeier." 

Strauss,  song,  "Serenade." 

Strauss,  symphonic  poem,  Death  and  Transfiguration,  arr.  for  piano. 
References:  — 

Ernest  Newman,  Richard  Strauss. 

Arthur  Elson,  Modem  Composers  of  Europe. 

Frederick  Niecks,  Programme  Music. 

29.  Debussy  and  Modernism 
C^sar  Franck  and  his  works. 
D'Indy  and  others. 

Debussy's  works,  and  their  harmonic  style. 
Work  of  Fanelli,  Satie,  Faur6,  and  others,  in  France. 
Work  of  Reger,  Schoenberg,  and  others,  in  CJermany. 
Work  of  Busoni  in  Italy. 

Work  of  Scriabine,  Rachmaninoff,  Stravinsky,  and  others,  in  Russia. 
Work  of  Cyril  Scott,  Delius,  Holbrooke,  and  others,  in  England. 
lUustraiions:  — 

Franck,  selections  from  Prelude,  Aria,  et  Final. 

Debussy,  song,  "  Romance." 

Faur6,  song,  "Les  Roses  d'Ispahan." 

Scott,  "In  Lotus  Land." 

Debussy,  song,  "Les  Cloches." 

Rachmaninoff,  Prelude  in  C-sharp  minor. 

Satie,  selection  from  Sonneries  de  la  Rose- Croix. 

Schoenberg,  selection  from  Three  Piano  Pieces. 

Debussy,  "  L'Apres-Midi  d'un  Faune,"  arr.  for  piano. 
References:  — 

Louis  Laloy,  Claude  Debussy  (Fr.). 

Mrs.  Franz  Liebich,  Claude  Deimssy. 

G.  Derepas,  Cesar  Franck  (Fr.). 

Vincent  D'Indy,  Cesar  Franck. 

30.  Music  in  Russia 
Life  and  works  of  Balakireff. 
Life  and  works  of  Borodin, 


APPENDIX  565 

Life  and  works  of  Cui. 

Life  and  works  of  Moussorgsky. 

Life  and  works  of  Rimsky-Korsakov. 

Life  and  works  of  Glazounoff,  Arensky,  and  others. 

Illustrations:  — 

Balakireff,  Islamey. 

Russian  folk-song,  "  The  Red  Sarafan." 

Russian  folk-song,  "  Volga  Sailors'  Song." 

Moussorgsky,  selection  from  TabUavx  d'une  Exposition, 

Borodin,  song,  "  The  Sea." 

Cui,  song,  selection  from  Angelo. 

Borodin,  Dances  from  Prince  Igor,  arr.  for  piano. 

Arensky,  song,  "  But  lately  in  the  dance." 

Moussorgsky,  song,  "  Chant  Juif." 

Glazounoff,  selection  from  First  Sonata. 

Rimsky-Korsakov,  overture  to  The  Czar's  Betrothed,  arr.  for  piano. 
References:  — 

Rosa  Newmarch,  Russian  Opera. 

W.  R.  S.  Ralston,  The  Songs  of  the  Russian  People. 

Habets,  Borodin  and  Liszt  (Ft.). 

Mercy- Argenteau,  Cesar  Cui  (Fr.). 

Pougin,  Essai  sur  la  Musique  en  Russie  (Fr.). 

31.  RecerU  Operatic  Devebpments 
Mascagni  and  his  works. 
Leoncavallo  and  his  works. 
Puccini  and  his  works. 
Franchetti  and  others. 

Humperdinck,  D'Albert,  and  opera  in  Germany. 
Recent  French  Operas;  Saint-Saens,  Massenet,  etc. 
The  opera  in  Russia. 
Opera  in  other  nations. 
Illustrations:  — 

Massenet,  Aragonaise  from  ballet  in  Le  Cid. 

Massenet,  song,  "  Bonne  Nuit." 

Saint-Saens,  song,  "  Mon  coeur  s'ouvre  h  ta  voix,"  from  Samson  et  DalHa. 

Massenet,  Meditation  from  Thais,  arr.  for  piano  and  violin. 

Leoncavallo,  song,  "  Vesti  la  giubba,"  from  /  Pagliacd. 

Puccini,  song,  "  Un  bel  di  vedremo,"  from  Madama  Butterfly. 

Mascagni,  "  Regina  Coeli,"  from  Rustic  Chivalry,  arr.  for  piano. 

Mascagni,  Intermezzo  from  Rustic  Chivalry. 

Humperdinck,  Sandman's  Song,  from  Hansel  undGretel. 

Hump)erdinck,  Peter's  Entrance  Song,  from  Hansel  und  Gretd. 

Humperdinck,  Introduction  to  Act  iii,  Konigskinder,  arr.  for  piano. 
References:  — 

A.  Hervey,  French  Music  in  the  Nineteenth  Century. 

Arthur  Elson,  Modem  Composers  of  Europe. 

O.  Neitzel,  Saint-Saens  (Ger.). 

Finck,  Massenet. 


566  APPENDIX 

SS.  Varioxis  National  Schools  and  Composers 
England. 
France. 
Germany. 
Italy. 
Spain. 

The  Netherlands. 
Bohemia  and  her  neighbors. 
Switzerland. 
lUustralions:  — 

Edward  German,  selection  from  Henry  VIII  Dances,  for  piano  and  violin. 

Sgambati,  song, "  Visione." 

Wolf-Ferrari,  song,  selection  from  Vita  Nuova. 

Bossi,  selection  from  Suite  Ancienne,  Op.  103. 

Huber,  songs,  selection  from  Peregrina-Lieder,  Op.  32. 

Albeniz,  Seguidilla. 

Paderewski,  Minuet. 

Fibich,  song,  "  Spring  Longing." 

Tinel,  song,  Hymn  to  Poverty,  from  Frandscus. 

Smetana,  selection  from  Hochzeitszenen. 

Dvof ^k,  selection  from  New  World  Symphony,  arr.  for  piano  duet. 
References:  — 

A.  Hervey,  French  Music  in  the  Nineteenth  Century. 

J.  A.  Fuller-Maitland,  English  Music  in  the  Nineteenth  Century. 

Arthur  Elson,  Modem  Composers  of  Europe. 

R.  J.  Buckley,  Sir  Edward  Elgar. 

Albert  Soubies,  Histoire  de  la  Musique,  in  the  following  volumes:  Belgium  (2), 
Bohemia,  Spain  (3),  Scandinavian  CourUries  (2),  Holland,  Hungary,  Portugal, 
Switzerland  (Fr.). 

J.  Zubaty,  Anton  Dvofdk  (Ger.). 

Wasiliewski,  Carl  Beinecke. 

S3.  American  Music 
Pilgrim  and  Piu-itan  music. 
The  rise  of  concerts  and  opera. 
Negro  and  Indian  music. 

Paine,  Chadwick,  MacDowell,  Parker,  Foote,  and  other  orchestral  leaders. 
More  recent  composers. 
Composers  in  smaller  forms. 
Illustrations:  — 

Gottschalk,  La  Savane. 

Chadwick,  song,  "Allah." 

Parker,  selection  from  Hora  Novissima,  piano  score. 

Paine,  selection  from  CEdipus  music,  arr.  for  piano. 

Paine,  song,  "  A  Farewell." 

Foote,  song,  "  Irish  Folk-Song." 

MacDowell,  Poem  for  piano. 

MacDowell,  "  Of  Bre'r  Rabbit." 

Converse,  Chonita's  prayer,  Act  ii,  The  Sacrifice. 


APPENDIX  567 

Herbert,  Lullaby  from  Act  m,  Natoma. 
Kelley,  Ballet  Episode. 
De  Koven,  song,  "  Cradle  Song." 

Cadman,  song,  "  Far  off  I  heard  a  lover's  flute,"  from  Four  American  Indian  Songs. 
Chadwick,  overture  Melpomene,  arr.  for  piano. 
References:  — 

Louis  C.  Elson,  History  of  American  Music. 

Rupert  Hughes,  Contemporary  American  Composers. 

Oscar  G.  Sonneck  (musical  librarian  of  Congress),  Early  Concert  Life  in  America. 

Louis  C.  Elson,  Our  National  Music  and  its  Sources. 

Oscar  G.  Sonneck,  The  Slar-Spangled  Banner. 

Natalie  Curtis,  The  Indians'  Book. 

Alice  C.  Fletcher,  Indian  Story  and  Song. 

H.  E.  Krehbiel,  Afro-American  Music. 

J.  A.  Lomax,  Cowboy  Songs. 

W.  S.  B.  Mathews,  A  Hundred  Years  of  Music  In  America. 

Musical  Form 

(See  section  on  "Musical  Form  "  in  this  volume,  Louis  C.  Elson's  Theory  of  Music, 
Ernst  Pauer's  Musical  Forms,  and  E.  Prout's  The  Fugue,  and  Musical  Forms.) 

34-  Figures,  Phrases,  and  Periods 

Explain  in  figure  as  a  single  idea  of  two  or  more  notes. 

Illustrate  by  the  first  movement  of  Beethoven's  fifth  and  sixth  symphonies,  show- 
ing how  a  figure  is  used  to  build  up  a  work.  Illustrate  also  by  the  three-noted  fig- 
ure in  "Aase's  Death,"  from  Grieg's  Peer  Gynt  Suite,  the  two-noted  figure  in  nearly 
every  bar  of  Schuett's  Reverie,  etc. 

Explain  phrase  as  a  single  melodic  idea  longer  than  the  figure,  and  perhaps  made  up 
of  several  figures. 

Illustrate  phrases  by  Mendelssohn's  Songs  without  Words,  Schumann's  Kinder- 
szenen,  etc. 

Explain  period,  or  theme,  as  made  up  of  two  contrasted  phrases.  The  first  phrase, 
called  the  "  antecedent,"  seems  incomplete  by  itself,  as  if  it  were  an  unanswered 
question.  The  second  phrase,  called  the  "  consequent,"  seems  to  bring  an  answer 
and  a  sense  of  completeness.  The  phrases  need  not  be  of  the  same  size,  the  con- 
sequent often  being  longer  than  the  antecedent.  The  consequent  frequently  end* 
in  a  cadence,  or  harmonic  close. 

Illustrate  single  periods  in  the  Mendelssohn  and  Schumann  wc»'ks  cited  above. 

Explain  that  a  song-form  may  consist  of  a  single  p)eriod. 

Illustrate  by  the  German  folk-song  "  The  Broken  Ring." 

Explain  that  any  musical  form  may  have  an  introduction,  coming  before  its  struc- 
ture begins,  or  a  coda,  coming  after  it  like  a  musical  postscript,  or  both. 

Illustrate  the  single  period  form  by  Scriabine's  Prelude  in  G-flat. 

85.  Two-Period  Forms 
Explain  the  two-period  form  as  consisting  primarily  of  two  periods,  or  themes, 

and  show  that  it  may  have  introduction,  or  coda,  or  both,  or  a  transition  passage 

between  the  periods. 
Explain  also  that  the  second  period  may  be  wholly  new,  or  may  have  its  consequent 


568  APPENDIX 

the  same,  or  nearly  the  same,  as  that  of  the  first  period.  In  the  first  case  the  two 

period  independent  form  results,  and  in  the  second,  the  two-period  form  with 

partial  return. 
Illustrate  the  two-period  independent  form  by  songs,  such  as  "  Annie  Laurie,"  and 

certain  eight-line  hymn  tunes. 
Illustrate  the  two-period  form  with  partial  returns  by  songs,  such  as  "  Drink  to  me 

only  with  thine  eyes,"  "  Bonnie  Doon,"  and  certain  hymn  tunes  that  show  this 

form.   State  that  either  period  may  be  repeated. 
State  that  composers  are  usually  devoted  to  the  idea  of  letting  the  opening  material 

return,  either  wholly  or  in  part,  so  that  the  two-period  independent  form  is  not 

much  used  in  instrumental  music. 
Illustrate  by  Mendelssohn's  first  "  Gondellied,"  which  is  a  two-p)eriod  independent 

form,  but  has  the  material  of  the  first  period  suggested  in  the  coda. 

36.  Three-Division  Forms 

Explain  that  three-division  form  consists  of  a  period,  a  contrasting  period  or  free 
episode,  and  a  return  of  the  first  period,  either  wholly,  or  with  altered  consequent, 
or  condensed  to  a  single  phrase.  Explain  that  such  forms  may  have  introduction, 
coda,  transition  passages,  or  returning  passages,  the  latter  being  passages  that 
lead  to  the  return  of  the  first  period.  When  the  contrasting  section  is  divided 
into  antecedent  and  consequent,  and  has  a  full  cadence,  it  is  called  a  counter- 
theme.  If  it  shows  less  definite  structure,  it  is  called  an  "  episode."  Some  writers 
suggest  that  if  the  middle  section  does  not  show  a  division  into  antecedent  and 
consequent  it  should  be  called  a  "  free  episode."  Explain  that  when  repeats  are 
made,  it  is  usual  to  repeat  the  first  part  by  itself,  or  the  second  and  third  together, 
or  to  make  both  repeats.  Sometimes,  however,  a  countertheme  is  repeated  by 
itself. 

Illustrate  by  Chaminade's  Scarf  Dance.  This  piece  has  periods  of  sixteen  measures 
each,  with  repeats  written  out,  the  middle  section  being  an  episode,  but  not  a 
free  episode. 

Illustrate  by  Mendelssohn's  Death  Song.  This  piece  has  an  introduction  and  coda 
made  of  similar  material,  and  the  same  rhythm  is  used  at  the  close  of  the  episode. 
The  repeat  of  the  first  period  is  written  out,  and  its  consequent  extended  in  the 
return.  The  middle  section  is  an  episode.  The  piece  is  brought  to  a  climax  by 
the  constantly  richer  accompaniment  given  to  the  first  period. 

Illustrate  by  Mendelssohn's  Hunting  Song.  After  a  short  introduction,  this  piece 
shows  a  first  period  divided  very  unequally,  the  first  phrase  lasting  only  four 
measures,  while  the  consequent  is  several  times  that  length.  After  an  episode,  the 
first  period  returns,  the  antecedent  appearing  in  the  left  hand.  There  is  a  long 
coda. 

Illustrate  by  Mendelssohn's  Consolation.  This  has  an  eight-bar  period,  returning 
with  altered  consequent,  and  a  six-bar  episode.  The  separate  bits  at  the  beginning 
and  end  are  so  clearly  suggestive  of  accompaniment  to  a  song  that  they  may  be 
termed  prelude  and  postlude,  instead  of  introduction  and  coda. 

Illustrate  by  Jensen's  Bridal  Song.  This  piece  has  seventeen  measures  of  introduc- 
tion. The  first  period  is  sixteen  measures  long.  A  second  period  (coxmtertheme)  is 
repeated  with  alterations.  Eighteen  bars  of  returning  passage  bring  the  return 
of  the  first  period.  But  instead  of  altering  the  consequent,  Jensen  let  it  end  in 
the  dominant,  as  before,  and  wrote  another  period  to  get  the  piece  into  the  tonic 


APPENDIX  569 

key.   This  extra  period,  or  closing  theme,  cannot  be  called  a  coda  itself,  because 
a  short  coda  follows  it. 

Illustrate  by  Schuett's  Reverie.  The  first  period  is  made  up  of  two  eight-bar  phrases. 
A  fairly  free  episode  follows.  After  four  measures  calando,  that  form  a  returning 
passage,  the  material  of  the  first  period  returns,  now  condensed  into  a  single 
phrase.  This  is  known  as  three-part  form  with  abbreviated  return.  The  piece 
ends  with  a  coda. 

37.  Song-Form  with  Trio 

■Explain  that  the  song-form  with  trio  consists  simply  of  two  song-forms  (period- 
forms)  in  alternation,  the  second  one  being  called  the  trio,  and  the  first  one  return- 
ing after  the  trio.  State  that  this  form  may  have  introduction  or  coda,  or  transi- 
tion passage  before  the  trio,  or  returning  passage  after  it.  Explain  that  the  trio 
is  often  shown  by  change  of  key,  the  usual  change  being  to  the  subdominant. 
Show  that  either  the  song-form  or  the  trio  may  consist  of  a  single  period,  but 
not  both  in  the  same  piece.  The  two-i)eriod  independent  form  may  be  found  often 
as  either  the  song-form  or  the  trio.  The  minuets  of  the  old  symphonies  and  sona- 
tas were  written  in  this  form,  and  some  teachers  call  this  the  minuet-form. 

Illustrate  by  Schubert's  Marche  Militaire,  no.  1.  This  piece  shows  a  short  fanfare 
introduction,  a  first  period  repeated,  a  countertheme,  a  return  of  the  first  period, 
and  a  two-part  trio,  with  the  song-form  returning  D.C. 

Illustrate  by  Chopin's  Military  Polonaise. 

Illustrate  by  Thome's  Sous  les  FeuiUes. 

Illustrate  by  the  March  from  Lachner's  Suite,  noting  two-part  first  section. 

Illustrate  by  popular  waltzes. 

State  that  nearly  all  dances  and  marches  are  in  this  form. 

Illustrate  by  minuets  from  Haydn's  or  Mozart's  sonatas. 

E.xplain  that  song-form  with  trio  may  have  an  abbreviated  return  of  the  first  song- 
form. 

Illustrate  by  Gregh's  Shepherd's  Pipe. 

Illustrate  with  Meyer-Helmund's  Dance  and  Scharwenka's  Polish  Dance,  showing 
interpolations  of  a  trio  theme  in  the  return  of  the  song-form. 

Explain  that  song-form  with  two  trios  exists.  The  schedule  of  pieces  in  that  shape 
is  song-form,  first  trio,  song-form  or  part  of  it,  second  trio,  and  song-form  again. 

Illustrate  by  Mendelssohn's  "  Wedding  March,"  the  "  Priests'  March  "  from  Men- 
delssohn's Athalie  and  the  Scherzo  of  Schumann's  First  Symphony. 

38.  The  First  Rondo 

Explain  rondo  as  being  the  alternation  of  one  or  more  sections  with  a  chief  theme, 

i  which  recurs  after  each  appearance  of  any  side  section  or  theme.  Explain  also  that 
in  rondos  the  sections  are  often  more  closely  united,  and  less  clearly  divided  into 
periods,  than  in  the  song-forms.  Explain  also  that  the  rondos  and  song-forms  ap- 
proach each  other  at  times,  and  some  pieces  are  so  much  on  the  border-line  that 
they  might  be  classed  with  either  form. 

Explain  that  first  rondo  consists  of  a  main  section,  a  side  section,  and  a  return  of  the 
main  section.  The  side  section  and  main  section  may  each  appear  once  again,  in 
v/hich  case  the  form  may  be  classed  as  first  rondo  extended  by  repeats.  A  coda  may 
appear  after  the  last  repeat,  but  transitions  and  returning  passages  are  not  always 
so  clearly  marked  as  in  the  song-forms. 

Illustrate  by  Chopin's  Nocturne  in  G,  Op.  37,  no.  2.  Show  that  this  is  a  first  rondo 


570  APPENDIX 

extended  by  repeats,  with  the  last  occurrence  of  the  first  section  considerably 
shortened,  and  a  brief  coda  added.  Show  that  the  first  section,  of  nearly  two  pages, 
is  not  in  period  form,  but  is  built  up  of  the  material  occurring  in  the  first  few  bars. 
The  second  section,  sostentUo,  seems  more  in  periodic  style  resembling  a  three-part 
form. 

Illustrate  with  "  Anitra's  Dance,"  from  Grieg's  Peer  Gynt  Suite.  Show  that  this  is 
practically  a  song-form  with  a  long  episode,  though  it  is  rondo-like  in  character. 
Note  the  unusual  procedure  of  prolonging  the  antecedent  in  the  return,  instead  of 
altering  the  consequent,  to  bring  the  cadence  into  the  proper  key. 

Illustrate  by  dementi's  Rondo  in  the  key  of  F,  in  which  the  first  section  is  brought 
back  by  the  D.C.  mark. 

Illustrate  by  Poldini's  Poup4e  Vcdsante.  Show  that  this  is  much  like  a  song-form 
with  a  long  episode.  It  has  five  bars  of  introduction,  and  a  period  for  the  first 
section.  The  length  of  the  episode,  however,  and  the  unusual  length  and  reminis- 
cent character  of  the  coda,  are  more  suggestive  of  rondo  than  of  song-form. 

Illustrate  by  the  slow  movement  of  Beethoven's  First  Sonata.  Some  call  this  a  song- 
form;  but  the  first  section  of  sixteen  bars  seems  two-period,  while  the  side  sec- 
tion is  too  episodical  to  be  a  trio. 

Dlustrate  by  the  Adagio  in  Mozart's  Sonata  in  D,  no.  15  in  the  Litolff  Collection. 
The  Adagio  itself  is  in  A. 

S9.  The  Second  Rondo,  etc. 

Explain  that  second  rondo  consists  of  a  section,  a  side  section,  return  of  first  sec- 
tion, a  second  side  section,  and  another  return  of  first  section.  This  A-B-A-C-A 
structure  is  not  found  among  the  song-forms,  so  that  even  when  the  sections  are 
only  single  periods,  the  piece  must  still  be  called  a  rondo.  Some  teachers,  how- 
ever, call  this  single-period  rondo  a  five-part  song-form.  But  the  rondo  may  be 
much  larger  in  structure,  having  complete  song-forms  or  long  free  passages  for 
any  one  of  its  sections.  It  may  thus  approximate  to  the  song-form  with  two  trios, 
but  is  of  course  freer  in  style  and  less  definitely  divided  into  periods.  Any  rondo 
section  may  be  rep>eated  singly. 

Illustrate  the  single-period  rondo  by  Moszkowski's  Spanish  Dance,  Op.  12,  no.  1. 
Show  that  its  five  sections  are  all  about  equal  in  importance,  so  that  it  could  not 
be  classed  as  a  song-form  with  single-period  trio  and  abbreviated  return. 

Illustrate  with  Beethoven's  Far  Elise,  in  which  the  first  section  is  a  three-part 
song-form. 

Illustrate  by  the  slow  movement  of  Beethoven's  Sonata  Pathitique. 

Illustrate  by  Grieg's  Norwegian  Bridal  Procession. 

Explain  that  the  old  rondo  had  several  appearances  of  the  chief  theme,  alternating 
with  one  or  more  side  sections  that  could  occur  more  than  once. 

Illustrate  by  Martini's  Gavotte,  Les  Moutons. 

Explain  that  the  structure  A-B-A-C-A-B-A  has  been  used,  and  has  sometimes  been 
called  third  rondo. 

Explain  the  use  by  Brahms  of  the  structure  A-B-C-B-A,  consisting  of  main  section, 
first  side  section,  second  side  section,  first  side  section,  and  main  section. 

Explain  that  composers  often  vary  the  forms  irregularly. 

Illustrate  by  Mozart's  march  AUa  Turca,  in  which  a  certain  theme  is  added  after 
each  section  of  the  work.  Show  that  without  this  extra  theme  the  piece  would 
seem  like  a  song-form  with  trio. 


APPENDIX  671 

Jfi.  The  Sonaia-AUegro  Form  in  Major 

Explain  the  sonata-allegro  form,  naming  each  theme  and  each  division  of  the  form, 
and  giving  the  keys  of  each  theme  in  a  major  sonata.  Show  that  this  form  allows 
great  variety  of  style,  excellent  possibihties  of  balance  and  contrast,  and  an  oppor- 
tunity for  figure  treatment. 

Illustrate  the  idea  of  figure  treatment  and  development  by  playing  again  the  first 
section  of  Chopin's  Nocturne  in  G,  Op.  37,  no.  2. 

Illustrate  also  by  the  first  movements  of  Beethoven's  Fifth  and  Sixth  Symphonies, 
played  wholly  or  in  part. 

niustrate  the  sonata-form  by  analyzing  the  first  movements  of  several  Mozart 
sonatas,  and  some  of  Haydn's. 

If  convenient,  illustrate  the  earlier  sonatas  by  analyzing  first  movements  from 
Scarlatti,  Galuppi,  Paradisi,  Kuhnau,  and  C.  P.  E.  Bach. 

Dlustrate  by  analyzing  the  first  movement  of  Beethoven's  Second  and  Third  Piano 
Sonatas,  also  the  first  movement  of  the  Waldstein  Sonata. 

Show  that  Beethoven  grew  toward  freedom  of  form,  and  explain  that  his  last  five 
sonatas  are  very  free. 

In  connection  with  Mozart's  sonatas,  note  that  some  of  the  movements  have  more 
than  one  closing  theme. 

4i.  The  Sonata-Allegro  Form  in  Minor 

Explain  the  schedule  of  keys  for  the  sonata-aUegro  form  in  minor. 

Illustrate  by  analyzing  the  first  movement  of  Mozart's  Sonata  no.  16  in  the  LitolfiT 
collection. 

Illustrate  by  analyzing  Haydn's  Sonata  no.  5  in  Ten  Celebrated  Sonatas. 

Illustrate  by  analyzing  the  first  movement  of  Beethoven's  First  Sonata,  the  first 
movement  of  his  Sonata  Pathetique,  and  the  first  movement  of  his  Fifth  Sym- 
phony. 

Give  a  schedule  of  keys  when  the  second  theme  of  a  minor  sonata  appears  in  the 
dominant  minor  instead  of  the  relative  major. 

Illustrate  by  analyzing  the  finale  of  Beethoven's  First  Sonata,  Op.  2,  no.  1. 

42.  Other  Movements  of  the  Sonata 

Explain  that  the  remaining  movements  of  a  sonata  may  be  in  various  forms.  Show 
the  difficulty  that  sometimes  arises  in  choosing  a  good  form  for  the  finale.  Show 
the  general  style  of  the  movements. 

Illustrate  the  minuet  from  the  Haydn  and  Mozart  sonatas,  showing  that  it  is  a  song- 
form  with  trio. 

Illustrate  the  first  rondo  form  by  the  slow  movement  from  Beethoven's  first 
Sonata,  or  by  Mozart's  Alia  Turca. 

Refer  to  the  slow  movement  of  the  Sonata  Pathetique  as  illustrating  second  rondo. 

Illustrate  a  large  song-form  and  trio  by  the  5/4  movement  in  Tschaikovsky's 
Symphonic  PathMique. 

Explain  the  sonatina  form. 

Elustrate  by  dementi's  Sonatina,  Op.  36,  no.  3. 

Explain  the  sonatina-rondo  form. 

Explain  the  sonata-rondo  form. 

Illustrate  by  the  finale  of  Beethoven's  Sonata  Pathetique. 


672  APPENDIX 

Uliistrate  the  use  of  sonata-form  again  by  playing  a  piano  arrangement  of  the  slow 

movement  in  Beethoven's  First  Symphony. 
Describe  theme  and  variations. 

riustrate  by  the  theme  and  variations  in  Beethoven's  Sonata,  Op.  14,  no.  2. 
Describe  the  use  of  a  fugue  in  the  finale  of  Lachner's  Suite,  Op.  113. 

43.  Orchestral  Forms 
Explain  that  symphony,  classical  overture,  concerto,  string  quartet,  piano  trio,  etc., 

are  in  the  sonata-form,  though  the  overture  has  no  repeat  of  the  exposition. 
Describe  the  French  overture-form. 
Illustrate  by  the  overture  to  Handel's  Messiah. 
Describe  the  dramatic  overture. 

Illustrate  by  piano  arrangement  of  Beethoven's  Egmont  overture. 
Describe  the  classical  overture. 
Illustrate  by  Mozart's  Don  Giovanni  overtiu^. 
Describe  the  medley  overture. 
Illustrate  by  the  overture  to  Harold's  Zampa. 
Describe  the  concert  overture. 

Illustrate  by  part  or  all  of  the  Hebrides  overture,  by  Mendelssohn. 
Describe  the  Wagnerian  Prelude. 
Illustrate  by  the  Prelude  to  Parsifal. 
Elxplain  the  symphonic  poem. 
Explain  the  scope  of  programme  music. 
Show  its  weakness  by  playing  Rameau's  La  Povle,  or  some  other  suitable  piece, 

without  giving  its  title;  and  let  the  hearers  guess  what  the  music  is  trying  to 

picture. 

J^.  Dances,  Suites,  etc. 

Describe  the  old  dances  and  their  style. 

Explain  the  old  dance-suites. 

Illustrate  by  selections  from  the  suites  of  Bach  and  others. 

Describe  those  early  movements  that  were  not  dances. 

Explain  the  modern  suite  and  the  divertimento. 

Illustrate  by  selections  from  Bizet's  first  and  second  Suite  Arlisienne,  Grieg's  Peer 
Gynt  Suite,  Massenet's  Schnes  Pittoresques,  etc. 

Describe  the  various  piano  styles  given  in  the  chapter  on  "  Musical  Form,"  in  this 
volume. 

Illustrate  by  various  examples,  such  as  a  Chopin  Nocturne,  a  Chopin  Mazurka,  Go- 
dard's  Novellozza,  Schumann's  Novelettes,  Ilyinsky's  Berceuse,  Rubinstein's  Bar- 
carolle, Tschaikovsky's  Song  without  Words,  Pieme's  Serenade,  Paderewski's 
M^Iodie,  etc. 

45.  The  Contrapuntal  Forms 
Explain  counterpoint  as  part-writing  instead  of  chord-writing. 
Illustrate  the  old  vocal  use  of  it  by  Palestrina's  "  O  bone  Jesu." 
Explain  Madrigal,  Motet,  and  Chorale. 
Illustrate  from  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  century  music. 
Describe  the  Mass  and  its  divisions. 
Explain  canon. 
Illustrate  by  Marzials'  duet,  Friendship. 


APPENDIX  573 

Illustrate  by  Jadassohn's  Pianoforte  Album,  Op.  32. 

Explain  double  counterpoint,  triple  counterpoint,  etc. 

Illustrate  by  Invention  no.  2  from  Bach's  Fifteen  Two-Pcart  Inventions. 

46.  The  Fugue 
Explain  the  fugue. 

Illustrate  by  Fugues  no.  7,  no.  9,  and  no.  6  from  vol.  ii  of  The  Wdl-Tempered 

Clavichord,  by  Bach.    Use  any  other  fugues  in  this  collection  as  illustrations. 
Explain  fughetta  and  fugato. 

Orchestral  and  Other  Technique 

47.  Acoustics 
Explain  the  nature  of  sound  vibrations  in  air. 

Show  the  existence  of  overtones  by  the  use  of  paper  strips  on  the  piano  wires. 

Explain  the  vibration  of  strings,  and  its  laws. 

Show  how  strings  vibrate  when  divided  into  harmonics. 

Illustrate  harmonics  on  the  violin  or  other  stringed  instrument. 

Show  that  the  use  of  holes  in  woodwind  tubes  corresponds  to  the  use  of  different 

positions  in  violin  fingering. 
Explain  the  acoustics  of  tubes. 
Show  by  holding  a  tuning  fork  near  a  flute  mouthpiece  that  it  is  the  vibrating  air 

coliunn  that  causes  the  tone. 
Explain  that  in  brass  instruments  the  air  column  divides  into  parts  more  freely  than 

with  the  woodwind,  giving  more  overtones. 
Explain  the  voicing  of  an  instrument  to  a  room  or  hall. 
References:  — 

Pole,  The  Philosophy  of  Music. 

Helmholtz,  On  the  Sensations  of  Tone. 

Tyndall,  On  Sound. 

Hamilton,  Sound  in  its  Relations  to  Music. 

Zahm,  Sound  and  Mumc. 

48.  The  Human  Voice 
Explain  the  structure  of  the  chest,  larynx,  etc. 
Explain  the  use  of  the  breath  in  singing. 
Explain  head  and  chest  register. 

Mention  the  power  and  accompUshments  of  the  great  singers  of  history. 
Show  what  the  hearer  should  look  for  in  a  singer. 
Show  the  difference  between  dramatic  and  coloratur  singing. 
Explain  how  songs  are  classified. 

Show  the  difference  between  art  songs  and  strophe  songs. 
Illustrations:  — 

Recitative,  "  Comfort  ye,"   from  Handel's  Messiah,  showing  both  styles  of 
recitative  work. 

Aria  cantabile,  "He  shall  feed  his  flock,"  from  Handel's  Messiah. 

Aria  di  bravura,  "  Ev'ry  Valley,"  from  Handel's  Messiah. 

Operatic  bravura.  Mad  scene  from  Donizetti's  Lucia. 

Operatic  melos,  Lohengrin's  speech  to  the  swan,  from  Wagner's  Lohengrin. 

Folk-song  style,  La  Romanesca,  Liszt. 


574  APPENDIX 

Scotch  folk-song,   "  Within  a  mile  of  Edinboro  Town."     State  that  this  was 

written  originally  as  a  parody  on  the  style. 
Irish  folk-song,  "  The  Little  Red  Lark." 
English  folk-song  style,  "  Twickenham  Ferry." 
American  folk-song  style,  "  My  Old  Kentucky  Home." 
Art-song,  King,  "  Israfel." 

German  Lied  style,  Schimiann,  "  Du  Ring  an  meinem  Finger." 
References:  — 
Albert  B.  Bach,  Musical  Education  and  Vocal  Culture. 
Albert  B.  Bach,  The  Principles  of  Singing. 
H.  H.  Curtis,  Voice-Building  and  Tone-Placing. 
Arthur  Elson,  The  Musician's  Guide. 
Lilli  Lehmann,  How  to  Sing. 
Ferd  Sieber,  The  Voice. 
Wesley  Mills,  Voice  Production. 
William  Shakespeare,  The  Art  of  Singing. 
Sir  Charles  Santley,  The  Art  of  Singing. 
H.  C.  Lahee,  Famous  Singers. 
G.  B.  Lamp)erti,  The  Technics  of  Bd  Canto. 
Emil  Behnke,  The  Mechanism  of  the  Human  Voice. 

49.  The  Piano  and  its  Predecessors 

Describe  the  dulcimer,  the  clavichord,  the  virginals,  the  spinet,  and  the  harpusi- 

chord,  explaining  the  principle  of  tone  production  in  each. 
Describe  the  schools  of  music  composed  for  these  instruments. 
Describe  the  invention  and  development  of  the  piano,  showing  how  slowly  it  came 

into  general  use. 
Explain  the  mechanism  and  action  of  the  modem  piano. 

Give  an  idea  of  what  piano  practice  is  like,  contrasting  weight  and  muscle  playing. 
Explain  the  various  schools  of  piano  music. 
Describe  the  work  of  certain  famous  pianists. 
Explain  what  the  auditor  should  look  for  at  a  piano  recital. 
Illustrations:  — 

Old  virginal  piece,  Sellenger's  Round  (Elizabethan). 

Harpsichord  music,  selections  from  D.  Scarlatti's  sonatas. 

Early  piano  style.  Hummel,  Caprice. 

Embellished  style,  Mozart,  Rondo  in  A  minor. 

Broad  piano  style,  Beethoven,  first  movement  of  Sonata  Appassionata. 

Contrapimtal  style,  Mendelssohn,  Prelude  and  Fugue  in  E-minor. 

Chord  style,  Schumann,  GriUen. 

Modern  style,  Lizst,  transcription  of  Schubert's  "  Hark,  hark,  the  lark"  and  "  The 
Erl  King." 
References:  — 

E.  Pauer,  The  Pianoforte. 

Rimbault,  The  Pianoforte  and  its  Construction, 

Fillmore,  History  of  Piano  Music, 

Weitzmann,  History  of  Pianoforte  Playing. 

Lahee,  Famxms  Pianists. 

Oscar  Bie,  A  History  of  the  Pianoforte  and  Pianoforte  Playera. 

H.  E.  Krehbiel,  The  Pianoforte  and  its  Music. 


APPENDIX  575 

60.  The  Organ 
History  of  the  organ. 
Structure  of  modern  organs. 
The  chief  organ  composers. 
How  to  play  the  organ. 
Some  famous  organists. 
lUustrcdions:  — 

Vitali,  Chaconne  for  violin  and  organ. 

Bach,  St.  Ann's  Fantasie  and  Fugue. 

Widor,  Toccata. 

Guilmant,  selection  from  organ  sonatas. 
References :  — 

Stainer,  An  Organ  Primer. 

Hopkins  and  Rimbault,  The  Organ. 

Audsley,  The  Art  of  Organ-Building. 

Lahee,  The  Organ  and  its  Masters. 

Pirro,  Bach  and  his  Organ  Works. 

ORCHESTRAL  INSTRUMENTS 
(See  Berlioz,  Orchestration,  revised  by  Strauss;  Prout,  The  Orchestra;  Arthur  Elson, 
Orchestral   Instruments  and  their  Use;  Cecil  Forsjrth,  Orchestration;   Lavignac, 
Mtisic  and  Musicians,  and  Musical  Education.) 

51.  The  Violin 

Technique,  tone-color,  and  use  of  the  violia. 

Viols  and  viol-music. 
Some  famous  violinists. 
Life  and  work  of  Paganini. 
References:  — 

Carl  Engel,  The  Early  History  of  the  Violin  Family. 

Paul  Stoeving,  The  Story  of  the  Violin. 

Lahee,  Famous  Violinists. 

52.  Other  Bowed  Instruments 

Technique,  tone-color,  and  use  of  the  viola. 
Technique,  tone-color,  and  use  of  the  violoncello. 
Technique,  tone-color,  and  use  of  the  contrabass. 

53.  Other  Stringed  Instruments 

History  of  the  harp. 

Technique,  tone-color,  and  use  of  the  harp. 
The  chromatic  harp. 
The  guitar. 
The  mandolin. 
The  banjo. 

Lutes  and  old  lute  music. 
References:  — 
W.  H.  Grattan  Flood,  The  Story  of  the  Harp. 


576  APPENDIX 

54.  The  Flvie  Family 
History  of  the  flute. 

Technique,  tone-color,  and  use  of  the  flute. 
Bass  and  other  flutes. 
The  piccolo. 
References:  — 
H.  Macaulay  Fitzgibbon,  The  Story  of  the  Flute. 

65.  The  Oboe  Family 
Technique,  tone-color,  and  use  of  the  oboe. 
Various  obsolete  oboes. 

Technique,  tone-color,  and  use  of  the  English  horn. 
Technique,  tone-color,  and  use  of  the  bassoon. 
Technique,  tone-color,  and  use  of  the  contrabassoon. 

66.  The  Clarinets 
Technique,  tone-color,  and  use  of  the  clarinet  in  C,  B-flat,  and  A. 
The  acoustics  of  tubes. 
Transposing  instruments  and  their  rise. 
Technique,  tone-color,  and  use  of  the  military  clarinets. 
Technique,  tone-color,  and  use  of  the  basset  horn. 
Technique,  tone-color,  and  use  of  the  bass  clarinet. 

67.  The  Higher  Brass  Instruments 
History  of  horn  and  tnimpet  playing. 

Technique,  tone-color,  and  use  of  the  French  horn. 
Technique,  tone-color,  and  use  of  the  tnmipet. 
Technique,  tone-color,  and  use  of  the  cornet. 
Technique,  tone-color,  and  use  of  the  saxophones. 

68.  The  Deeper  Brass  Instruments 
Technique,  tone-color,  and  use  of  the  trombones. 

Early  trombone  playing. 

Technique,  tone-color,  and  use  of  the  tubas. 

The  Wagnerian  brass  instrimients. 

The  ophideide,  serpent,  etc. 

69.  Instruments  of  Percussion 
Kettlednmis. 
Other  dnuna. 
Cymbals. 
Bells  and  gongs. 
Celesta  and  glockenspiel. 
Instruments  of  definite  pitch. 
Instruments  of  indefinite  pitch. 

60.  The  Orchestra  as  a  Whole 
Give  table  of  tone-oolors  of  the  instruments. 
Outline  the  growth  of  the  orchestra. 


APPENDIX  577 

Give  the  composition  of  classical  and  modern  orchestras. 

Show  and  explain  some  orchestral  scores. 

Give  an  idea  of  what  orchestration  means  to  the  composer. 

Explain  the  conductor's  work,  and  show  what  the  auditor  should  look  for. 

Describe  the  brass  band. 

General  References 
Grove,  Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians. 
Baker,  Biographical  Dictionary. 
Hughes,  The  Musical  Guide. 
Baltzell,  Biographical  Dictionary  (condensed). 
Riemann,  Musik  Lexicon. 
Stainer  and  Barrett,  Dictionary. 
Elson,  Music  Dictionary  (terms). 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Abbreviated  return,  325,  328. 

Abbreviations,  528. 

Abduction  from  the  Seraglio,  The,   100. 

Abert,  Johann,  280. 

Absolute  music,  19. 

Abt,  Franz,  150. 

Abt  Vogler.  See  Vogler. 

Accents,  523,  525. 

Accidentals,  519. 

Action,  piano,  379. 

Acoustics,  503-514. 

Adam,  Adolphe,  175. 

Adam,  Louis,  106. 

Adam  de  la  Hale,  35. 

Adeline,  40. 

Afferni,  Ugo,  273. 

Afranio,  433. 

African  music,  7-9. 

Afzelius,  Arvid,  233. 

Agramonte,  Emilio,  300. 

Agrements,  les,  354. 

Agricola,  Alexander,  50. 

Agujari,  Lucrezia,  475. 

Ahlstrom,  Johann,  233. 

AhlstrOm,  Olaf,  233. 

Alda,  168. 

Air  (in  suite),  354. 

Akerberg,  Erik,  234. 

Alabiev,  Alexander,  196. 

Alard,  Delphin,  195,  489. 

Albeniz,  Isaac,  277. 

Albeniz,  Pedro,  156. 

Albert.  See  d' Albert. 

Albigenses,  War  of,  40. 

Albrechtsberger,  Johann  Georg,  109. 

Albumblatt,  359. 

Alceste,  86. 

Alden,  John  Carver,  302. 

Alder,  Kichard  Ernst,  277. 

Alfred  the  Great,  414. 

Alfven,  Hugo.  234. 

Alkan.  See  5lorhanges. 

AUemande,  353. 

Allen,  Nathan  H.,  305. 

Allen,  Paul,  297. 

Allitsen,  Frances,  287. 

Allon,  Erskine,  285. 

Alnaes,  Eyvind.  232. 

Alpheraki",  Achille,  270. 

Alt-horns,  453. 

Alto,  42,  395. 

Amani,  Nicolo,  270. 


Amati  family,  398. 
Ambrose.  22,  24. 
Ambrosian  modes,  24. 
Amerbach,  52. 

American  National  Songs,  289. 
Analyses  :  — 
Bach,  Fugue  5,  vol.  ii,  Well-Tempered 

Clavichord,  372. 
Bach,  Fugue  7,  vol.  ii,  Well-Tempered 

ClavicJuyrd,  371. 
Bach,  Invention  no.  2  in  Fifteen  Two- 

Part  Inventions,  368. 
Beethoven,  Allegro  of  First  Sonata, 

839. 
Beethoven,  Adagio  of  First  Sonata, 

331. 
Beethoven,    Allegro    of    Sonata   Pa- 

thetique,  339. 
Beethoven,   first   movement   of  Fifth 

Symphony,  319. 
Beethoven,     Adagio   of    Sonata    Pa- 

thetique,  334. 
Beethoven,    Finale  of  First    Sonata, 

340. 
Beethoven,  Fur  Eliae,  334. 
Brahms,     Allegretto,     Second     Sym- 
phony, 333. 
Chaminade,  Scarf  Dance,  325. 
Chopin,  Nocturne,  Op.  37,  no.  2,  333. 
Clementi,  Rondo,  332. 
Grieg,  Anitra's  Dance,  3.32. 
Grieg,   Norwegian  Bridal  Procession, 

334. 
Haydn,  Allegro  of  Sonata  in  D,  338. 
Mendelssohn,  Consolation,  325. 
Mendelssohn,  Funeral  March,  326. 
Mendelssohn,  On  the  Sea  Shore,  326. 
Mendelssohn,  Spinning  Song,  326. 
Mendelssohn,  T/ie  Return,  326. 
Mendelssohn,  first  Venetian  Gondolier's 

Song,  324. 
Meyer-Helmund,  Dance,  328. 
Moszkowski,  Spanish  Dance,  334. 
Mozart,  Adagio  from  Sonata,  Litolff 

no.  15,  332. 
Mozart,  Alia  Turca,  335. 
Mozart,  Allegro  of  Sonata  in  F,  Litolff 

no.  3,  338. 
Poldini,  T7ie  Dancing  Doll,  332. 
Scharwenka,  Polish  Dance,  328. 
Schubert,  Military  March  no.  1,  328. 
Schuett,  Reverie,  326. 


582 


INDEX 


Schumann,    Scherzo    of    First 
phony,  329. 

Binding,  Hustle  of  Spring,  335. 

Songs,  various,  322,  323. 

Tours,  Gavotte  Modeme,  334. 
Andersen,  Karl  Joachim,  235. 
Andre,  Johann,  105. 
Andree,  Elfrlda,  234. 
Anerio,  Felice,  53. 
Anerio,  Giovanni,  53. 
Animuccia,  Giovanni,  52. 
Answer,  369. 
Antecedent,  323. 
Anthem,  362. 
Antipov,  Constantin,  269. 
Apollo  and  tlie  Python,  18-19. 
Appreciation  of  Music,  309. 
Aptommas  Brothers,  387. 
Apuleius,  21. 
Arabian  music,  9. 
Araja,  Francesco,  196. 
Arbos,  G.  Fernandez,  277. 
Archilei,  Vittoria,  61. 
Architectonics,  313. 
Arco  saltando,  402. 
Archbishop  of  Salzburg,  99,  100. 
Arenskv,  Anton  Stepanovitch,  367. 
Argenti,  60. 
Aria,  360. 

Ariane  et  Barbe-Bleue,  259. 
Aristoxenus,  39. 
Armide,  86. 
Arne,  Michael,  106. 
Arne,  Thomas  Augustine.  84. 
Arneiro,  Jose,  Viscount  d',  2T7. 
Arnold,  Maurice,  302. 
Arnold,  Samuel,  106. 
Arnold,  Youri  von,  269. 
Arnould,  Sophie,  480. 
Arpeggio,  401,  415. 
Arpi,  413. 

Arrieta,  Juan  Emilio.  276. 
Art  ofFv-gue,  The,  71,  72. 
Artificial  accents,  535. 
Artificial  groups,  521. 
Artificial  harmonics,  401. 
Artsiboutchev,  Nicolai,  270. 
Art-song,  361. 
Arvidson.  238. 
Arytenoid  cartilage,  392. 
Asantchevski,  Michael,  269. 
Ash  ton,  Algernon,  287. 
Asor,  10. 

Assyrian  music,  10. 
Atherton,  Percy  Lee,  302. 
Atropos,  19. 
Attack,  397. 
Attaignant,  51. 
Attrup,  Karl,  235. 
Aubade.  34,  a59. 
Auber,  Daniel  Fran9oi8  Esprit,  174. 


Sym- 


Aubert.  Louis,  258. 

Audundson,  Torgeir,  231. 

Aulin,  Tor,  234. 

Aulin,  Valborg,  234. 

Aulos,  16. 

Atcstrian  National  Hymn,  98. 

Authentic  modes,  24. 

Ave  Mana,  363. 

Averkamp,282. 

Ayres,  Frederic,  305. 

Babylonian  music,  10. 

Bach,  Christoph,  69. 

Bach.  CarlPhilipp-Emanuel,  75,  76, 

465. 
Bach,  Hans,  53,  69, 
Bach,  Hans,  the  player,  69. 
Bach,  Johaun  Ambrosius,  69. 
Bach,  Johann  Christian,  89. 
Bach,  Johann  Christoph,  75. 
Bach,  John  Sebastian,  69-75,  465. 
Bach,  Veit,  53. 

Bach,  Wilhelm  Friedemann,  75, 
Backer-GrOndahl,  Agathe,  232, 
Back-fall,  385. 
Baermann,  Carl,  299. 
Bagatelle,  359, 
Bagpipe.  16,  431, 
Baillot,  Pierre  Marie,  485. 
Baini,  Giuseppe,  55. 
Balakirev,  Mily  Alexeievitch,  261. 
Balalaika,  418. 
Balfe.  Michael  William,  283, 
Ballad,  34.   - 
Ballad  opera,  84. 
Ballade,  358. 
Ballata,  358. 
Ballet,  63,  357. 

Ballet  Comique  de  la  Reine,  68. 
Baltazarini,  63. 
Baltzell,  Willard.  J.,  805. 
Banck,  Carl,  150, 
Bandurria,  417. 
Banister,  64, 
Banjo,  418. 

Bantock,  Granville,  285. 
Barbarossa,  31. 
Barbarossa,  210,  243. 
Barber  of  Bagdad,  The,  193. 
Barber  of  Seville,  TJie,  158. 
Barbireau,  Jacques,  50, 
Barbitos,  16.  18. 
Barcarolle.  859. 
Bargiel,  Woldemar,  149. 
Baritone,  395. 
Bar-line,  30,  520. 
Bamby,  284. 
Barnett,  284. 
BartAy,  Andreas,  280. 
Bartlett,  Homer  Newton,  303. 
Bartlett,  James  Carroll,  306. 


INDEX 


588 


Bartok,  Bela,  280. 

Bass.  42,  395. 

Bass,  clarinet,  442 

Bass  damper  pedal,  880. 

Bass  drum,  458. 

Basset  horn,  442. 

Bass  flute,  424. 

Basso  cantante,  395. 

Basso  profundo,  895. 

Basson  quinte,  436. 

Bassoon,  17,  433-436. 

Bass  trombone,  451. 

Bass  viol,  407. 

Batiste,  Antoine  Edouard,  187. 

Baton,  497. 

Battery,  the,  456. 

Baulduin,  Noel,  51. 

Baussnern,  Waldemar  von,  246. 

Bazin,  Fran9ois  Joseph,  185. 

Bazzini,  Antonio,  276,  489. 

Beach,  Mrs.  H.  H.  A.,  804. 

Beach.  John,  305. 

Beak  flute,  420. 

Beats,  512. 

Bebung,  378. 

Beccari,  60. 

Beck,  96. 

Beck,  Johann  H.,  298.  302. 

Becker,  Reinhold.  250. 

Beekman,  Bror,  234. 

Beethoven,  Caspar,  116. 

Beethoven,    Ludwig  van,   93,   108-119, 

467,  470,  497. 
Beggar's  Opera,  Tlte,  84. 
Bellini,  Vincenzo,  160-161. 
Bemberg,  Herman,  260. 
Bells,  459. 
Benda,  Franz,  484. 
Benda,  Georg,  100. 
Bendix,  Victor,  235. 
Benedict,  Sir  Julius,  283. 
Bennett,  Sir  William  Sterndale,  141. 
Benoit,  Peter,  281. 
Berceuse,  358. 
Beresovskv,  Maxim,  196. 
Berger,  W'ilhelm,  228. 
Berlijn,  283. 

Berlioz,  Hector,  179-181,  497. 
Bemacchi,  Antonio,  474. 
Berthald,  Barron,  482. 
Berton,  Henri  Montan,  174 
Berton,  Pierre  Montan,  90. 
Berwald,  Franz,  233. 
Bignou,  431. 
Billings,  William,  288. 
Billington,  Mrs.,  448,  475. 
Binchois,  Egidius,  49. 
Bird,  Arthur,  298. 
Bischoff,  Hermann,  245. 
Bishop,  Sir  Henry  Rowley,  288. 
Bittner,  Julius,  250. 


Bizet,  Georges,  183-185. 

Blangini,  Giuseppe,  175. 

Blaramberg,  Paul,  268. 

Blech,  Leo,  246,  250. 

Bleyle,  Carl,  245. 

Blockx,  Jan,  282. 

Blum,  133. 

Blumenfeld,  Felix,  270. 

Blumenthal,  Jacob,  157. 

Boccherini,  Luigi,  96. 

Boehe,  Ernst,  245. 

Boehm  flute,  422. 

Boellmann,  Leon,  187. 

Bohm,  Joseph,  488. 

Boieldieu,  Francois  Adrien,  170,  174. 

Boise,  Otis  Bardwell,  800. 

Bolto,  Arrigo,  164. 

Bolero,  355. 

Bombardi,  427. 

Bombardon,  453. 

Bombyx,  18. 

Bononcini,  Giovanni  Battista,  79. 

Borch,  Gaston,  298. 

Bordoni,  Faustina,  474. 

Boris  Godunov,  264. 

Borodin,  Alexander  Porphyrieviteb,'262. 

Bortniansky,  Dimitri,  196. 

Bossi,  Marco  Enrico,  276. 

Bottesini,  Giovanni,  164,  195,  410. 

Botto,  Bergonzo,  59. 

Boucher,  Alexandre,  488. 

Bourree,  853. 

Bourgault-Ducoudray,  Louis,  260. 

Bousquet,  Georges,  185. 

Bovy,  Charles  Samuel,  157. 

Brackett,  Frank,  805. 

Bradbury,  William  B.,  289. 

Braham,  John,  481. 

Brahms,  Johannes,  221-225. 

Brainard,  806. 

Brandeis,  Friedrich,  300. 

Brandt,  Caroline,  129. 

Brandt,  Marianne,  480. 

Brandt-Buys  family,  288. 

Branle,  853. 

Branscombe,  Gena,  804. 

Braunfels,  Walter,  245. 

Brawl,  353. 

Breathing,  391, 

Brecher,  Gustav,  245. 

Breithaupt,  Rudolph  M.,  380. 

Breuning  family,  110. 

Brema,  Marie,  480. 

Breton.  Tomas,  277. 

Brewer,  John  Hyatt,  805. 

Briard  of  Avignon,  51. 

Bridge,  Sir  Frederick,  284. 

Bridge,  Joseph  Cox,  284. 

Bridges,  Robert,  286. 

Briegel,  484. 

Brignoli,  481. 


584 


INDEX 


Bristow,  George  F.,  389. 

Brockway,  Howard  A.,  300. 

Broekhoven,  John  A.,  299. 

Bronsart,  Hans  von,  193. 

Bruch,  Max,  227. 

Bruckner,  Anton,  225-227. 

BrUll,  Ignaz,  228. 

Brumel,  Antoine,  50. 

Bruneau,  Alfred.  259. 

Buck.  Dudley,  300. 

Bugle,  447,  454. 

Bull,  John,  53. 

Bull,  Ole.  195,  231,  489. 

Bullard,  Fred  Field,  306. 

Bttlow,  Hans  von,  194,  395.  471,  484,  498. 

Bungert,  August,  246.  249. 

Bunning,  Herbert,  286. 

Buongiorno,  Crescenzo,  273. 

Burdett,  George  A.,  305. 

Burlesca,  354. 

Burton,  Frederick  R.,  305. 

Busch,  Carl,  299. 

Busi,  Alessandro,  276. 

Busnois,  Anthony,  49. 

Busoui,  Ferruccio,  276,  473. 

Basser,  Henri,  260. 

Buttikay,  Akos  von,  380. 

Buus,  Jachet,  53. 

Buxtehude,  Dietrich,  69. 

Byrd,  William,  53. 

By -tones,  460. 

Byzantine  scale,  530. 

Cabaletta,  358. 

Caballero,  Fernandez,  377. 

Cabestaing,  William,  35. 

Cabezon,  Antonio,  53. 

Caccini.  Giulio,  58,  60. 

Cachucha.  355. 

Cadenza,  345. 

Cadenza  notes,  531. 

Cadman,  Charles  Wakefield,  291,  397. 

Caedmon,  414. 

Caffarelli,  Gaetano,  474. 

Cagnoni,  273. 

Cagnoni,  Antonio,  164. 

Calanson,  Girard,  39. 

Callaerts.  Joseph,  283. 

Calzabigi,  Ranlero,  85,  86. 

Cambert,  Robert,  63. 

Camp,  John  Spencer,  303. 

Campbell-Tipton,  Louis,  305. 

Campion,  Thomas,  64. 

Campo,  Conrado,  277. 

Campra,  Andre,  83. 

Camussi,  Ezio,  373. 

Canary,  352. 

Cannabich,  Christian,  96. 

Canons,  30.  48,  49,  367, 

Cantata.  364. 

Canticles,  862. 


Cantus  firmus,  43. 

Canzone,  361. 

Cappelen,  Christian,  233. 

Capriccio,  357. 

Caradori- Allan,  Maria,  477. 

Carafa,  Michele,  175. 

Carey,  Henry,  84. 

Carillon,  459. 

Carissimi,  62. 

Carmen,  47. 

Carmen,  184. 

Carnicer,  Ramon,  175. 

Caro.  Paul,  228. 

Caron,  Philippe,  49. 

Carpenter,  John  Alden,  305. 

Carreno,  Teresa,  291,  473. 

Carter.  Thomas,  106, 

Casadesus,  277. 

Castanets,  460. 

Cat  Fugus,  76. 

Catalani,  Alfredo,  273. 

Catalani,  Angelica,  475. 

Catch,  106. 

Catel,  Charles  Simon,  175. 

Catgut,  399. 

Catrufo,  Giuseppe,  175. 

Cavalli,  Fmncesco,  61. 

Cavatina,  359. 

Cavos,  Catterino,  196. 

Cecilia,  Saint,  33. 

Celesta,  459. 

Cellier,  Alfred,  386. 

Ceruti  family,  398. 

Cesaris,  47. 

Cesti,  Marco  Antonio,  61. 

Chabrier,  Emmanuel  Fran9oi3,  258. 

Chaconne,  354. 

Chadwick,  George  Whitfield,  391-293. 

Chalumeau.  427.  439. 

Chamber  sonata,  483. 

Chamber  music,  346.  489. 

Chaminade,  Cecile,  260. 

Chanson.  34,  42,  301. 

Chants,  302. 

Charlemagne,  25,  384,  496. 

Charpentier,  Gustave,  258. 

Chausson,  Ernest,  259. 

Che,  6. 

Chelius,  Herman  P.,  305. 

Cheng.  6. 

Cherubini.  Luigi.  170-173,  179. 

Chest  register.  393. 

Chevillard,  Camille,  260. 

Chiaromonte,  Francesco,  164. 

Chinese  instruments,  5. 

Chinese  music,  4. 

Chitarrone,  59. 

Choir  organ.  385. 

Choir-singing.  24. 

Chopin,  Frederic  Francois,  151-155,  46a 

Choralcelo,  383. 


INDEX 


585 


Chorales,  52,  363. 

Chords,  535. 

Chorley,  147. 

Christian  music,  early,  23-30. 

Christmas  Em  Reteh,  266. 

Chromatic  harp,  416. 

Chromatic  scale,  517. 

Chrysostom,  23. 

Church,  Coptic,  25;  Greek,  24;  Syrian,  24. 

Church  sonata,  483. 

Cilea,  272. 

Cimarosa,  Domenico,  89. 

Cinque-pace,  352. 

Circular  dances,  351. 

Citole,  40. 

Claassen,  Arthur,  299. 

Clapisson,  Antoine,  185. 

Clapp,  PhiUp  Greeley,  302. 

Clarinblaser,  448. 

Clarinets,  438-442. 

Clarino,  448. 

Clarke,  Hugh  A.,  302. 

Classical  orchestm,  491. 

Classical  overture,  347. 

Clauss-Szavardy,  Mme.,  473. 

Clavichord,  377. 

Clavicytherium,  377,  379. 

Clavier,  465. 

Cleather,  Grordon,  458. 

Clefs,  27,  434,  516. 

Clementi,  Muzio,  106,  466. 

Cliffe,  Frederick,  286. 

Clough-Leighter,  Henry,  302. 

Coda,  322. 

Coenen,  Cornelius,  282. 

Coenen,  Johannes,  282. 

Coerne,  Louis  Adolphe,  297. 

Cole,  Rossetter  Gleason,  301. 

Coleridge-Taylor,  Samuel,  286. 

Colgrin,  414. 

Collan,  Karl.  236. 

Col  legno,  402. 

Collins,  Laura  Sedgwick,  304. 

Colonne,  tdouard  Jules,  260,  498. 

Coloratur  soprano,  395. 

Colors  and  tones,  503. 

Combe,  Edward,  277. 

Compere,  Loyset,  51. 

Concert-Meister,  403. 

Concerto,  345. 

Concert  overture,  347. 

Conducting,  496-502. 

Consequent,  323,  325. 

Contention,  34. 

Conti,  Cario,  163. 

Contrabass,  409^12. 

Contrabassoon,  436-437. 

Contradance,  356. 

Contralto,  395. 

Contrary  motion,  26,  536. 

Converse,  Charles  Crozat,  301. 


Converse,  Frederick  Shepard,  295-296. 

Coombs,  Charles  Whitney,  305. 

Coppola,  Antonio,  163. 

Coptic  church,  25. 

Coquard.  Arthur,  260. 

Corder,  Frederick,  284. 

Cords,  vocal,  391,  392,  394. 

Corelli,  Arcangelo,  483. 

Cornelius,  Peter,  193. 

Cornemuse,  431. 

Comet,  449. 

Cornetto,  455. 

Coronaro,  272. 

Costa,  Sir  Michael,  283. 

Counterpoint.  47,  72,  366;  orders  of,  366; 
in  harmonic  works,  366;  double,  30, 
367;  triple,  367;  English  schools,  42, 
49,  53;  Flemish  schools,  48-50;  French 
schools,  42,  47,  53 ;  German  school,  52 ; 
Italian  schools,  53,  55;  Venetian 
school,  52. 

Countersubject,  369. 

Countertheme,  325. 

Covmtess  of  Champagne,  88. 

Countess  of  Tripoli,  37. 

Couperin,  Fran9ois,  76. 

Couplet,  34. 

Courante,  353. 

Courts  of  Love,  38. 

Courvoisier,  Walter,  277. 

Cousin,  Jehan.  51. 

Coward,  Sir  Henry.  287. 

Cowen.  Frederic  Hymen,  288,  499. 

Crab  canons,  49. 

Cracovienne,  356. 

Cramer,  Johann  Baptist,  106,  467. 

Creation,  The,  93. 

Crespel,  Guillaume,  51. 

Cricoid  cartilage,  392. 

Cristofori,  Bartolomeo,  379. 

Cross-fingering,  430. 

Cross-hand  work,  466. 

Crusell,  Bernhard  Henrik,  235. 

Crwth,  398. 

Cui,  Cesar  Antonovitch,  261. 

CuiTy,  Arthur  Mansfield,  303. 

Curschmann.  Karl  F.,  150. 

Curtis,  Natalie,  305. 

Cusins,  Sir  William  George,  284. 

Cutter,  Benjamin,  305. 

Cuzzoni,  Francesca,  474. 

Cymbals,  10,  19,  460. 

Czardas,  356. 

Czar  Saltan,  The,  266. 

Cza/t's  Betrothed,  The,  266. 

Czerny,  Karl;  467. 

Daffner,  Hugo,  245. 
Dafne,  by  Peri,  58;  by  Schatz,  63. 
D' Albert,  Eugen  Francis  Charles,  246, 
248. 


586 


INDEX 


Dalcroze,  Emile  Jacques-,  277. 

Damper  pedal,  380. 

Dampers,  380. 

Damrosch,  Frank,  297. 

Damrosch,  Leopold,  194. 

Damrosch,  Walter  Johannes,  296. 

Dana,  Charles  Henshaw,  306. 

Dana,  William  Henry.  306. 

Dances,  18,  21,  351-357. 

Daneau,  Nicholas,  282. 

Danican.  See  Philidor. 

Daniels,  Mabel,  304. 

Danks,  Hart  Pease,  289. 

Danna,  487. 

Danse  Macabre,  403. 

Dargomiszky,    Alexander    Sergeivitch, 

198. 
Da  Salo,  Gasparo,  398. 
David,  Felicien,  176. 
David,  Ferdinand,  141, 195,  488. 
Davies,  Walford,  287. 
Da  Vinci,  Leonardo,  82. 
Dayas,  W.  Humphrey,  305. 
De  Beriot,  Charles  Auguste,  195,  477, 

488. 
De  Boisdeffre,  Rene,  260. 
De  Bourges,  Philippon,  50. 
De  Breville,  Pierre,  259. 
Debussy,  Achille  Claude,  256-257. 
DeffSs,  Louis,  186. 
Definition  of  music,  8. 
De  Goes,  Damiao,  53. 
De  Haan,  Willem,  283. 
De  Kontski,  Antoine,  281. 
De  Kontski,  Apollinaire,  281. 
De  Koven,  Reginald,  296. 
De  Lara,  Isidore,  287. 
De  la  Rue,  Pierre,  50. 
De  la  Tour,  William,  38. 
Del  Carat,  Beatrix,  36. 
Del  Cavaliere,  Emilio,  60,  62. 
Delibes,  Clement  Leo,  186. 
Delius,  Frederick,  285. 
Del  Riego,  Teresa,  287. 
Del  Valle  de  Paz,  Edgardo,  276. 
DeTnon,  The,  200. 
De  Montfort,  Simon,  40. 
De  Muris,  Jean,  42. 
Denereaz,  A.,  277. 
Dennee,  Charles  Frederick,  805. 
De  Pachmann,  Vladimir,  472. 
De  Rore,  Ciprian,  52. 
Desert,  The,  176. 
Des  Escas,  Amaneius,  38. 
Des  Pr^s,  Josquin,  50. 
Dessauer,  Joseph,  150. 
Destouches,  Andre,  Cardinal,  83. 
Detachee,  402. 
Deutsche,  855. 

De  Vauqueiras,  Raml>aud,  86. 
Development,  387. 


D'Hardelot,  Guy,  287. 

Diabelli,  124. 

Dial,  306. 

Diaphragm,  891. 

Diatonic  scale,  4,  25. 

Dibdin,  Charles,  106. 

Diepenbrock,  Alphonse,  283. 

Dietrich,  52. 

Dietrich,  Albert,  149. 

Di  Lasso,  Orlando,  54-55. 

Dillon,  Fannie,  804. 

D'Indy,  Vincent,  255-256. 

Dirge,  359. 

Discant,  42. 

Discord,  34. 

Dittersdorf,  Karl  Ditters  von,  90,  96. 

Divertimento,  350. 

Divisi  writing,  401,  492. 

Dobrzynski,  281. 

Dohnanyi,  Erust  von,  280. 

Dokior  und  Apotheker,  90. 

D'Ollone,  Max,  260. 

Dolmetsch,  Arnold,  65. 

Domart,  Petrus,  49. 

Don  Oiovanni,  102. 

Donizetti,  Gaetano.  161-162. 

Dopper,  Cora,  283. 

Doppler,  Arnold,  280. 

Doppler,  Albert  Franz,  280. 

Doppler.  Karl,  280. 

Doret,  Gustave,  277. 

Dorn,  Heinrich,  149. 

Dom,  Otto,  246. 

Dots,  527. 

Double,  354,  386. 

Double-bass,  409. 

Double  counterpoint,  30,  867. 

Double  stopping,  401. 

Dowland,  John,  58. 

Draeseke,  Felix,  194. 

Dragonetti,  Domenico,  195,  410. 

Drake,  Erik,  233. 

Dramatic  overture,  847. 

Dramatic  soprano,  895. 

Dressier,  Louis  R. ,  306. 

Dreyschock,  Alexander,  156,  469. 

Drums,  6,  8,  458-459. 

Drum  signals,  8. 

Dubois,  Theodore.  187. 

Ducasse,  Roger,  260. 

Dudevant,  Mme.,  152. 

Due  corde.  379. 

Dufay,  William,  48. 

Dukas,  Paul,  259. 

Dulcimer,  9,  377. 

Dulcitone,  460. 

Dumka,  345,  358. 

Dump,  852. 

Dunham,  Henry  Morton,  302,  305. 

Dunstable,  John,  49. 

Duparc,  Henri,  259. 


INDEX 


587 


Dupont,  Gabriel,  260. 

Duport,  408. 

Dupuis,  Sylvain,  282. 

Dupuy,  233. 

Durante,  Francesco,  82. 

Duschek,  Franz,  106,  466. 

Dusesk.  Johann  Ladislas,  106,  467. 

Dvorak,  Antonin,  278-279. 

Dynamic  marks,  524,  525. 

Early  Christian  music,  23-30. 

Early  instrumental  music,  64,  83. 

Eberl,  Anton,  106,  466. 

Echo  organ,  385. 

Eckert,  Karl,  150. 

Egyptian  music,  10-12. 

EhrstrOm,  236. 

Eichberg,  Julius,  300. 

Eichheim,  Henry,  300. 

Eichner,  96. 

Eight-foot  tones,  386. 

Eleanor  of  Acquitaine,  88. 

Electric  piano,  383. 

Electric  organ,  385. 

Elegie,  359. 

Elgar,  Sir  Edward  William,  284-285. 

Ellicott,  Rosalind,  287. 

Eloy,  49. 

Elsenheimer,  Nicholas,  300. 

Eisner,  Joseph,  151. 

Embellishments,  465,  530. 

Emmett,  Dan,  289. 

Enesco,  Georges,  280. 

Engel,  Carl,  306. 

English  horn,  430-431. 

English  leadership,  25. 

Enna,  August,  234. 

Entr'acte,  359. 

Envoi,  origin  of,  84. 

Epigoneion,  18. 

Episode,  325,  369. 

Erard,  Sebastian,  414. 

Erb,  Josef,  246. 

Erben,  Robert,  250. 

Erdmannsdftrfer,  Max  von,  246. 

Erikssohn,  234. 

Erkel,  Alexander,  280. 

Erkel,  Franz,  280. 

Erianger,  Camille.  260. 

Erlanger,  Baron  Frederic,  260. 

Ertel,  Paul,  245. 

Esclarmonde,  254. 

Esposito,  Michael,  287. 

Essenhamens,  38. 

Esterhazy,  Prince  Anton,  92. 

Esterhazy,  Caroline,  122. 

Esterhazv.  Prince  Nicholas,  92. 

I:tude,  859. 

Etigene  Onyegin,  203. 

Eugenius,  Traugott,  50. 

Euphonium,  454. 


Eundiee,  61. 
Euryanthe,  130. 
Ewald,  Victor,  270. 
Exposition,  336,  369. 

Factitious  notes,  446. 

Fago,  82. 

Faidit,  Gaucelm,  36. 

Faines,  The,  207. 

Fairlamb,  James  Remington,  398. 

Falchi,  Stanislaus,  273. 

Falsetto,  394 

False  vocal  cords,  392. 

Faltin,  Richard,  236. 

Famintzin,  Alexander,  269. 

Fandango,  355. 

Fanelli,  Ernesto,  257. 

Faning,  Joseph  Eaton,  287. 

Fantasia,  354,  357. 

Farandole,  355. 

Farina,  Cario,  483. 

Farinelli,  Carlo  B..  448,  474. 

Farkas,  Eduard,  280. 

Farrant,  Richard,  53. 

Farwell,  Arthur,  291,  303. 

Faugues,  Vincent,  49. 

Faure,  Gabriel  Urbain,  257. 

Faure,  Jean  Baptiste,  360. 

Faust,  182. 

Fauxbourdon,  26. 

Favola  di  Orfeo,  58. 

Fayrfax,  Robert,  53. 

Federici,  Vincenzo,  163. 

Feo,  Francesco,  82. 

Fermata,  533. 

Fernandez,  277. 

Ferrari,  62. 

Ferrari,  Carlotta,  164 

Ferrari,  Gabriella,  260. 

Fete  de  I' Am,  58. 

Fetis,  Francois  Joseph,  3. 

Fevrier,  Henri,  260, 

Fibich,  Zdenko,  279. 

Fiddle,  derivation,  398. 

Fidelio,  118. 

Fiedler.  Max,  245,  498,  501. 

Field,  John,  154  156,  466. 

Fielitz,  Alexander  von,  246. 

Figure  treatment,  317-319. 

Filtz,  Anton,  96. 

Finale,  343. 

Flnck,  Heinrich.  50. 

First  rondo,  331. 

Fischer,  Emil,  480. 

Fisher,  William  Arms,  306. 

Fitelberg,  George,  245. 

Fitzwilliam  collection,  53. 

Five-part  song-form,  333. 

Flageolet,  425. 

Flags,  521. 

Flats,  30,  516. 


5S8 


INDEX 


Flemish  schools,  48-t'50. 

Floersheim,  Otto,  300. 

Flondor,  Theodor  Johann,  280. 

Floridia,  Pietro,  373. 

Flotow,  Friedrich  von,  186. 

Flute,  420-424. 

Flute,  bass,  424. 

Flute-a-bec,  420. 

Flute- players'  union.  20. 

Flutes,  Chinese,  6;  Greek,  16;  Hebrew, 

10 ;  nose,  7 ;  prehistoric,  7;  Roman,  421 ; 

savage,  7 ;  straight,  430. 
Flying  Dutchman,  The,  211. 
Flying  staccato,  402. 
Fly-track  notation,  37. 
Foerster,  Adolph  Martin,  301. 
Foerster,  Alban,  246. 
Foerster,  Joseph  B.,  34S. 
Folville,  Juliet,  283. 
Fomin,  196. 
Fontana,  484. 
Foote,  Arthur,  293-294, 
Ford,  Thomas,  53. 
Forlaue,  355. 
Form,  value  of,  373. 
Foster,  Fay,  305. 
Foster,  Stephen  Collins,  290. 
Foundation,  386. 
Fourdrain,  Felix,  260. 
Four-foot  tones,  386. 
Fran9aise,  355. 

Prancesca  da  Rimini,  205,  381. 
Franchetti,  Baron  Alberto.  273. 
Franck,  Cesar  Auguste,  251-252. 
Franck,  Richard,  277. 
Franco  of  Cologne,  28.  29. 
Franke-Harling,  W.,  298. 
Franz,  Robert,  126-127. 
Frauenlob,  31. 

Frederick  the  Great,  71,  82,  431. 
Free  episode,  325. 
Freer,  Eleanor,  305. 
Free  sonata,  337,  340. 
Freisehutz.  Der,  129. 
French  overture,  347. 
Frets,  417. 
Fried,  Oskar,  245. 
Friml,  Rudolf,  299. 
Friska.  358. 
Froberger,  65. 
Frontini,  F.  Paolo,  378. 
Frottola,  48,  59. 
Fry,  William  Henry,  389. 
Fuchs,  Albert,  277. 
Fuchs,  Robert,  246. 
Fugato,  371. 
Fughetta,  371. 
Fugue,  72,  368-573:  early  form,  48;  in 

sonata,  344 ;  in  suite,  354. 
Fugues  of  Bach,  72,  371. 
Furiant,  345. 


Furlana,  355. 
Furniture,  386. 

Gabriel,  Richard,  245. 

Gabrieli,  Andrea,  52. 

Gabrieli,  Giovanni,  52,  483. 

Gabrilovitch,  Ossip,  270. 

Gade,  Niels  Wilhelm,  140. 

Gaditanian  singers,  21. 

Gaillard,  352. 

Galitzin,  George,  269. 

Galop,  355. 

Galuppi,  Baldassare,  76.  83,  336. 

Games,  ancient,  17-19,  21. 

Qanz,  Rudolph,  277. 

Garcia,  Manuel,  476. 

Gardiner,  H.  Balfour,  287. 

Gastinel,  Leon,  186. 

Qaubert.  Philippe.  260. 

Gaul,  Alfred  R.,  387. 

Gautier,  Jean.  185. 

Gautier,  Judith,  310. 

Gaveaux,  173. 

Gaviuies,  Pierre,  485. 

Gavotte.  353. 

Gavronsky,  Woitech,  281. 

Gay,  84. 

Gaynor,  Jessie  L..  305. 

Gebhard,  Heinrich,  246. 

Gedalge,  Andre,  260. 

Geijer,  Gosta,  233. 

Geisler,  Paul,  246. 

Gelinek,  467. 

Geminiani,  Francesco,  484. 

Generali,  Pietro,  163. 

Genetz,  Emil,  236. 

Gerlach,  Theodor,  346. 

German,  Edward,  386. 

German  flute,  431. 

Gernsheim,  Friedrich,  328. 

Gesius,  53. 

Gevaert,  Francois  A.,  282.  . 

Giardini,  Felice,  484. 

Gigue,  39,  352. 

Gilbert,  Henry  F.,  303. 

Gilberte,  Hallett,  306. 

Gilchrist.  William  Wallace,  300. 

Gilson,  Paul,  281. 

Giordano,  Umberto,  272. 

Qirlofthe  Qolden  West,  The,  275. 

Gittern,  39. 

Gladkowska,  Constantia,  151. 

Glazounov,   Alexander  Porphyrievitch, 

367. 
Gleason,  Frederick  Grant,  296. 
Glee,  106. 
Glee-maidens,  40. 
Gliere,  Reinhold,  269. 
Glinka,  Mikail  Ivanovitch,  196-197. 
Glissando,  403. 
Glockenspiel,  459. 


INDEX 


589 


Glottis,  893. 

Gluck,  Christoph  Willibald  von,  85-88. 

Gobbaerts,  157. 

Godard,  Benjamin,  186. 

Goddard,  Arabella,  472. 

Godowski,  Leopold,  472. . 

Goetschius,  Percy,  305. 

Goetz,  Hermann,  227. 

Goetze,  Karl,  229. 

Goldbeck,  Robert,  300. 

Golden  Cock,  Tlie,  267. 

Goldmark,  Carl,  191-193. 

Goldmark,  Rubin.  302. 

Goltermann,  Georg,  195. 

Gombert,  53. 

Gomez.  Antonio  Carlos,  164. 

Gondoliera,  359. 

Gongs,  8,  460. 

Good  sou,  Katharine,  473. 

Gorter,  Albert,  246. 

Gossec,  Francois  Joseph,  96. 

Gotterclammerung,  Die,  216. 

Gottschalk,  Louis  Moreau,  157,  470. 

Goudimel,  Claudio,  53. 

Gounod,  Charles  Fran9ois,  181-183. 

Gouvy,  Theodore,  149. 

Grace-notes,  530. 

Graedener,  Karl,  149. 

Grainger,  Percy,  387. 

Grammann,  Karl,  228. 

Granadina,  355. 

Granados,  Enrique,  277. 

Grasse,  Edwin,  302. 

Graun,  Johann,  484. 

Graun,  Karl  Heinrich.  76,  82. 

Graupner.  Gottlieb,  82. 

Gravicembalo,  60. 

Great  organ,  385. 

Greece,  ancient,  music,  13-20. 

Greek  church,  24. 

Gregorian  modes,  24. 

Gregory  the  Great,  24. 

Grell,  Edward  August,  150. 

Grellinger,  283. 

Gretry,  Andre  Ernest  Modeste,  90. 

Gretschaninov,  Alexander,  268. 

Greve,  Conrad.  236. 

Grey,  Alan,  287. 

Grieg.  Edvard  Hagerup,  230-231. 

Grillparzer.  124. 

Grimm,  Julius  Otto,  149. 

Grisar,  Albert,  175. 

Grisi,  Giulietta,  477. 

Grodsky.  Borislav,  270. 

Grouping,  30,  521,  529. 

Grove.  Sir  George,  121. 

Grovlez,  Gabriel.  260. 

Gruenberg.  Eugene,  302. 

Guadagnini  family,  398. 

Guaracha,  355. 

Guameri,  Guillaume,  50. 


Guarneri  family,  898. 

Guerre  des  Buffons,  83. 

Guerrero,  Francisco,  53. 

Guglielmi,  Pietro,  89. 

Guicciardi,  Countess  Giulietta,  110. 

Guido  of  Arezzo,  25-26,  28. 

Guignon.  484. 

Guilmant,  Felix  Alexandre,  187. 

Guiraud.  Ernest,  186. 

Guitar,  9,  417. 

Gyrowetz,  Adalbert  von,  133. 

Habafiera,  355. 

Habeneck,  Antoine,  488. 

Haberl,  55. 

Hackbrett,  377. 

Hadley,  Henry  Kimball,  294-295. 

Haesche,  William  Edward,  303. 

Haeser,  Georg,  277. 

Haffner,  Johann.  106,  233. 

Hagg,  Gustav,  234. 

Hagg,  Jacob,  234. 

Haiin,  Reynaldo,  260. 

Hahn,  Ulrich,  51. 

Hale,  Adam  de  la,  35. 

Halevy,  Jacques  Fromental,  176. 

Hallen,  Anders,  233. 

Hailing.  356. 

HallstrOm,  Ivor,  233. 

Hamel.  M.  P..  187. 

Hamerik,  Asgar.  235. 

Handel,  Georg  Friedrich,  77-82,  87,  465, 
475. 

Hansel  und  Gretel,  246. 

Hanslick,  Eduard,  226. 

Harcourt,  Eugene.  260. 

Harmonics,  400,  401,  445,  506. 

Harmonides.  17. 

Harmony,  52,  314. 

Harp,  ancient,  9  ;  chromatic,  416 ;  Egyp- 
tian, 11 ;  Irish,  413  ;  modern,  413-416 ; 
pedals  of,  414  ;  Welsh,  413. 

Harper,  Thomas,  448. 

Harpsichord,  378. 

Harris,  William  Victor,  806. 

Hartmann,  Arthur,  299. 

Hartmann,  Emil,  234. 

Hartmann,  Johann  Peder  Emilius,  140. 
234. 

Hartvigson,  Anton,  234 

Hartvicson,  Frits,  234 

Harty,  ^Hamilton.  287. 

Harwood,  Basil,  287. 

Hasse,  Johann  Adolph,  79,  82,  99. 

Hastings.  Frank  Seymour,  306. 

Hatton,  John  Liptrot,  287. 

Haultin,  Pierre.  51. 

Hauptmann,  Moritz,  141. 

Hausegger.  Siegmund  von.  243. 

Havens,  Charles  Arthur,  305. 

Hawley,  Stanley,  285. 


590 


INDEX 


Hay,  3.52. 

Haydn,  Franz  Josef,  91-96,  497. 

Haydn,  Michael,  96,  128. 

Head  register,  394. 

Hebrew  music,  10. 

Heckelclarind,  432. 

Heckelphone,  432. 

Hegar,  Friedrich,  277. 

Hegner,  Anton,  299. 

Heller,  Stephen,  155,  468. 

Helsted  family,  235. 

Hendrlks,  Francis.  305. 

Henriques,  Fini,  235. 

Henry  of  Meissen,  31. 

Henry  of  Veldig,  31. 

Henschel,  Georg.  228. 

Henselt,  Adolf,  156,  468. 

Hentschel,  Theodor,  229. 

Herbert,  Victor,  296. 

Hermann,  Reiuhold,  246. 

Hernandez,  Paolo,  277. 

Hernando,  Rafael,  277. 

Herodorus,  17. 

Herold,  Louis  Joseph  Ferdinand,  175. 

Hervey,  Arthur.  286. 

Herz,  Henri.  156,  470. 

Heuberger,  Richard,  228. 

Heumann,  Hans,  246. 

Hey,  352. 

Hignard,  Aristide,  185. 

Hiler,  Ernest  Osgood,  305. 

Hill.  Edward  Burlingame,  803. 

Hiller,  Ferdinand,  l4o. 

Hiller,  Johann  Adam,  105. 

Himmel,  Friedrich,  132. 

Hindu  music,  4. 

Hinton,  Arthur,  286. 

Hiuen,  6. 

Hobrecht,  Jacob,  49. 

Hochbrucker,  414. 

Hoffman,  Richard,  300. 

Hoffmann,  E.  T.  A.,  133. 

Hoffmann,  Leopold,  97. 

Hofmann,  Heinrich,  228. 

Hoi,  Richard,  282. 

Holbrooke,  Josef,  285. 

Hold,  533. 

Holden,  Oliver,  289. 

Holmes,  Augusta,  260. 

Hoist,  Gustav  von,  287. 

Holyoke,  Samuel,  289. 

Holzbauer,  Ignaz,  96. 

Holzer,  120. 

Homer,  Sidney,  305. 

Homophony,  47. 

Hood,  Helen,  304. 

Hook,  James,  106. 

Hopekirk,  Helen,  304.  473. 

Hopkins,  Henry  Patterson,  308. 

Hopkinson,  Francis.  288. 

Mora  NovUsima,  293. 


Horn,  8,  444  417. 

Hornemauu,  Emil,  285. 

Hornpipe,  852,  430. 

Horvath,  Geza.  280. 

Hrimaly,  Adalbert,  280. 

Hubay,  Jeno,  280. 

Hubay,  K.,  280. 

Huber,  Hans,  277. 

Huberti.  Gustave  Leon,  283. 

Hucbald,  25.  26. 

Hue,  Georges,  260. 

Hughes,  Rupert,  306. 

Huhn,  Bruno.  287. 

Hull.  Alexander,  298. 

Hullah,  John  Pyke,  287. 

Hilllmandel,  106. 

Humfrey,  Pelham,  64. 

Hummel,  Johann  Nepomuk,  106,  466. 

Humor  of  composers,  435-436. 

Humperdinck,  Engelbert,  246-248. 

Hungarian  scale,  519. 

Huss,  Henry  Holden.  303. 

Hutcheson,  Ernest,  302. 

Hyatt,  Nathaniel  Irving,  303. 

Hydraulic  organ,  17. 

Hyllested,  August,  235. 

Hymn  metres,  362. 

Hymns,  early,  28. 

Ide.  Chester,  306. 

Idomeneo,  100. 

Il  Matrimonio  segreto,  89. 

II  Pomo  d:  Oro,  61. 

Ilyinski,  Alexander,  269. 

Imitation,  30,  367. 

Immortal  Kastchei,  The,  366. 

Impromptu,  359. 

Impi'Oferia,  The,  55. 

Incledon,  Charles  Benjamin,  481. 

Indian  music,  391. 

Ingelius,  A.  G.,  236. 

Instrumental  music,  early,  64,  485. 

Instrumentation,  491-495. 

Instruments,  origin  of,  6-9. 

Intermezzi.  343.  354,  359. 

International  pitch,  516. 

Intervals,  517. 

Intrada,  354. 

Introduction,  833. 

Invention,  368. 

Inversions,  534. 

Invisible  City,  The,  367. 

Inzenga,  Jose,  377. 

I  Pagliacci,  373. 

Iphigenie  en  Aulide,  86. 

Iphigenie  en  Tauride.  86. 

Ippolitov-Ivanov,  Michael,  368. 

Irish  harp,  413. 

Isaac,  Heinrich,  53. 

Isouard,  Nicolo,  174. 

Ivanov,  Michael,  368. 


INDEX 


591 


Jacks,  378. 

Jackson,  Wflliam,  106. 
Jadassohn,  Saloman,  141. 
Jadin,  173. 
Jaleo,  355. 

Jannequin,  Clement,  53. 
Jareckl,  Heinrich,  281. 
jarnefelt,  Armas,  236. 
Jarno,  Georg,  280. 
Jensen,  Adolf,  149. 
Jimenez,  Jeronimo,  277. 
Jiranek,  Aloys,  280. 
Joachim,  Joseph,  195,  418.  488. 
Johns,  Clayton,  305. 
Johnson,  Herbert,  306. 
Johnson,  William  Spencer,  306. 
Jommelli,  Nicolo,  76,  82. 
Jonas,  :6mile,  175. 
Joncifires,  Victorin,  186. 
Jongleurs,  34,  39-40. 
Jordan,  Jules,  298. 
Joseffy,  Bafael,  280. 
Josephson,  Jacob  Axel,  233. 
Josquin  (Des  PrSs),  50. 
Jota,  355. 
Judith,  198. 
Juon,  Paul,  269. 
Juul,  Asgar,  235. 

Kaan-Albest,  Heinricli  von,  280. 
Kadletz,  Andreas,  280. 
Kahn,  Robert,  246. 
Kaiser,  Henri  Alfred,  282. 
Kajanus,  Robert,  286. 
Kalevala,  The,  236. 
Kalinnikov,  Vassili,  269. 
Kalkbrenner,  Friedrich,  152,  156,  467. 
Kalliwoda,  Johann,  488. 
Kamarinskaia,  345,  356. 
Kampf,  Karl,  245. 
Kampfert,  Waldemar,  246. 
Kapfelmann,  Arrhen  von,  233. 
Karganov,  Gennari,  270. 
Karg-Ehlert,  Siegfried,  245. 
Karlowicz,  Miecislav,  281. 
Kasanli,  Nicolai,  269. 
Kasbperov,  Vladimir,  269. 
Kastalski,  Alexander,  270. 
Kastner,  Georges,  187. 
Kauer,  Ferdinand,  105. 
Kaun,  Hugo,  246,  250. 
Kazatchenko,  George,  268. 
Kazynski,  Victor,  281. 
Keiser,  Relnhard,  63,  77,  78. 
Kelley,  Edgar  Stillman,  300. 
Kelly,  Michael,  106. 
Kempter,  Lothar,  277. 
Kerll,  65. 
Kes,  Willem,  283. 
Ketterer,  Eugene,  157. 
Kettledrums,  456-458. 


Keurvels,  fedouard,  283, 
Keussler,  Gerhard  von,  245. 
Keys,  names  of,  515;  use,  519. 
Khovantchina,  264. 
Kiel,  Friedrich,  148. 
Kienzl,  Wilhelm,  248. 
Kimball,  Jacob,  289. 
Kin,  6. 
King,  6. 

King,  Oliver,  287. 
Kings'  Children,  The,  247. 
Kinnor,  10. 
Kinsky,  Prince,  110. 
Kirchner,  Theodor,  149. 
Kistler,  Cyrill,  248. 
Kithara,  16,  20,  21. 
Kjerulf,  Half  dan.  232. 
Klein,  Bruno  Oscar,  299. 
Klenau,  Paul  von,  250. 
Klindworth,  Karl,  194. 
Klose,  Fiiedrich,  246,  250. 
Klughardt,  August,  228. 
Kneisel,  Franz,  280. 
Kniese,  Julius,  245. 
Knorr,  Ivan,  250. 
Knowlton,  Fanny,  305. 
Koch,  Friedrich  E.,  246. 
Kochetov,  Nicolai,  268. 
Koczalski,  Raoul,  281. 
Koennemann,  Arthur,  246. 
Koessler,  Hans,  228. 
Kolatchevski,  Michael,  269. 
Konius,  George,  269. 
Koptiaiev,  Alexander,  269. 
Kopylov,  Alexander,  269. 
Korbay,  Francis,  280. 
Kord,  Gustav,  245. 
Korestchenko,  Arseni,  268. 
Kom,  Clara  A.,  305. 
Komgold,  Erich  Wolfgang,  245. 
Koss,  Henning  von,  246. 
Kovafovic,  Karl,  280. 
Krakowiak,  356. 
Kramer,  A.  Walter,  305. 
Kramm,  Georg,  246. 
Krehl,  Stephan,  246. 
Kreider,  Noble,  305. 
Kreisler,  Fritz,  489. 
Kretschmer,  Edmund,  229. 
Kreutzer,  Conradin,  133. 
Kreutzer,  Rodolphe,  111,  175,  485. 
Kroeger,  Ernest  Richard,  300. 
Krogmann,  Mrs.  C.  W.,  305. 
Krohn,  Ilraari,  236. 
Krotala,  18. 
Kroyer,  Theodor,  245. 
Krug,  Arnold,  228. 
Krug-Waldsee,  Josef,  246. 
Kacken,  Friedrick  Wilhelm,  150. 
Kuhlau,  Friedrich,  133. 
Kuhnau,  76,  336. 


592 


INDEX 


Kuhreigen,  Die,  248. 
Kulenkampf,  Gustav,  250. 
Kurpinsky,  281. 
Kurth,  Otto,  228. 
Kusser,  63. 

Lablache,  Luigi,  448,  477. 

La  Boheme,  275. 

Lachmund,  Carl  V..  301. 

Lachner,  Franz,  121,  141. 

Lacombe,  Louis,  187. 

Ladmirault,  Paul.  260. 

LaPorge,  Frank,  305, 

L' Africaitie,  178. 

La  Juive,  176. 

Lakme.  186. 

Lalo.  Edouard,  187. 

Lambord,  Benjamin,  306. 

Lamoureux,  Charles,  498. 

Lampe,  Walter,  245. 

Landler.  354. 

Lang,  Margaret  Ruthven,  304 

Lange-Mftller,  235. 

Langue  d'oc,  83. 

Langue  d'oll,  33. 

Lanier,  64 

Lanku,  9. 

Laparra,  Raoul,  260. 

L'Arlesienne,  184 

Larrocba,  276. 

Laryngoscope,  894. 

Larynx,  891,  892,  394 

Laska,  Gustav,  280. 

Lassan,  358. 

Lassen,  Eduard,  193,  234 

Lasso,  »ee  Di  Lasso. 

Lasson,  Peer,  282. 

Lauber,  Josef,  277. 

Laurenti,  484. 

Lavallee,  Calixa,  805. 

Lavigna.  Vincenzo,  107,  163. 

Lawes,  64. 

Lazzari,  Silvio,  276. 

LeBorne,  Fernand,  260. 

Lebrun,  Paul,  282. 

Leclair,  Jean  Marie,  484. 

Lecocq,  Alexandre,  175. 

Lefebvre,  Charles  :i:douard,  260. 

Lefebure-W61y,  Louis  James  Alfred,  187. 

Legato,  527. 

Legende,  358. 

Leger  lines,  517. 

Legrenzi,  62,  483. 

Lehmann,  Lilli,  480. 

Lehmann,  Liza,  287. 

Le  Jongleur  de  Notre-Dame,  254 

Lekeu,  Guillaume,  281, 

Lekidoi,  19. 

Lemaire,  Jean,  260. 

Lenaerts,  Constant,  282. 

Lendvai,  Erwin,  280. 


Lenepveu,  Charles,  260. 

Leo,  Leonardo,  82. 

Leoncavallo,  liuggiero,  272. 

Le  Prophete,  178. 

Le  Sot  de  LaJiore,  254. 

Leroux,  Xavier,  260. 

Leschetizky,  Theodor,  194,  380,  471. 

Lescurel,  Jean,  47. 

Leg  Deux  Joumees,  171. 

Lei  Huguenots,  177. 

Le  Sueur,  Jean  Fran9ois,  173. 

Levi,  Hermann,  498. 

Leybach,  Ignace,  156. 

L' Homme  Anne,  48. 

Liadov,  Anatole,  269. 

Liapounov,  Sergei,  269. 

Lichnowsky,  Prince,  110. 

Liddle,  Samuel,  287. 

Lie,  Sigurd,  232. 

Liebesverbot,  Das,  207. 

Lied,  126. 

Life  for  the  Czar,  197. 

Liliefors,  Ruben,  284. 

Lilienthal,  A.  W.,  805. 

Lind,  Jenny,  477. 

Lindblad,  Adolf,  233. 

Lindblad,  Otto,  238. 

Lindegren,  Johann,  234. 

Lindemann,  Ludwig,  231. 

Lindpaintner,  Peter  Josef  von,  183, 

Lingua  di  si,  83. 

Linley,  Thomas,  106, 

Linsen,  Gabriel,  236, 

Lipansky,  467. 

Lipinski,  Karl,  488. 

Lischin,  Gregory,  269. 

Lissenko,  Nicolai,  269. 

Liszt,  Franz,  188-190,  469. 

Litolff,  Henri  Charles,  156. 

Lloyd,  Charles  Harford,  284. 

Lobkowitz,  Prince,  110. 

Lobo,  Duarte,  53. 

Locatelli,  Pietro,  484. 

Loeffler,  Charles  Martin,  298. 

Loewe,  Karl,  127. 

Logroscino,  Nicolo,  83,  89. 

Lohengrin,  213. 

Lolli,  Antonio,  485. 

Lollio,  60. 

Loomis,  Harvey  Worthington,  298. 

Lortzing.  Gustav  Albert,  133. 

Lotti,  Antonio,  82. 

Loud,  John  A.,  306. 

Louis  Ferdinand,  Prince,  106. 

Louise,  258. 

Loure,  852. 

Lucca,  Pauline,  479. 

Ludwig  H  of  Bavaria,  211. 

LuUy,  Jean  Baptiste,  63,  496, 

Lundberg,  L.   234. 

Lungs,  891. 


INDEX 


593 


Lute.  9,  11,  418. 

Luther,  Martin,  50,  53. 

Lvoff,  Alexis,  199. 

Lynes,  Frank,  305. 

Lyon,  James,  388. 

Lyre,  9,  11,  16. 

Lysberg,  Charles  Samuel,  157. 

Maas,  Louis  Philipp,  299. 

Mabellini,  Teodulo,  163. 

Macbeth,  Allan,  287. 

MacCunn,  Hamish,  287. 

MacDougall,  Hamilton  C,  306. 

MacDowell,  Edward  Alexander,  290-291. 

Macfarlane,  Will  C,  299. 

Macfarren,  Sir  George  Alexander,  284 

Macfarren,  Walter  Cecil,  284. 

JIachado,  Augusto,  277. 

3Iachau,  Guillaume,  47. 

Mack,  Albert  A.,  306. 

Mackenzie,  Sir  Alexander  Campbell,  283. 

Mackenzie,  Sir  Morell,  394. 

Maclean,  Alick,  287. 

JIacpherson,  Charles,  287. 

Macpherson,  Charles  Stuart,  287. 

Macy,  James  Cartwright,  305. 

Madama  Butterfli/,  275. 

Jkladrigal,  48,  59,  107,  363. 

Magadis.  16. 

Magglni  family,  398. 

Ma^ic  Flute,  the,  103. 

Magnard,  Alberic,  260. 

Magrepha,  10. 

3Iahler,  Gustav,  229,  349,  498. 

Maid  of  Pskov,  The,  265. 

Maillart,  Louis,  185. 

Mailloche.  458. 

Mailly,  Alphonse,  187,  282. 

Major,  Jiilius  J.,  245. 

Major  scale,  518. 

Malaguena,  355. 

Malaschldn,  Leonid,  269. 

Malnt,  Jan,  280. 

Malibran,  Mme.  Marie  Felicite,  476. 

Mailing,  Jorgen,  234. 

Itlalling,  Otto,  235. 

Muncinelli,  Luigi,  273.  * 

Mancini,  82. 

Mandl,  Richard,  245. 

Mandolin,  417. 

Mandore,  40. 

Manen,  Juan,  277. 

Manfred,  Schumann,  147. 

Manfred,  Tschaikovsky,  295. 

Mann,  Gottfried,  283. 

Manney,  Charles  Fonteyn,  305. 

Manon,  254. 

Maquarre.  Andre,  299. 

March,  357. 

Marchand,  465. 

Marchetti,  Filippo,  164. 


Marenzio,  Luca,  53,  60. 

Marie  de  France,  40. 

Marie  de  Ventadour,  36. 

Marimba,  8. 

^larine  trumpet,  89. 

Marini,  484. 

Mario,  Giuseppe,  477. 

Marius,  379. 

Marques,  Miguel,  277. 

Marriage  of  Figaro,  The,  101. 

Marschalk,  Max,  250. 

Marschner,  Heinrich.  133. 

Marshall,  John  P.,  305. 

Martellato,  402. 

Martini  (Padre),  Giambattista,  76. 

Martucci,  Giuseppe,  276. 

Marty,  Georges,  260. 

Marzials,  Theophile,  287. 

Masaniello,  174. 

Mascagni,  Pietro,  271. 

Mason,  Daniel  Gregory,  303,  310. 

Mason,  Lowell,  289. 

Mason,  William,  290,  473. 

Masque,  64. 

Mass,  48,  363. 

Masse,  Victor,  185. 

Massenet,  Jules  Emile  Frederic,  258-355. 

Classes,  old,  47. 

Mass  of  Pope  Marcelltis,  56. 

Mastersingers,  32-33. 

Masurek.  154,  356. 

Maszynski,  Peter,  281. 

Materna,  Amalia,  480. 

Mathieu,  fimile,  282. 

Matinskv,  196. 

Mattel,  Tito,  287. 

Mattheson,  77,  78,  83. 

Maurice,  Pierre,  277. 

Maxixe,  357. 

Maybrick,  Michael,  387. 

Mayer,  Simon,  107. 

Mayerhoif,  Franz,  245. 

May  Night,  A,  265. 

May  seder,  Joseph,  488. 

Mazas.  Jacques,  488. 

Mazellier,  Jules,  260. 

Mazurka,  154,  356. 

Mazzucato,  Alberto.  163. 

McCoy,  William,  306. 

McMillan,  Malcolm  Dean,  306. 

Mean  temperament,  71. 

Measure,  30,  352,  521,  523. 

Measured  notes,  28. 

Mechanical  organ,  385. 

Meek,  Mme.  von,  202. 

Medley  overture,  347. 

Medtner,  Nicholas,  269. 

Mefstofe/e,  164. 

Mehul,  fltienne  Nicholas,  173. 

Meinardus,  Ludwig,  149. 

Mexsterringer,  Die,  32,  218. 


594 


INDEX 


Melartin,  Erik.  236. 

Melcer,  Henryk,  281. 

Melodrama,  364. 

Melody,  311. 

Melos,  61,  361. 

Melville,  Marguerite,  304» 

Melzi,  Count,  85. 

Membree,  Edmond,  186. 

Mendelssohn,  Arnold,  250. 

Mendelssohn,  Fanny,  135,  138. 

Mendelssohn,  F(;lix,  135-140,  152,  497. 

Mengelberg,  Willem.  283. 

Mercadante.  Francesco  Saverio,  163. 

Merikanto,  Oskar,  236. 

Merulo,  Claudio,  52. 

Messager,  Andre,  260. 

Messiah,  The,  81. 

Mestdagh,  Karel,  282. 

Metastasio,  85,  91. 

Metres  of  hymns,  362. 

Metzdorff,  Richard,  228. 

Meyerbeer,  Giacomo,  176-178. 

Meyer-Helmund,  Erik,  232. 

Mezzo-soprano,  395. 

Miceli,  Giorgio,  164. 

Mielck,  Ernest,  236. 

Miguard,  Alexander,  281. 

uMignon,  185. 

Mihalovitch,  280. 

Mikorey,  Franz,  246. 

Mikuli,  281. 

Millet,  Luis,  277. 

Mills,  Sebastian  Bach,  300. 

Minnesingers,  31-32. 

Minor  scale,  519. 

Minuet,  353. 

Minuet  form,  329,  841,  348. 

Miracle  plays,  58. 

Mireille,  183. 

Missa,  Edmond,  260. 

Mixture,  386. 

Mlada,  266. 

Mlvnarski,  Emil,  270. 

Modes,  14,  24,  518. 

MOhring,  Karl  J.,  236. 

Molique,  Wilhelm,  488. 

MoUoy,  James  Lyman,  287. 

Moment  musical,  359. 

Moniuszko,  Stanislaus,  281. 

Monsigny,  Pierre  Alexander,  90. 

Montemezzi,  Italo.  272. 

Monteverde,  Claudio.  61. 

Moonlight  Sonata,  118. 

Moor,  Emanuel,  250. 

Moore,  Homer,  298. 

Moore,  Mary  Carr,  804. 

Morales,  Olallo,  277. 

Moralities,  58. 

Mordents,  532. 

Morel,  Auguste,  186. 

Morgagni  pockets,  892. 


Morhanges,  157. 

Morlacciii,  Fiuncesco,  163. 

Morley,  Thomas,  58. 

Morris  dance,  351. 

Mosca,  Giuseppe,  107,  163. 

Moscheles,  Ignaz,  141,  468. 

Moszkowski,  Moritz,  280. 

Motet,  48,  362. 

Mottl,  Felix,  498. 

Moussorgsky,  Modest  Petrovitch,  263. 

Mouth  as  resonator,  393. 

Mouton,  Jean,  53. 

Movements,  341-348, 

Mozart,  Leopold,  98,  485. 

Mozart,  Maria  Anna,  98. 

Mozart,    Wolfgang    Amadeus,    98-105, 
109,  466. 

Mozart  and  Salieri,  266. 

Mraczek,  Josef  Gustav,  280. 

Muck,  Karl,  498. 

Mueller,  106. 

Mueller,  Karl,  800. 

Muffat,  65. 

Munktell,  Helen,  234. 

Murciana,  855. 

Musette,  431. 

Musette  trio,  328. 

Music,  Arabian,  9 ;  Assyrian,  10 ;  Baby- 
lonian, 10  ;  Chinese,  4  ;  definition  of,  3; 
Egyptian,  10-12;  Greek,  13-20;  He- 
brew, 10;  Hindu,  4;  primitive,  3-12; 
Roman,  20-22. 
See  also  chapter  headings. 

Music-printing,  51. 

Mutation,  886. 

Mute,  402. 

Milted  horns,  446. 

Mystery  plays,  58. 

Nachez,  Tivadar,  280. 

Names  of  keys,  515,  521. 

Nanga,  418. 

Nanino,  Giovanni,  53. 

Napravnik,  Edward,  268. 

Nardini,  Pietro.  484. 

Nasal  tones,  393. 

Natural,  30,  510. 

Natural  accents,  533. 

Natural  horn,  444,  445. 

Naumann,  Johann  G.,  89. 

Navratil,  Karl,  280. 

Nebel,  10. 

Nebelong,  Johann  Hendrik,  235. 

Nedbal,  Oskar,  280. 

Neefe,  Christian  Gottlob,  108. 

Nefyr,  9. 

Neidlinger,  "William  H.,  298. 

Neri,  Saint  Philip,  63,  483. 

Nero,  21-22. 

Nessler,  Victor.  229. 

Nesvera,  Josef,  230. 


INDEX 


595 


Netherland  Schools,  48-50,  281-283. 

Netzer,  133. 

Neumes,  26-27. 

Neupert,  Edmund,  282. 

Neuville,  Alphonse,  282. 

Nevin,  Arthur,  297. 

Nevin,  Ethelbert,  297. 

Nevin,  George  Balch.  297. 

Nibelungenlied,  Das,  82,  214 

Nicholl,  Horace  AVadbam,  299. 

Nicode,  Jean  Louis,  244. 

Nicolai,  Otto,  138. 

Nicolau,  Autonio,  277. 

Nicole,  Louis,  277. 

Nielsen,  Carl,  235. 

Niemann,  Walter,  480. 

Niggli,  Fritz,  277. 

Nikisch,  Arthur,  498. 

Nilsson,  Christine,  479. 

Nini,  Alessandro,  163. 

Nocturne,  358. 

Nddermann,  Presben,  284. 

Nogueras,  Costti,  277. 

Noguerra,  Antonio.  277. 

Nome  of  Kradias,  17,  483. 

Nordqvist,  Johann  Conrad,  234. 

Nordraak.  Richard.  230.  232. 

Noren,  Heinrich,  245. 

Norman,  Ludvig,  233. 

Norris,  Homer  A. ,  303. 

Nose  as  resonator,  393. 

Nose  flutes,  7. 

Notation,  see  chapter  headings. 

Notes,  29,  49,  515.  521. 

Nougu&s,  Jean,  260. 

Novacek,  Ottokar,  280. 

Novak,  Viteslav,  280. 

Novakovski,  281. 

Novel,  34. 

Novelette,  358. 

Novellozza,  358. 

Novoviejski,  Felix,  381. 

Oberleithner,  Max  von,  250. 

Oberon,  131. 

Oblique  motion,  26,  536. 

Oboe,  Arabian,  9 ;  d'amore,  429 ; di  caccia, 

430;  Egyptian,  11 ;  Greek,  16;  modern, 

427-430;  transposing,  431. 
Obrecht,  Jacob,  49. 
Ochs,  Siegfried,  245. 
Octave  mark,  530. 
Octaves,  515,  517. 
Octavina,  378. 
Odeon,  19. 

Odington,  Walter,  29. 
Oeglin,  51. 
Oertel,  394. 

Offenbach,  Jacques,  175. 
Okeghem,  Jean,  49. 
Oldberg,  Ame,  303. 


Old  rondo,  334 

Oliver,  Henry  Kemble,  289. 

Olsen,  Ole,  232. 

O'Neill,  Norman,  287. 

Open  pipes,  507-509. 

Opera,  58-64,  80,  82,  84,  160,  364;  see 

also  chapter  headings. 
Ophicleide,  454. 
Opienski,  Heinrich,  281. 
Opus  numbers,  110. 
Oratorio,  62,  363. 
Orchestra,  61,  491^95.  _ 
Orchestration,  491-495. 
Oreflce,  Giacomo,  273. 
Orfeo,  61. 

Orfeo  ed  Euridice,  85. 
Organ,  17,  884-390. 
Organistrum,  39. 
Organ  point,  872. 
Organum,  26. 
Orth,  LisetteE..  305. 
0  Salutaris,  363. 
Osgood,  George  Laurie,  306. 
Osterzee,  Cornelia  van,  283. 
Ostrcil,  Ottokar,  280. 
Otho,  Kari,  409. 
Otis,  Philo  Adams,  305. 
OtterstrOm,  Thorvald,  235. 
Oudrid,Christ<ibal,  277. 
Overtones,  506. 
Overture,  varieties  of,  847 ;  in  old  suites, 

354 
Oxubaphoi,  19. 

Pachelbel,  65. 

Pachulski.  Henri,  269. 

Pacini,  Giovanni,  168. 

Pacius,  Fredrik,  285. 

Paderewski,  Ignace  Jan.  281,  472. 

Padovano,  Annibale,  52. 

Paer,  Ferdinando,  107. 

Paganini,  Nlcolo,  48.5-487. 

Page,  Nathaniel  Clifl"ord.  303. 

Paine,  John  Knowles.  290. 

Paisiello,  Giovanni.  89. 

Paladilhe,  f:mile,  260. 

Palestrina,  Giovanni  Pierluigi  da,  53,  55- 

57. 
Palicot,  Georges,  260. 
Pallet,  385. 
Palmer,  H.  R,306. 
Palmgren,  Selim,  236. 
Panizza,  Ettore,  277. 
Pan-pipes,  6. 
Pantomime,  21,  357. 
Pan  Voyetode,  266. 
Pfique,  Desire,  282. 
Paradisi,  Pictro  Doraenico,  76,  336. 
Parallel  motion,  25,  586. 
Paride  ed  Elena,  86. 
Parish-Alvars,  Elias,  287. 


596 


INDEX 


Parker,  Horatio,  292-293. 

Parker,  James  Cutler  Dunn,  301. 

Parrdtt,  "Walter,  284. 

Parry,  Sir  Charles  Hubert  Hastings,  283. 

Parsifal,  32,  219. 

Parsons,  Albert  Ross,  305. 

Parsons,  E.  A.,  303. 

Partial  return,  325,  328. 

Partita,  354. 

Paskievitch,  196. 

Pasmore,  Henry  Bickford,  308, 

Pasquinade,  34. 

Passacaglia,  3.54. 

Passepied,  353. 

Passion  music,  364. 

Passion  plays,  58. 

Pasta,  Giuditta,  476. 

Pasticcio,  359. 

Pastorale,  359. 

Pastorelle,  34. 

Patti,  Adelina,  478. 

Patti,  Carlotta,  478. 

Pattison.  John  Nelson,  303. 

Pauer,  Ernst,  472. 

Paulli,  Simon  Holger,  235. 

Paumgartner,  Bcrnhard,  245, 

Paur,  Emil.  245. 

Pavane,  354. 

Pavesi,  Stefano,  163. 

Pease,  Alfred  H.,  305. 

Pedal  clarinet,  442. 

Pedal  point,  372. 

Pedals,  380,  388,  414,  530. 

Pedal  tones,  451. 

Pedrell,  Felipe,  277. 

Pedrotti,  Carlo,  163. 

PeUea«  et  Melisande,  257. 

Penalosa,  Francisco,  50. 

Penfield,  Smith  Newell,  303. 

Penitential  dances,  351. 

Pentatonic  scale,  4. 

Pepusch,  Johann  Christoph,  84. 

Perception  of  tone,  503,  505. 

Percussion  instruments,  456-61. 

Perfall,  Karl  von,  229. 

Perger,  Richard  von,  229. 

Pergolesi,  Giovanni  Battista,  76,  83. 

Peri,  Achille,  163. 

Peri,  Jacopo,  58. 

Periods,  322. 

Perosi,  Don  Lorenzo,  276. 

Perosi,  Marziano,  276. 

Persuis,  Luc,  175. 

Pesel,  484, 

Pessard,  Emile  Louis,  260. 

Peterson-Berger,  Wilhelm,  234. 

Petrella,  Errico,  163. 

Petrucci  of  Fossombrone,  51. 

Pfitzuer,  Hans,  250. 

Pfohl,  Ferdinand,  245. 

Pfundt,  Ernst  Gotthold,  457. 


Pharynx,  398. 

Phelps,  Ellsworth  C,  803. 

Philidor,  Fran9ois  Danican,  90. 

Philosophical  pitch,  516. 

Phoinix,  19. 

Phorminx,  16. 

Phrases,  321. 

Pianists,  381-383. 

Piano,  379-383. 

Piano  quartet,  346. 

Piano  trio,  346. 

Piccini,  Nicolo,  86,  89. 

Piccolo,  424-425. 

Pichl,  96,  277. 

Pierne,  Henri  Constant  Gabriel,  259. 

Pinelli,  Ettore,  276. 

Pinsuti,  Ciro,  287. 

Pipes,     organ,     385-389  ;    open,    507 ; 

stopped,  509-511. 
Pirani,  Eugenio,  276. 
Pisendel,  484. 
Pitch,  309,  516. 
Pitt,  Percy,  287. 

Pittrich,  George  Washington,  245. 
Pizzicato,  61,  402. 
Plagal  modes,  24, 
Plagiaulos,  18. 
Plain-chant,  362. 
Plain-song,  28,  362. 
Planer,  Minna,  see  Wagner,  Minna, 
Planh,  34. 

Platania,  Pietro,  164. 
Pleyel,  Ignaz  Josef,  96. 
Pliny,  23. 

Pneumatic  organ,  385. 
Poeme,  358. 
Poenitz,  Franz,  229. 
Pogojev,  270. 
Pohlig,  Richard,  299. 
Poi'se,  Jean  Ferdinand,  186. 
Poissl,  133. 
Polacca,  356. 
Poldini,  Eduard,  280. 
Poliziano,  Angelo,  58. 
Polka,  356. 
Polka  mazurka,  356. 
Polka  redowa,  356, 
Polledro,  488. 
PoUini,  467, 
Polo  Gitano.  355. 
Polonaise,  356. 
Polycrates,  20. 
Polyphony,  47. 
Polyphthongos,  18, 
Pomasanski.  Ivan,  269. 
Pommers,  427. 
Ponchielli,  Amilcare,  164. 
Popoff,  Ivan,  269. 
Popper,  David,  195. 

Porpora,  Nicolo  Antonio,  79,  82,  91,  474 
Portamento,  397,  527. 


INDEX 


597 


Porter,  Edith  Noyes,  304. 

Porter,  Frank  Addison,  306. 

Portogallo,  Marcos  Autouio,  175. 

Positive,  384. 

Post-horn,  447. 

Po3tlude,  3:33. 

Potpourri,  359. 

Potter,  Cipriani,  468. 

Pottgiesser,  Karl.  250. 

Powell,  John,  303. 

Power  marks,  524,  525. 

Pratt.  Silas  Gamaliel,  303. 

Preambule,  354. 

Precautions  of  singers,  478. 

Preciosa,  130. 

Prelude,  88.  323.  348. 

Pribik,  Josef,  280. 

Prince  Igor,  263. 

Principalblaser,  448. 

Printing  of  music,  51. 

Prioris,  Jean,  51. 

Prizes,  Greek.  19. 

Prochazka,  Rudolf  von,  280. 

Program  music,  19,  241,  348. 

Program  symphony.  181,  348,  349. 

P*rokop,  Ladislas,  280. 

Prolation,  28. 

Prout,  Ebenezer,  287. 

Psaltery,  ancient,  10,  377;  mediaeval,  40, 

377. 
Puccini,  Giacomo,  274. 
Puchalski,  Vladimir,  269. 
Puchat,  Max,  245. 
Pugnani.  Gaetano,  83,  484. 
Pulka,  356. 
Pull-down,  385. 
Purcell,  Henry.  64. 
Pure  music,  19. 
Puzzle  canons.  49. 
Pythagoras,  3,  13-14,  505. 

Quadrille.  356. 

Quantz,  421. 

Queen  of  Sheba,  The,  191. 

Queen  of  Spades,  The,  204. 

Quickstep,  356. 

Quills,  378. 

Quilter,  Roger,  287. 

Rabaud,  Henri,  260. 

Rachmaninov.  Sersrei,  268. 

Radoux.  Charles,  282. 

Raff,  Joseph  Joachim,  19»-193. 

R:ig-time,  309. 

Rameau.  .Ica-a  Philippe,  76,  83. 

Randel,  233. 

Jlnppresentazione  di  Anima  e  di  Corpo, 

62. 
Rasse.  Frangois.  282. 
Rasumovskv.  Count,  110. 
Ratez,  fimiie,  382. 


Rath,  Felix  von,  245. 

Rauchenecker,  Georg  Wilhelm,  229. 

Ravel,  Maurice.  257. 

Ravouastron,  398. 

Raway.  Erasnie,  282. 

Read.  Daniel,  289. 

Rebab.  9.  39. 

Rebeck,  39. 

Reber,  Napoleon  Henri,  185. 

Rebikov,  Vladimir.  268. 

Recapitulation,  336. 

Recio,  Mile.,  180. 

Recitative,  360. 

Recorders,  421. 

Redowa,  356. 

Reed  mouthpieces,  427,  438. 

Reel,  356. 

Reeve,  William,  106. 

Reeves,  John  Sims,  481. 

Reforms,  88,  214. 

Regals,  39,  384. 

Reger,  Max,  245. 

Regis,  Jean.  50. 

Registers.  393-395. 

Registration,  389. 

Reichardt,  100. 

Reichwein,  Leopold,  246. 

Reigen,  351. 

Reinecke,  Karl,  141. 

Reinken,  Jan,  69. 

Reiser,  JOrg,  51. 

Reissiger,  Karl  Gottlieb,  133. 

Reiter,  Josef,  245. 

Rekav,  Ferdinand,  280. 

Remenyi,  Eduard,  195,  221,  280,  489. 

Repeat  signs,  527-528. 

Repercussion,  370. 

Reprise,  337. 

Requiem,  363. 

Rests,  521,  529. 

Return.  325,  336. 

Returning  passage,  325. 

Reuling.  133. 

Reuss,  August.  246. 

Renter.  Fiorizel  von,  280. 

RSverie,  358. 

Reyer,  Louis  Etienne  Ernest,  186. 

Reznicek,  Emil  Nikolaus  von,  279. 

Rhapsodic,  357. 

Rheinberger,  Josef,  228. 

Rheingold,  Das,  214. 

Rhythm,  309. 

Rhythms,  28,  524. 

Rib  muscles  in  breathing,  391. 

Ricci,  Federico,  164. 

Ricci,  Luigi.  164. 

Ricercari,  51. 

Rich,  84. 

Richard  Coeur-de-Lion,  34,  36. 

Bichard  Coe^ur-de-Lion,  90. 

Richter,  Ernst,  141. 


598 


mDEX 


Ricbter,  Franz  Xaver,  96. 

Richter,  Hans,  498. 

Riemenschneider,  Qeorg,  228. 

Rienzi,  207. 

Ries,  Ferdinand,  467. 

Rietz,  Julius,  141. 

Rigaudon,  353. 

Rimsky-Korsakov,  Nicolai  Andreievitch, 

264-267. 
Bing  of  the  Nibelungen,  The,  210. 
Ritter,  Alexander,  194,  238. 
Ritter  viola,  406. 
Rive-King,  Julia,  304. 
Robert  le  Biable,  176. 
Robin  et  Marion,  35. 
Rode,  Pierre,  485. 
Roeder,  Martin,  276. 
Roehr,  Hugo,  246. 
Roentgen,  Julius,  282. 
Roesel.  Rudolf,  245. 
Roessler,  96. 

Rogers,  Clara  Kathleen,  304. 
Rogers,  James  Hotchkiss,  305. 
Rogers,  Winthrop  L.,  306. 
Roller-board,  385. 
Romance,  34. 
Romanesca,  352. 
Romaniello,  Lulgi,  276. 
Roman  music,  20-22. 
Romanza,  358. 
Romberg,  Andreas,  485. 
Rondena,  355. 
Rondo,  331-335,  360. 
Ronger,  Florimond.  175. 
Root,  George  F.,  289. 
Ropartz,  Guy,  259. 
Rosenthal,  Moritz,  472. 
Rossi,  61. 

Rossi.  Cesare,  272. 
Rossi,  Lauro,  163. 
Rossini,  Gioacchino  Antonio,  61,  88,  158- 

160. 
Rosth,  53. 
Rota,  30. 
Rote.  39. 
Rounds,  30. 
Rotusalka,  TJie,  198. 
Rousseau,  Jean  Jacques,  83. 
Rousseau,  Samuel.  260. 
Roussel,  Albert.  260. 
Rozkosny,  Josef  Richard.  280. 
Rozycki,  Ludorair  von,  281. 
Rubenson,  Albert,  233. 
Rubini,  477. 

Rubinstein,  Anton.  199-201.  471. 
Rubinstein,  Nicholas,  201,  205,  471. 
Rudel.  Geoffrey.  37 
Ruebner.  Cornelius.  303. 
Ruefer,  Philipp.  282. 
Rueter,  Hugo.  245. 
Ruggieri  family,  398. 


Rummel.  Walter  Morse,  306. 
Rung,  Henrik,  234. 
Russell,  Alexander,  306. 
Rtisslan  and  Ludmilla,  197. 
Rustic  Chivalry,  271. 
Ryder,  Arthur  H.,  306. 
Ryelandt,  Joseph,  282. 

Saar,  Louis  Victor,  300. 

Sacchini,  Antonio,  89. 

Sachs,  Hans,  33. 

Sackbut,  39. 

Sackpfeife.  431. 

Sad/co,  266. 

Saint  Mattfiew  Passion,  74. 

Saint-Saens,  Charles  Camille.  252-253 

Sakellarines.  Theophilus,  164. 

Saldoni,  Baltazar,  277. 

Salieri,  Antonio,  106. 

Salmon,  Alvah  Glover,  305. 

Saloman,  Siegfried,  234. 

Salomon,  Johann  Peter,  92. 

Salon  music,  156. 

Salpinx,  16. 

Saltarello,  355. 

Salter,  Mary  Turner,  804. 

Salter,  Sumner,  305. 

Salvayre,  Gervais  Bernard,  186. 

Salzburg.  Archbishop  of,  99,  100. 

Samara,  Spiro,  164. 

Samaroff.  Olga,  473. 

Samazeuilh,  Gustav,  260. 

Sambuca.  19. 

Sammartini,  76. 

Samson  et  Dalila,  253. 

Sand.  George,  152. 

Sandre,  Gustave,  260. 

Sankey.  Ira  D.,  289. 

Sans-Souci,  Gertrude.  305. 

Santley,  Sir  Charles,  397. 

Sappho,  20. 

Saraband  e,  351. 

Sarasate,  Pablo,  489. 

Sarri,  82. 

Sarrusophone,  487. 

Sarti,  Giuseppe.  90. 

Sartorio.  62. 

Satie,  Eric,  257. 

Satter,  Gustav.  228. 

Sawyer,  Harriet  P.,  305. 

Sax-horns.  453. 

Saxophones.  442. 

Scale,  Byzantine.  24. 520;  chromfitic.  517; 
diatonic.  425 ;  Hungarian,  519;  maior, 
518;  n^inor.  519;  of  nature.  70,  71.  507; 
pentatonic,  4;  tempered,  72  ;  whole- 
tone,  520. 

Scales,  Greek.  14  ;  Gregorian,  24. 

Scaria,  Emil.  480. 

Scarlatti,  Alessandro.  62.  82. 

Scarlatti,  Domenico,  75,  82,  336,  466. 


INDEX 


Scena.  861. 

Schaefer,  269. 

Schaefer,  Dirk,  283. 

Schalmei,  39. 

Schantz,  Filip  von,  235. 

Scharrer,  August,  245. 

Scharwenka,  Philipp,  280. 

Scharwenka,  Xaver,  280. 

Schaub,  Hans,  245. 

Scheffer,  51. 

Scheidler,  Dorette,  132. 

Scheldt,  Samuel,  53. 

Scheinpflug.  Paul,  245. 

Schelling.  Ernest,  303. 

Schenk,  269. 

Schenk,  Johann,  105,  109. 

Scherzo,  155,  341,  343,  354. 

Schey,  Julius,  283. 

Schillings,  Max,  249. 

Schira,  Francesco,  164. 

Schjelderup,  Gerhard,  232. 

Schmelzer.  484. 

Schmitt,  Florent,  258. 

Schnecker,  Peter  August,  300. 

Schneider,  Edward  Faber,  298,  303. 

Schnitzer,  Germaine,  473. 

Schober,  Franz  von,  121. 

Schoeck,  Othmar,  277. 

Schoenberg,  Arnold,  245. 

Schoenefeld,  Henry,  301. 

Scholz,  Bernhard  E.,  228. 

Schott,  480. 

Schottische,  356. 

Schroeder-Devrient,  Wilhelmine,  480. 

Schroeter,  52,  379. 

Schubert,  Franz  Peter,  120-125. 

Schubertiades,  122. 

Schuett,  Eduard,  269. 

Schulz,  Johann,  105,  126. 

Schumann,  Clara,  144.  222,  472. 

Schumann,  Georg,  246. 

Schumann,  Robert,  113-148,  178. 

Schuppanzigh,  Iguaz,  488. 

Schuster.  Bernhard,  246. 

Schiitz,  Heinrich,  63. 

Schuyler,  William,  306. 

Schwalm,  Robert,  246. 

Schweinskopf,  377. 

Schwindl.  96. 

Schytte,  Ludwig.  234. 

Scontrino,  Antonio,  276. 

Scotch  snap,  356. 

Scott.  Cyril  Meir,  285. 

Scotto,  Ottavio,  51. 

Pcriabine,  Alexander,  269. 

Semons,  The,  93. 

Sebor,  Karl,  280. 

Sechter,  Simon,  124. 

Second  rondo,  333. 

Seebald.  Amalia.  110. 

Seeboeck,  William  C,  299. 


Seelevriq,  63. 

Seguedilla,  355. 

Sekles,  Bernhard,  246. 

Se  la  face  ay  pale,  48. 

Selmer,  Johann,  232. 

Senesino,  474. 

Serenade,  34,  350,  358. 

Serov,  Alexander,  198. 

Serpent,  455. 

Servais,  Adrien  Francois,  408. 

Serva  Padrona,  83. 

Servilia,  266. 

Seven  Penitential  Psalms,  54. 

Severac,  Deodat,  260. 

Sextolets,  522. 

Seyffardt,  Ernst  Hermann,  245. 

Sey fried,  Ignaz  von,  132. 

Sgambati,  Giovanni,  276. 

Sharps,  30,  516. 

Shawm,  427,  438. 

Shelley,  Harrv  Rowe,  298,  301. 

Shepherd,  Arthur,  303. 

Shield,  William,  106. 

Shoulders  in  breathing,  391. 

Siamese  music,  4. 

Siao,  6. 

Sibelius,  Jan,  236. 

Siboni,  Erik  Anton,  140. 

Siciliano,  355. 

Side  drum,  458. 

Siegfried,  216. 

Signatures,  518. 

Signs,  various,  528,  534. 

Silver,  Charles,  260. 

Simikion,  18. 

Similar  motion,  536. 

Simon,  Anton,  260. 

Simonetti,  Achille,  276. 

Sinding,  Christian,  232. 

Singing,  393-394. 

Singspiel,  63,  100,  105,  364. 

Sinigaglia,  Leone,  276. 

Sirvente,  34. 

Sistrum,  10,  11. 

Sivori,  Ernesto  Camillo,  489. 

Sixteen-foot  tones,  386. 

Sixtine,  84. 

Sj5gren,    Johann    Qustav    EmiJ, 

233. 
Skraup,  Frantisck,  277. 
Skuhersky,  Franz  Zdenko,  280. 
Slide  trombone,  450. 
Slurs,  528. 

Smareglia,  Antonio,  273. 
Smetana,  Bedrich,  277-278. 
Smith,  Alice  Mary,  287. 
Smith,  David  Stanley,  303. 
Smith,  Gerrit,  305. 
Smith,  Wilson  George,  305. 
Smithson,  Harriet,  179,  180. 
Smulders,  Karl  Anton,  283. 


^ 


600 


INDEX 


Smyth,  Ethel,  287. 

Snare  drum,  458. 

Snoic  ifaiden,  The,  265. 

Sodermann,  August,  233. 

Soft  pedal,  380. 

Sokalski,  Vladimir,  269. 

Sokolov.  Nicolai,  269. 

Solfeggio,  25. 

Solie,  173. 

Solomon,  Edward,  286. 

Solon,  20. 

Solo  organ,  385. 

Soloviev,  Nicolai,  268. 

Soltys,  Miecislav,  281. 

Somervell,  Arthur,  286. 

Somis,  484. 

Sommer,  Hans,  229. 

Sonata,  chamber,  483 ;  church,  4S3 ;  clas- 
sical, 95,  104,  118,  336 ;  early,  65,  75- 
76 ;  free,  291,  337,  340. 

Sonata  allegro  form,  336-340. 

Sonata  rondo,  342. 

Sonata  movements,  336-344. 

Sonatina,  842. 

Sonatina  rondo,  342. 

Song-forms,  324-327 ;  with  trio,  327-329 ; 
with  two  trios.  329-330. 

Song  without  words,  138,  359. 

Sonneck.  Oscar  G.,  ref.,  96,  288. 

Sonnet,  34. 

Sontag,  Henrietta,  476. 

Soprano,  42,  395. 

Sordino,  402. 

Sostenuto  pedal,  380. 

Sound,  503. 

Sound-boxes,  506. 

Sounding-boards,  379,  506. 

Sousa,  John  Philip,  296. 

Speculum  Musicae,  42. 

Speed  marks,  525. 

Spencer,  Fanny  M.,  305. 

Spiccato,  402. 

Spiering,  Theodore,  305. 

Spinelli.  Nicolo,  272. 

Spinet,  378. 

Spohr,  Ludwig.  131-132,  488. 

Spontini,  Gasparo  Luigi  Pacifico,  173. 

Sporck,  Georges,  260. 

Springdans,  356. 

Stabat  Mater.  363. 

Staccato,  527. 

Staden,  Sigmund,  63. 

Staff.  27-28.  515. 

Stahlberg,  Fritz,  299. 

Stainer,  Sir  John,  284,  387. 

Stair.  Pattv,  804. 

SUilko'.vskv,  281. 

Stainitz,  Anton,  96. 

Stamitz,  Johann.  96,  484 

Staniitz,  Karl,  96. 

Stamm,  Thomas  Oswald,  246. 


Stanford,  Sir  Charles  Villiers,  283. 

Stanley,  Albert  Augustus,  303. 

Stanza,  34. 

Statkovsky.  Roman,  281. 

Stavenhagen,  Bernhard,  283. 

Stcherbatchev,  Nicolai,  269. 

Steggall,  Reginald,  285. 

SteibeU.  Daniel,  106,  467. 

Stenhammar,  Wilhelm,  233. 

Stephan,  Rudi,  246. 

Stewart,  Humphrey  John,  303. 

Sticker,  385. 

Stock.  Frederick,  299. 

StSlzel,  82. 

Stone  Guest,  The,  198. 

Stopped  harmonics,  401. 

Stopped  pipes,  509-511. 

Stops,  organ,  384. 

Storace,  Stephen,  106. 

Storioni,  398. 

Stradella,  Alessandro,  62. 

Straddla's  Prayer,  63. 

Stradivari  family,  398. 

Straesser,  Ewald,  245. 

Straight  flute,  420. 

Strathspey,  356. 

Strauss,  Richard,  238-243,  495,  498. 

Stravinskv,  Igor,  269. 

Stretto,  370. 

Stretto  maestrale,  372. 

Strickland,  Lily,  306. 

Striggio,  60. 

String  quartet,  346. 

String  vibration,  laws  of,  505. 

Stroboscope,  394. 

Strong,  George  Templeton,  300. 

Strophe  song,  361. 

Strube,  Gustav,  299. 

Strungk,  Nikolaus  Adam,  63,  483. 

Subject,  73.  369. 

Suite,  349,  354. 

Suk,  Josef.  280. 

Sulliyan,  Sir  Arthur  Seymour,  286. 

Sul  ponticello,  405.  ' 

Sumer  is  ieumen  in,  43-47. 

Suter,  Hermann,  277. 

Svendsen,  Joliann  Severln,  232. 

Sweelinck,  53. 

Swell-box,  389. 

Swell  organ,  385. 

Symphonic  poem,  348. 

%mphonie  Fantastique,  179,  441,  457. 

Symphony,  96,  345  ;  as  instrument,  89 ; 

as  interlude,  354. 
Synchronism,  513. 
Syncopation,  527. 
Syrian  church,  24. 
Syrinx,  7.  11.  16. 
Syrus,  Ephraim.  24. 
Szabados.  Bela,  280. 
Szekely,  Imre,  280. 


INDEX 


601 


Sztojanovics,  Eugen,  280. 
Szumowska,  Autoinette,  473. 

Tablatures,  418. 

Tabor,  10,  39. 

Tadolini,  Giovanni,  163. 

Taft,  Frank,  303. 

Tales  of  Hofmann,  The,  176. 

Tallis,  Thomas,  53. 

Tambourine,  10,  459. 

Tamburini,  477. 

Tam-tam,  460. 

Taneiev,  Alexander,  268. 

Taneiev,  Sergei,  268. 

Tangents,  377. 

Tango,  357. 

Tannliduser,  81,  212. 

Tapissier,  47. 

Tarantella,  355. 

Tarogato,  432. 

Tartini,  Giuseppe,  83,  484. 

Tasca,  Pier  Antonio,  272. 

Taubert,  Karl  Willie! m,  142. 

Tanbmann,  Otto,  246. 

Tausch,  458. 

Tausig,  Karl,  194,  471. 

Tegner,  Alice,  234. 

Telemann,  82. 

Tellefsen,  Thomas  Dyke,  282. 

Tempered  scale,  72,  507. 

Temple,  Hope,  287. 

Tempo  marks,  526. 

Tenor  clarinets,  442. 

Tenor  di  grazia,  395. 

Tenor  drum,  459. 

Tenoroon,  433. 

Tenor  robusto,  395. 

Tenor  trombone,  451. 

Tenson,  34. 

Ternina,  Milka,  480. 

Terpander,  20. 

Terschak,  Adolf.  233. 

Tessa  rini,  Francesco,  484. 

Thais.  254. 

Thalberg,  Sigismnnd,  156,  469. 

Thaver,  Arthur  W.,  306. 

Tbeile,  Johann,  68. 

Theme  and  variations.  342,  349. 

Thibaud,  Jacques,  489. 

Thiebaut,  Henri,  282. 

Thi  erf  elder,  Albert,  238. 

Thieriot,  Ferdinand,  228. 

Third  rondo.  334. 

Thirtv-two-foot  tones,  386. 

Thom'as,  Arthur  Goring,  283. 

Thomas,  Charles  Ambroise.  185. 

Thomas,  Theodore,  290,  499. 

Thrane.  Waldemar.  231. 

Three  period  forms.  325-327. 

Thaille,  Ludwig.  246.  249. 

Thumb  in  piano  plaj'ing,  465. 


Thyroid  cartilage,  393. 

Tibia,  20. 

Tiefland,  248. 

Tierce  flute,  424. 

Ties,  528. 

Tietjens,  Mme.,  477. 

Tieze,  123. 

Tilman,  Alfred,  282. 

Timbrel,  10. 

Tinel,  Edgar,  282. 

I  1  ri.nft.    •^^^ 

Tirindelli,  Pietro  Adolfo,  299. 

Titcomb,  Everett  H.,  306. 

Titl,  133. 

Titov  brothers,  196. 

Toccata,  354. 

Toccatina,  354. 

Toeschi,  96. 

Tofft,  Alfred,  334. 

Tolstoy.  111. 

Tomaschek,  156. 

Tone,  503. 

Tone-colors,  494. 

Tongue  in  singing,  393. 

Tonitruoue,  458. 

Torchi,  Luigi,  276. 

Tordion,  352. 

Torelli,  Giuseppe,  484. 

Tosca,  275. 

Toscanini,  Arturo,  499. 

Tosti,  Francesco  Paolo,  287. 

Tournament,  34. 

Tournemire,  Charles,  360. 

Tovey,  Donald  Francis,  287. 

Townsend,  Stephen,  306. 

Tracker,  385. 

Traetta,  Tomma.so,  89. 

Transition,  passage,  325. 

Trausposing  instruments,  439. 

Treble.  42. 

Tre  corde,  379. 

Tremolo,  389.  397,  402. 

Tremulant,  389. 

Trento,  Vittorio,  107,  163. 

Triads,  535. 

Triangle,  460. 

Trigon,  16. 

Trills,  533. 

Trio.  327. 

Triple  counterpoint,  367. 

Tristan  and  Isolde,  318. 

Trnecek,  Hans,  380. 

Tromba,  448. 

Trombone,  450-453. 

Troubadours,  83-40. 

Trouveres,  33,  34. 

Truette,  Everett  E..  305. 

Ti-umpet,  Greek,  16  ;  Hebrew.  10  ;  primi- 
tive. 8:  Egyptian,  11  :  modern,  447; 
natural,  447 ;  Roman,  20 ;  valve,  448  ; 
slide,  448. 


LIBRARY 

•TATE  TEACHCKS    C. 


eo2 


INDEX 


Tschaikovsky,  Peter  Ilyitcb,  201-206. 

Tsclierepniu,  Nicolai,  269. 

TuiKis,  453-4di. 

Tuning,  440. 

Turns,  533. 

Tutkovsky,  Nicolai,  269. 

Two-foot  "tones,  386. 

Two-period  forms,  324. 

Two  step.  357. 

Tve,  Christopher,  53. 

Tvpophone,  460. 

Tyrtueus,  20. 

Uccellini,  4S3. 
Ukulele,  417. 
Una  corda,  379. 
Upper  partials,  506. 
Urack,  Otto,  299. 

Vakula  tJie  Smith,  204 
Valve  horn,  446. 
Valverde,  Juan,  277. 
Valves,  446,  453. 
Valve  trombone,  453. 
Van  deu  Eedcn,  Jean,  282. 
Van  der  Linden,  2S3. 
Van  der  Meulen,  Joseph,  282. 
Van  der  Pals,  Leopold,  283. 
Van  der  Stucken,  Frank,  301. 
Van  Duyse,  Florimond,  282. 
Van  Dyck,  Ernst  Hubert,  480. 
Van  Gliizcghera,  49. 
Van  Miiligen,  Simon,  283. 
Van  t'  Kruis.  M.  H.,  282. 
Vrtri:\tions,  342.  349. 
Vatsovienne,  356. 
Vassilenko,  Sergei.  263.  269. 
Vavrinecz,  Mauritius,  280. 
Vecchi,  Orazio,  60. 
Velter,  Paul,  414. 
Venetian  school,  52. 
Veni  Creator,  363. 
Ventils,  446. 
Vera  Scheloga,  265. 
Veracini,  Antonio,  484. 
Veracini,  Francisco,  484. 
Verbonnet,  Jean,  51. 
Verdi.  Giuseppe.  165-169. 
Verhey,  F.  H.,  232. 
Vcrhulst.  282. 
Verse,  34. 
Verstovsky,  196. 
Viardot-Garcia,  Pauline,  477. 
Vibration,  nature  of,  503,  511. 
Vibrato,  402. 
Vidal,  Paul  Antoine,  280. 
Vidal,  Pierre,  37. 
Vietinghov,  Baron  Boris,  209. 
Vieuxtemps,  Henri,  195,  488. 
^Xil^QO'^'*.  Ramon,  277. 
lanelle,  59. 


Vinee,  Richard,  260. 
Viola,  73,  40.V-406. 
Viol  da  ganiba.  73,  408. 
Violin,  9,  398-404. 
Violins,  old,  399. 
Violoncello,  9,  406-408. 
Viols,  398. 

Viotti,  Giovanni  Battista,  484 
Virginals,  378. 
Virtuoso,  380. 
Visconti,  Nicolo,  59. 
Vitali,  Giovanni,  88,  383. 
Vitali,  Tommaso,  483. 
Vittoria,  53. 

Vivaldi,  Antonio,  83,  484. 
Vives,  Amedeo,  277. 
Vleeshouwer.  Albert,  282. 
Vletbad,  Patrik,  234. 
Vocal  cords,  391.  392,  394. 
Vocal  rondo,  360. 
Vocal  symphony,  364. 
Vogl,  Heinrich,  121. 
Vogler,  Abt,  99.  128,  129. 
Vogrich,  Max,  250. 
Voices,  72,  391-397. 
Voicing,  386,  513. 
Volbach,  Fritz,  246. 
Volborth,  Eugen  von,  250. 
Volkmann,  Robert.  148. 
Voltaire  on  Duport,  408. 
Volte,  353. 

Von  Billow,  see  Billow. 
Vorspiel,  348. 
Vreuls,  Victor,  282. 

Wachtel,  Thcodor,  481. 

Wachtlieder,  31. 

Waelput,  Hendrik,  282. 

Waelrant,  53. 

Wagenaar,  Johann,  283. 

Wagenseil,  96. 

Waghalter,  Ignaz,  250. 

Wagner,  Cosima,  210. 

Wagner,  Minna,  208-209. 

Wagner,  Richard,  31,  33,  181,  207-220 

498. 
Wasmer.  Siegfried,  249. 
Waidstein,  Count,  110. 
Walker,  Caroline.  305. 
Wa^kure,  Die,  215. 
Wallace,  William,  285. 
Wallace,  William  Vincent,  283. 
Waller.  Henry,  306. 
Waltei-shausen,  H.  W.  von,  250. 
Walther.  484. 
Waltz,  345,  354. 
Wambach,  fimile  Xaver,  283. 
Wandelt,  Xmadeus,  246. 
Wanhal,  %. 
Ware,  Harriot,  304. 
Warlamov,  Alexander,  270. 


INDEX 


603 


Warren,  Richard  Henry,  803. 

Warren,  Samuel  Prowse,  305. 

Wartensee,  Schnyder  von,  133. 

Wasenius,  Carl  Gustav,  230. 

Water  Music,  The,  78. 

Water  organ,  17. 

Watson.  Michael,  287. 

Webb,  284. 

Weber,  Alovsia,  98,  101. 

Weber,  Carl  Maria  von,  128-131;  satire 

on  Beethoven,  410. 
Weber,  Constance,  101. 
Weerbecke,  Caspar.  50. 
Wegelius,  Martin,  236. 
Weichsel,  Elizabeth,  475. 
Weigl,  Joseph,  132. 
Weingartuer.  Paul  Felix  von,  244,  498. 
Wei  nil  g.  Theodor,  207. 
Well-Tempered  Clavichord,  The,  70,  71. 
Wennerburg,  Gunnar,  233. 
Werckmeister,  Andreas,  71,  507. 
Wesendouck,  Mathilde,  209. 
Wesley,  Samuel.  284. 
Wetz,  Richard,  246. 
Wetzier,  Hermann  Hans,  246. 
Whelpley,  Benjamin  Lincoln,  305. 
White,  Maud  Valerie,  287. 
Whiting,  Arthur  Battelle,  301. 
Whiting,  George  EI  bridge,  301. 
Whole-tone  scale,  520. 
Wideen,  234. 

Widor,  Charles  Marie,  187. 
Wieck,  Clara,  see  Schumaim,  Clara. 
Wieck,  Friedrich,  143,  144. 
Wieland  the  Smith,  210.  243. 
Wieniawski,  Henri.  195,  471,  489. 
Wihtc»l,  Joseph,  269. 
Willaert,  Adrien,  51.  59. 
William  of  Poitou,  33. 
Willinm  Tell,  159. 
Willis,  Richard  Storrs,  306. 
Wilson,  G.  D.,  306. 
Wilson,  Mortimer,  304. 
Winchester  Troper,  26. 
Wind-chest.  385. 
Winderstein,  Hans.  246. 
Winding,  August,  235. 
Wind-machine,  458. 
Wingc,  Peer,  232. 
Winkelmann,  480. 


Winkler,  Alexander,  270. 

Winter,  Peter  von,  132. 

Winter-Hjelm,  Otto,  232. 

Wiske,  Mortimer,  305. 

Wilkowski,  G.  M.,  200. 

Woelfl,  Josef,  108,  467. 

Woikowsky-Biedau,  Hector  von,  250. 

Wolf,  Hugo,  246,  249. 

Wolf,  96. 

Wolf-Ferrari,  Ermanno,  273. 

Wolfram  von  Eschenbach,  32. 

Wood,  379. 

Wofxi,  Mary  Knight,  304. 

Woodman,  Raymond  Huntington,  305. 

Work,  Henry  Clay,  289. 

Wormser,  Andre  Alphonse,  260. 

Worrell,  Lola  Carrier,  304. 

Wouters,  Fran9ois  Adolphe,  283. 

Woyrsch,  Felix  von,  246. 

Wranitzky,  Paul,  96. 

Wuerst,  Richard,  149. 

Wullner.  Ludwig,  396. 

Wurm,  Marie,  287. 

Wyngaerde,  Antouius,  50. 

Xylophone,  461. 

Ysaye,  Eugene,  489. 

Zamar  9. 

Zampa,  175. 

Zandonai,  Riccardo.  273. 

Zanella,  Amilcare,  276. 

Zaremba,  Sigismund,  269. 

Zarlino,  Gioseffo,  52. 

Zarzuela,  276. 

Zeelandia.  Henricus,  47. 

Zeisler,  Fanny  Bloomfield,  304. 

Zelenski,  Ladislaus,  281. 

Zelter,  Karl  Friedrich,  126. 

Zemliiisky,  Alexander  von,  269. 

Zenger,  Max,  228. 

Zichy,  Count  Geza.  280,  472. 

Zientarski,  Romuald,  281. 

Zientarsky,  Victor,  281. 

Zimmermann,  Agnes,  287. 

Zither,  9,  419. 

Zoellner,  Heiiirich,  246,  250. 

Zumpogna,  431. 

Zweers,  Bernhard,  283. 


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